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REPORT 


COMMISSIONER  OF  AGRICULTURE 


FOR 


THE    YEA.Il     1868 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMEXT     PRINTING    OFFICE. 

1809. 


I 


CONTENTS. 


Pago. 

Report  of  the  Commissiouer,  Horace  Caproii 1 

Report  of  the  Architect,  Adolph  Chiss 15 

Report  of  the  Statistician,  J.  R.  Dodge 16 

Report  of  the  Chemist,  Thomas  Antisell 59 

Report  of  the  Entomologist,  ToMTieud  Glover 78 

Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Garden  and  Grounds,  "William  Saunders  . . .  118 

Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  See<l  Division,  Seneca  Dean 125 

Report  on  Agricultural  Education  in  Europe,  by  Josehp  H.  McChesney 127 

Report  on  beet-sugar  in  Europe,  by  Theodore  Gennert 158 

Report  upon  the  agricultural  resources  of  Alaska,  by  William  H.  DaU 172 

Report  of  the  Editor,  J.  R.  Dodge 190 

Including  papers  as  follows  : 

Department  building  and  grounds 191 

Hints  in  horticulture 19-1 

Grape  culture 207 

Cultivation  of  the  peanut 220 

The  potato 225 

Osage  hedges 245 

The  esparto  grass 260 

The  niiu  of  Yucatan '-^68 

Statistics  of  bee-keeping -  -  -  -  272 

Silk  cultTire 282 

Practical  entomology  for  farmers'  sons 305 

Recent  j)rogress  in  fish  cultiue 319 

Country  roads  and  road  laws 348 

Mineral  fertilizers  of  the  Atlantic  States 367 

The  marl  region  of  Virginia 389 

Concentrated  fertilizers  in  the  southern  States 396 

Experiments  with  field  seeds 405 

Recent  farm  experiments 412 

Current  facts  in  agriculture -" 435 

The  public  domain 454 

The  State  reports  of  agriculture 472 

Foreign  exchanges 530 

Oui-  industrial  colleges 541 

Recent  agricultural  books 555 

American  works  on  agriculture  and  rural  economy 597 

Agricultural  and  horticultural  periodicals 608 

Meteorology  of  1868 612 

Index 656 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate*.  Page. 

I.  Department  building  and  grounds Frontispiece. 

II.  Plan  of  tirst  floor  of  Department  building 191 

III.  Plan  of  second  floor  of  Department  building 19-2 

IV.  Characteristic  vegetation  of  the  banks  of  the  Youkou  River,  Alaska.. .  172 
V.  Characteristic  vegetation  of  the  Aleutian  district,  Alaska 178 

VI.  Characteristic  vi-getatiou  of  the  Sitkan  district.  Alaska 133 

VII.  Osage  hedge  planting 247 

VIII.  Implements  nsed  in  hedge  growing 253 

EX.  Brook  trout,  (Sabno  fonihtalk) -. 320 

X.  Apparatus  used  in  lish  culture 330 

XI.  Trout  dale  lish  ponds  and  hatching  house 335 

XII.  Meredith  Village  fl.sh-breeding  work.s 336 

XIII.  Black  bii-ss,  {Micro2)terous  achigan ) 338 

XIV.  Oyster  house 341 

XV.  Oyster  fishing 342 

XVI.  Oysters  and  oyster-fishing  implements 344 

XVII.  WUkinson's  improved  rut-scraper  and  grading  macliine 361 

XVIII.  Map  illustrating  mincnil  fertilizers  of  the  Atlantic  States 369 

XIX.  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College 54s 


E  E  P  0  R  T 


gojimissioner  of  agriculture. 


T)F.PAT?T^rFA^T   OF  AGEICULTrKE, 

Washington,  D.  C,  yorcmhcr  30,  1868. 
Sm:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the  seventh  amiiiiil  report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Agiicultiu-e.  The  interests  con£^detl  to  this  depart- 
ment are  those  of  an  industrial  class  more  numerous  than  any  other, 
and  upon  whose  labors,  under  the  guidance  and  v.ith  the  blessing  of  a 
Po"^er  that  rules  the  year,  depend  the  -weU-being  and  the  very  existence 
of  the  human  family.  The  sphere  of  its  operations  is  a  tenitory  unsur- 
passed for  fertility  of  soil,  and  a  climate  favorable  to  the  health  and 
comfort  of  the  husbandman,  and  the  fruitfulness  of  his  toil.  Its  mar- 
vellous breadth  of  area  invites  the  toiling  millions  of  the  world,  offering 
to  each  family  a  farm  and  ii  home,  with  the  added  boon  of  citizenship, 
and  ashing  in  payment  only  a  guarantee  of  improvement,  and  a  share  in 
the  i^roduction  of  the  bread  of  a  nation.  It  is  the  function  of  this 
department  to  aid  this  gTcat  foundation  interest  in  ail  legislation  affect- 
ing it,  in  the  difTusion  of  practical  information  concerning  it,  and  in  the 
dissemination  and  testing  of  rare  and  untried  plants  of  other  countries, 
that  promise  to  enrich  its  store  of  ijroductiou.  This  work  involves  a 
famiharity  with  the  latest  discoveries  of  the  natural  sciences  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  technicalities  of  many  arts,  with  a  fund  of  practical 
knowledge  and  sturdy  sense  that  intuitively  judges  aright  in  all  the 
actuahties  of  eveiy-day  life.  It*  its  true  object  and  jiroper  function  are 
understood,  a  work  of  great  magnitade  and  importance  is  opened, 
rcquirmg  a  variety  of  skilled  official  labor,  and  si)ecial  training,  in 
preparation  for  it.  A  beginning  has  been  made,  small  it  may  be,  but 
foreshadowing,  it  is  believed,  a  future  fraught  with  a  good  to  agriculture 
and  to  the  ccuntiy.  DifQculties  have  been  encountered,  and  discourage- 
ments met,  but  the  obstacles  are  disappearing  and  shadows  lightening, 
and  the  way  is  open  for  rapid  progress  and  a  successful  career. 

AGEICULTrP.AL  EDUCATION. 

The  industrial  colleges  now  springing  into  being  throughout  the  north- 
era  and  western  States,  though  various  in  character  and  aims,  and  at 
present  in  the  weakness  and  inefiiciency  of  their  infancy,  are  destined 


2  AGBICULTURAL    REPORT. 

to  be  powerful  coadjutors  in  the  legitimate  work  of  this  department. 
Already  has  the  discussion  attendant  upon  their  org-anization  elicited 
inquiry,  coixected  prejudices,  diffused  information,  and  aroused  enthu- 
siiisni  for  a  pi-actical  education,  which  cannot  fail  to  accomplish  good 
results.  They  are  calling  forth  from  the  ranks  of  the  professions,  and 
of  educiited.  practical  farmers,  earuest  men  of  enlargetl  \iews,  and  tTnin- 
ing  them  for  the  position  of  teachers  in  these  institutions,  thus  opening 
si>heres  of  usefulness  to  which  schoolmen  have  hitherto  been  strangers, 
and  eventually  making  a  new  era  in  the  education  of  the  world.  The 
material  for  these  professorships  is  yet  in  the  rough,  and  must  be  litted 
and  polished  in  the  institutions  themselves;  and  as  this  is  a  progressive 
work,  the  country  must  be  patient,  not  expecting  the  culmination  of  a 
century  of  progix-ss  in  a  moment  of  time. 

SYSTEMATIC  AGEICULiniE. 

Hitherto  this  country  has  been  characterized  by  random  farming,  for 
immedLite  results,  with  no  reference  to  future  advantages,  and  no  i>er- 
sistent  follo\nug  of  any  prescribed  course.  It  has  been  a  si>eculat{ve 
business,  with  a  constant  endeavor  to  overreach  the  soil,  even  at  the  risk 
of  its  bankruptcy.  Cotton,  wheat,  wool,  hops,  and  other  products  have 
been,  either  periodically  or  locally,  the  innocent  canses  of  nnnatnral 
excitements,  and  it  may  be  long  ere  cool  reason  shall  hold  undisturbed 
sway  among  our  husbandmen ;  but  there  are  evidences  that  more  stable 
views  and  more  systematic  practices  are  beginning  to  prevail.  In  the 
central  settlements  of  the  west,  farm  animals,  the  basis  of  systematic 
farming,  are  held  in  higher  esteem  than  formerly,  and  a  preparation  at 
least  is  made  for  some  simple  rotation  of  crops.  More  stability  exists, 
under  adversity,  as  in  the  case  of  wool-growers,  many  of  whom,  far- 
seeing  and  wise,  are  confident  of  future  profit  in  the  midst  of  present 
discouragement.  There  is  a  disposition  in  the  south  to  produce  their 
own  bread  and  meat,  and  hold  their  cotton  as  a  surplus,  bearing  a 
better  price  when  the  quantity  does  not  suffice  to  glut  the  market. 
These  and  many  other  signs  of  thoughtl'ulness  and  growing  wisdom  are 
apparent. 

SOFTHEEN  AGRICinLTrRE. 

It  is  gratifying  to  observe  the  evidences  of  A-italit^-  in  southern  agri- 
culture, which  is  progressively  and  successfully  marsh;illing  the  forces 
of  recui)enition,  and  gradually  disix*IIing  the  despondency  resulting 
from  the  losses  of  civil  war,  the  change  in  the  labor  system,  the  disrup- 
tion of  families  and  the  impoverishment  of  estates.  This  despondency, 
together  with  political  disappointments,  led  to  chimerical  plans  for 
settlements  in  Brazil,  in  Central  America,  in  Mexico,  and  even  in  the 
northern  and  northwestern  States.  I  have  regretted  and  combatted,  in 
I)ersonal  intercourse  and  corresiwndence,  this  morbid  tendency  to  expa- 
triation, or  to  distant  removal,  as  an  aggravation  of  the  evils  of  poverty 


EEPOBT    OF    THE    COiBHSSIONEE.  3 

and  discontent,  rather  than  theii*  cni'e.  It  is  a  self-evident  proi)Osition 
that  forced  sales  of  remnants  of  property,  mostly  real  estate,  at  a  place 
and  time  in  which  few  pnrchasers  have  disposition  or  ability  to  mate 
investments,  are  not  favorable  to  a  conservation  of  rednced  estates; 
and  the  expenses  of  removal  would  leave  emigrants  in  a  condition  of 
more  abject  poverty,  among  strangers,  and  surrounded  by  unfamiliar 
circumstances  and  occupations.  There  is  abundant  evidence  of  gradual 
tranquillization  of  discordant  social  and  business  elements,  and  an 
increasiug  hopefulness  and  energy  in  iadustrial  effort.  An  impetus  has 
been  given  to  business  by  the  iatroduction  of  northern  capital ;  and  in 
the  future  more  rapid  progress  may  be  expected  from  the  same  cause. 
Money,  population,  and  skill  in  special  industries,  are  the  requisites  for 
success  in  developing  the  resources  and  extending  and  perfecting  the 
agricidture  of  the  South. 

In  view  of  all  the  cii'cumstances  affecting  cotton  culture,  it  may  be 
deemed  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  yield  has  attained  an  equality  with 
that  of  1850,  and  is  half  as  great  as  the  excessive  product  of  1859  and 
1860,  which  glutted  the  markets  of  the  world,  and  would  have  caused  a 
discouraging  depression  in  prices  but  for  the  cessation  of  cotton  produc- 
tion in  the  years  that  followed.  The  cash  receipts  for  the  crop  of  1867 
were  larger  than  those  of  1859,  though  of  less  actual  value  as  reckoned 
in  a  depreciated  currency. 

The  sugar  interest  is  rapidly  attaining  prominence,  the  product  having 
doubled  in  the  last  two  years.  The  total  product  of  rice  is  also 
increasing. 

CAIsADIAZf  EECIPEOCITT. 

The  farmers  of  the  country,  while  enduring  the  uecessarj-  burden  of 
internal  revenue  taxation,  and  submitting  cheerfully  to  imposts  rqjon  aU 
foreign  products  consumed  by  them,  will  enter  a  vigorous  protest  against 
any  proposition  for  the  renewal  of  the  abrog-ated  reciprocity  treaty,  or 
any  arrangement  admitting  untaxed  and  low-priced  Canadian  produc- 
tions customs  free,  or  at  a  lower  rate  of  duty  than  is  provided  in  existing 
laws  regulating  the  taiiff  upon  similar  imports  from  other  nationalities. 
They  justly  demand  equality  in  taxation  and  in  exemption  from  its  bur- 
dens ;  they  ask  no  favors  for  a  class  pre-eminent  in  numbers  that  they 
would  not  accord  to  one  of  the  smallest  in  the  nation,  and  projierly 
regard  with  jealousy  any  assumption  of  chiims  for  special  jirivileges  lor 
the  few  at  the  expense  of  the  many.  They  cannot  see  the  justice  of 
subjecting  farmers  to  a  direct  .and  ruinous  competition  in  wheat,  beef, 
wool,  and  aU  products  of  the  farm,  along  a  line  of  thousands  of  miles  ia 
extent,  for  the  benefit  of  foreigners  who  bear  none  of  our  burdens,  and 
for  the  enrichment  of  a  few  of  our  citizens  who  stand  in  a  necessary  yet 
unproductive  position  between  the  producer  and  consumer.  Such 
treaty  of  reciprocity  would  bear  with  peculiar  hardship  upon  the  wool 
growing  interest,  and  espeeially  upon  the  production  of  combtng-wool^ 


4  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

the  long  \vool  of  Cauada,  a  fiber  iu  gTOvring  demand,  wliicli  our  farm- 
ers can  readily  supply,  and  at  the  same  time  famisli  the  markets  ^rith 
mutton  of  superior  quality,  if  no  unjust  discrimination  is  permitted  in 
tlie  practical  Trorking  of  the  wool  tariff.  "Wliatever  settlement,  of  ques- 
tions of  navigation  or  fisheries  may  be  desii'abie,  it  is  hoped  that  no 
advantages  may  be  secured  by  concessions  prejudicial  to  the  farming 
interest. 

I^-TER^'ATIO^'AL  EXCHAlN'GES. 

A  system  of  international  agTicultuivil  exchanges  has  been  established 
with  many  of  the  governments  of  Eui'ope,  Asia,  and  South  America, 
already  including  Austria,  Prussia,  China,  Japan,  India,  Guatemala 
and  British  Honduras.  Ai-raugements  huve  also  been  made  for  valuable 
exchanges  of  rare  seeds,  plants,  trees,  and  various  products  of  agricul- 
ture, Tvith  the  botanical  gardens  of  Ke^v,  in  England,  and  ITelbourne,  in 
Australia;  the  India  museum,  in  London;  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Agri- 
cidtural  Society;  the  botanical  department  of  the  British  museum;  the 
commissioner  of  patents  of  the  Argentine  Eepublic,  and  the  Central 
Agronomical  Sccietj-  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Posen.  Correspondence, 
in  initiating  this  measure,  has  elicited  expressions  of  the  utmost  cor- 
diality and  a  cheerful  readiness  for  zealous  co-operation.  The  arrange 
ment  with  Doctor  Forbes,  of  the  India  museum  in  London,  contem 
plates  a  general  exchange  of  the  agTicuitural  products  of  the  United 
States  for  those  of  India.  He  proposes  that  similar  specimens  shaU 
bear  the  same  numbers,  in  the  India  museum,  in  London,  in  that  of 
tliis  department,  and  iu  the  local  museums  of  India,  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  reference  at  London,  India,  or  in  the  United  States,  or  any 
other  country  to  which  similar  collections  may  be  sent.  Among  the 
samples  are  neai'ly  one  thousand  specimens  of  the  textile  fibers  of  India. 
It  is  my  design  to  extend  and  complete  this  system  of  exchange,  which 
promises  valuable  results  to  agriculture,  and  incidentally  to  manufactures 
and  commerce. 

DISEASES  OF  FAK3I  STOCK. 

The  prevalence  of  fatal  maladies  among  all  varieties  of  farm  animals, 
resulting  iu  the  annual  loss  of  not  less  than  fifty  million  dollars,  demands 
the  prompt  attention  of  this  department,  the  vigilance  of  the  agricultural 
associations,  and  national  and  State  legislation.  The  past  year  has  not 
been  one  of  peculiar  misfortune  in  this  respect,  except  in  the  dissemi- 
nation of  the  splenic  fever,  communicated  by  Texa^s  cattle ;  yet,  horses, 
mules,  sheep,  and  swine  have  all  sufiered  from  the  local  prevalence  of 
malignant  forms  of  disease,  against  which  little  veterinary  skiU  is 
opposed,  and  little  more  than  empuicism  and  superstitious  folly  is  prac- 
ticed. A  disease  may  suddenly  decimate  the  cattle  or  horses  of  a  neigh- 
borhood, the  only  popular  knowledge  of  which  is  the  statement  that  it  is 
a  murrain  or  distemper.    A  disease  exists  locally  in  several  of  the  south- 


REPORT    OF    THE    COiBHSSIONER.  0 

em  States,  by  ^Vilicll  the  total  loss  of  a  plantation's  stock  of  liorses  aud 
mules  not  unfrequently  occurs,  "^tli  scarcely  an  effort  or  licpe  for  a  cure. 
The  annual  losses  in  swine  cannot  be  less  tlian  ten  or  fifteen  million 
dollars  by  the  disease  commonly  known  as  "hog  cholera,"  for  which  no 
remedy  has  been  found;  and  prevention  has  i)roved  difaciilt  and 
uncertain. 

On  the  breaking-  out  of  the  splenic  fever  at  the  halting  places  of  Texas 
cattle  during  the  past  summer,  I  commissioned  Professor  John  Gamgee, 
of  the  Albert  Veterinary  College  of  London,  to  investigate  its  character 
and  causes  and  the  means  for  its  prevention.  The  labor  was  undertaken 
at  once  and  continued  with  zeal  and  activity  in  several  western  States, 
including  the  Texas  cattle  stations  of  Western  Kansas.  Post  mortem 
examinations,  not  only  of  diseased  native  stock  but  of  the  cattle  fi-om 
Texas,  were  repeatedly  made,  and  their  results  carefully  recorded,  all 
tending  to  connect  the  migrating  herds  of  the  Gulf  coast  unmistakably 
with  the  existence  and  spread  of  the  disease.  The  report  of  this  investi- 
gation, enriched  with  valuable  material  collected  by  the  statistical  divi- 
sion of  this  department  for  a  history  of  the  outbreak,  will  be  presented 
to  CongTess  at  an  early  day,  together  with  a  statement  of  the  previous 
history  of  this  disease  in  this  country,  and  chromo-lithrograT)hs  of  internal 
organs  of  animals  dj-ing  from  the  disease.  The  dex)artment  has-been 
cramped  for  means  to  conduct  this  investigation,  having  no  fund  from 
which  to  defray  its  expenses,  except  that  for  statistic-al  purposes,  which 
is  quite  too  meagre  for  the  absolutely  indispensable  demands  upon  it, 
and  congressional  aid  will  therefore  be  requisite  for  the  comrdetion  of 
the  work  undertaken  and  for  the  proper  publication  of  the  report  upon  it. 

While  it  is  deemed  important  to  investigate  the  cattle  diseases  preva- 
lent,* and  to  obtain  the  best  professional  aid  in  seeking  to  diminish  the 
extent  of  their  ravages,  it  is  evident  that  effort  directed  toward  the  cure 
of  any  di^sease  which  is  well  developed  in  any  section  of  the  country 
must  be  very  unsatisfactory  and  ineffectual.  Many  of  the  diseases  oi' 
cattle,  as  of  men,  have  their  origin  and  distribution  in  the  unnatural  and 
unhealthy  conditions  of  their  gTowth  and  management,  naturally  result- 
ing from  what  is  termed  our  civilization.  These  diseases  belong  to  the 
class  of  ailmeuts  which  are  preventable.  Their  causes  are  known,  and 
means  of  prevention  arc  at  our  disposal ;  and  if  an  enlightened  state  cf 
liubiic  o]3inion  leads  to  the  formation  of  societies  for  the  prevention  of 
cruelty  to  animals,  a  higher  appreciation  of  the  dependence  of  domestic 
animals  upon  us,  not  only  for  food  but  for  care  and  protection  from  disease, 
should  lead  to  the  formation  of  establishments  for  the  study  of  cattle  in 
health  and  disease,  and  the  training  of  a  class  of  practitioners  who  would 
bring  the  highest  medical  skill  to  the  treatment  of  our  domestic  animals. 
If  motives  of  humanity  should  fail  to  influence,  self-interest,  in  view  of 
the  annual  losses  of  millions  of  dollars  in  valuable  property,  should  be  a 
potential  inducement  to  prompt  action  in  this  direction.  The  formation 
of  veterinary  colleges — not  for  the  treatment  of  animals,  but  for  the 


6  AGRICULTUEAL   EEPOET, 

education  of  a  class  of  practitioners  of  skill  and  science,  ^vho  might 
become  beacons,  ^Tal■uiug  the  proprietors  of  stock  of  the  approach  of 
disease,  and  pointing  out  the  means  of  prevention— has  been  adopted  in 
many  European  States,  from  which  much  benefit  to  the  community  has 
been  derived.  1  consider  it  eminently  the  duty  of  this  department  not 
only  to  point  out  the  want  of  such  an  institution  but  to  initiate  its 
establishment;  and  I  earnestly  hope  that  Congress  may  authorize  at  an 
early  day  the  creation  of  a  division  of  veterinaiy  surgery  for  the  investi- 
gation and  prevention  of  diseases  of  domestic  animals,  and  for  the 
advancement  and  difiiisiou  of  veterinary  science  and  for  its  most  efiicient 
and  beneficent  practical  operation. 

GKAPES  A^^)  yriNE. 

The  production  of  grapes  for  table  use  and  for  wine  making  has  become 
an  interest  of  great  importance.  The  introduction  of  new  and  improved 
varieties  is  rapidly  cultivating  a  discriminatingtaste  in  the  general  public, 
which  must  be  gratifjiug  to  those  who  have  labored  long  and  faithfully 
in  its  dissemination.  The  difficulties  to  be  encountered,  and  the  con- 
ditions most  favorable  to  success,  are  now  pretty  well  understood,  and 
such  as  still  remain  in  doubt  cannot  long  escape  the  investigations  of 
the  many  intelligent  cultivators  now  engaged  in  solving  these  practical 
problems. 

For  many  years  this  interest  was  gi'eatly  depressed  from  a  general 
behef  that  our  native  grapes  were  incapable  of  improvement,  or  that  the 
foreign  wine  grapes  were  of  so  superior  a  quality  as  to  supersede  the 
fruits  produced  from  American  species.  Vast  sums  of  money,  and  much 
valuable  time  and  labor,  have  been  expended  in  the  endeavor  to  make 
the  foreign  grape  a  success,  but  without  exception  it  has  proved  a  failure 
in  open  air  culture.  These  failures,  however,  have  had  a  salutary  effect 
in  directing  attention  to  the  improvement  of  our  indigenous  species,  and 
the  progress  of  amelioration  is  both  marked  and  rapid,  and  must  certainly 
at  an  early  day  succeed  (if  it  has  not  already  succeeded)  in  producing 
varieties  of  equal  merit  to  those  famed  for  their  excellence  in  Europe. 
Kotwithstanding  these  well  ascertained  facts,  communications  are  fre- 
quently received  from  gentlemen  of  large  European  exi^erienee  in  making 
wine,  who  have  come  to  this  coimtry  for  the  purjiose  of  entering  upon 
grape  cidture,  urging  very  strenuously  the  importation  of  the  foreign 
varieties,  and  expending  their  own  means  in  this  futile  effort.  It  is  to 
be  regretted  that  the  hard-earned  experience  of  others  is  not  taken  as  a 
guide,  but  the  fact  will  be  learned,  sooner  or  later,  that  east  of  the  range 
of  the  Eocky  Mountains  no  climate  has  yet  been  found  suitable  for  the 
continued  healtby  growth  of  the  foreign  grape.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the 
plant  seems  to  find  a  perfectly  congenial  cUmate. 

SUB-TEOPICAL  FEUITS. 

Considerable  attention  is  now  being  directed  to  the  introduction  and 
culture  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  fruits  in  the  southern  States.    The 


EEPOET    OF    THE    COinnSSIOXER,  7 

climate  of  Florida  is  especially  favorable  to  these  productioiis.  Tlie 
department  has  for  some  time  past  been  collecting  fi-uits  of  this  descrip- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  introducing  them  into  the  most  favorable  reg:ions, 
and  is  in  the  possession  of  much  information  with  regard  to  the  climate, 
and  its  suitableness  for  these  useful  products. 

CINXHOXA  PLA^'TI^■5. 

Among  the  "new  and  valuable  plants"  which  the  organic  law  of  the 
department  requii-es  it  to  propagate,  cultivate,  and  disti-ibute  among 
agiiculturists,  there  may  be  included  not  merely  those  useful  as  food 
stuffs,  or  for  industrial  aits  and  manufactures,  but  also  those  which 
subserve  the  sanitaiy  interests  of  the  people.  European  governments, 
possessing  intertropical  colonies,  have  already  taken  the  lead  in  the  intro- 
duction and  acclimatization  of  medicinal  plants  within  their  own  limits. 
I  would  especially  call  attention  to  the  necessity  which  has  arisen  within 
the  last  few  years  for  the  initiation  of  prompt  measures  by  the  govern- 
ment to  obviate  the  results  of  the  extinction  of  the  cinchona  forests  on 
the  Andes,  which  is  caused  by  the  negligence  of  the  governments  of 
Peru.  Ecuador,  and  more  northern  Andean  states.  The  experiments  of 
England,  Holland,  and  other  countries,  have  shown  how  readily  new 
plantations  of  cinchona  trees  may  be  established  in  suitable  localities, 
how  rapidly  the  species  becomes  acclimated,  and  how  early  it  yields  sat- 
isfactory returns,  and  how  easily  such  enterprises  are  popularized  and 
rendered  profitable.  The  supply  of  quinine  has  become  a  necessity  of 
existence,  not  merely  as  a  cure,  but  as  a  prophylactic  agent.  During 
the  late  war  many  thousand  lives  were  saved  by  its  use  alone.  In  view 
of  the  approaching  extinction  of  the  cinchona  species,  (unless  intelligent 
governments  introduce  the  cultivation  within  their  own  teiTitories,)  I 
would  earnestly  recommend  that  an  appropriation  be  made  by  congress 
to  introduce  it,  and  to  propagate  and  establish  a  cinchona  plantation 
under  the  care  of  this  department.  The  attention  of  the  public  has 
already  been  called  to  this  subject  in  the  annual  report  for  1S66,  and  the 
present  is  a  fitting  time  for  caiTying  into  eflect  the  plan  there  recom- 
mended. 

THE   STATISTICAL   DITISIOX. 

The  operations  of  the  statistical  division  include  the  collection  of  the 
facts  of  agriculture  in  its  widest  range,  fi-om  all  the  States  and  Territories 
of  this  countiy,  and  the  gleaning  of  similar  data,  for  purjioses  of  com- 
parison and  instruction,  from  European  records  of  experimeutal  science, 
the  transactions  of  societies,  and  official  bulletins  and  pubHcations.  It 
involves  the  tabulation  and  systematic  arrangement  of  this  matter,  and 
the  iHiblishiug  of  condensations  or  deductions  fi'om  it  in  a  monthly 
report.  The  com])ilation,  composition,  revision,  and  publication  of  the 
annual  volume  is  also  intrusted  to  this  di\'ision.  The  importance  of  this 
work  will  readily  be  acknowledged,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  it  has 


8  J.GRICULTUEAL    REPORT. 

of  late  beon  cramped  ibr  means  to  cany  out  plans  lor  its  improvement 
and  prompt  issue.  While  the  cost  of  publishing  the  last  volume  was 
about  $100,000,  the  appropriation  for  its  preparation,  together  with  the 
matter  for  the  monthly,  the  statistical  data  on  file  for  reference,  and  all 
special  statistical  investigations  whatever,  was  last  year  but  810,000. 
It  is  in  no  sense  commensurate  with  the  objects  to  be  accomplished,  and 
would  inevitably  fail  of  realizing  any  valuable  results  but  for  the  untir- 
ing industry  and  perseverance  of  those  engaged  in  the  work. 

The  crop  statistics  of  the  present  year  indicate  a  more  than  average 
condition  of  agi'icultural  prosperity.  The  wheat  crop  is  somewhat  larger 
than  last  year,  the  increase  being  about  equal  to  that  of  the  population, 
and  may  be  estimated  at  not  less  than  two  hundred  and  twenty  million 
bushels.  The  corn  crop  is  much  larger  than  last  year,  but  may  not  be 
placed,  on  completion  of  the  tabulation,  at  more  than  nine  hundred 
mdlion  bushels.  The  cotton  crop,  although  of  slightly  reduced  acreage, 
would  have  been  excessive  but  for  the  damage  from  army  and  boll 
worms,  yet  the  result  will  exceed  two  million  three  hundred  thousand 
bales.  For  details  of  crop  reports,  and  nimibers  and  condition  of  farm 
stock,  reference  is  made  to  the  rei)ort  of  the  statistician. 

THE   CKEMICAI.  DIVISION. 

During  the  spring  and  early  summer  of  this  year,  the  laboratory  has 
been  engaged  in  analyses  of  samples  which  had  been  forwarded  by 
coiTCspondents  fi-om  various  parts  of  the  United  States.  In  great  part 
these  examinations  were  directly  in  the  interest  of  farmers,  or  of  those 
whose  avocations  are  connected  with  agricultui-e.  The  variety  of  work 
has  been  similar  to  that  of  preceding  years,  embracing  the  examination 
of  minerals,  ores,  earths,  products  from  various  manufactures,  special 
investigations  in  technical  branches  of  industry,  and  analyses  of  field 
products.  The  amount  of  work  which  flows  in  upon  the  laboratory  is 
necessarily  large,  from  the  gi*eat  extent  of  territory  whence  it  is  derived, 
and  the  number  of  our  correspondents.  In  former  reports  the  numerous 
instances  in  which  parties  seek  to  use  the  laboratory  to  further  private 
interests  have  been  alluded  to,  and  I  take  occasion  to  repeat  with  em- 
phasis that  the  proper  aims  of  an  agTicultural  laboratory  cannot  be  sub- 
served uiidor  a  practice  which  admits  of  a  constant  and  desultory  occu- 
liation  of  the  time  of  the  chemists.  A  large  force  of  practical  analysts, 
with  copyists  and  clerks,  would  be  required  to  dispose  of  all  the  scientiiic 
work  which  lias  thus  accumulated  under  the  former  interpretation  of  the 
duties  of  this  division.  In  the  future  the  increase  of  this  species  of  ser- 
vice will  not  be  deemed  advisable,  for,  although  it  yields  much  informa- 
tion which  is  beneficial  to  localities,  it  absorbs  attention  which  might 
otherwise  be  devoted  to  work  of  more  general  utility.  From  the  month 
of  July  to  the  present  time,  but  little  analytic  work  has  been  dene,  owing 
to  the  transfer  of  the  laboratory'  from  the  Fatent  Office  building,  and 
the  necessarily  slow  performance  of  the  work  of  refitting. 


KEPOET    OF    THE    COilillSSIOXEn.  V3 

lu  coinpliauce  ^yitil  circulars  from  tliis  office  addressed  to  various 
State  agricultural  societies,  requesting  samples  of  average  quality  of  tlie 
cereal  crops  of  this  year,  for  tlie  purposes  of  chemical  analysis  to  deter 
mine  their  relative  ricLuGss  iu  food  elements,  returns  are  being  received. 
TVhen  the  number  is  complete,  so  as  to  represent  the  production  of  the 
■whole  country,  this  extensive  investigation  -will  be  undertaken,  and 
will  form  the  burden  of  the  vrork  of  the  laboratory  for  the  coming  year. 
It  is  by  means  of  such  experiments,  which  no  individual  society  or  insti- 
tution could  successfully  prosecute,  that  the  department  may  be  made 
most  useful  to  the  country. 

The  appropriation  destined  for  the  laboratory  has  been  nearly  expended 
in  the  general  fitting  up  of  the  laboratory  with  new  cases,  shelving, 
tables,  and  in  the  renovation  of  the  old  work. 

Through  the  couitesy  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the  department 
has  been  enabled  to  purchase  to  advantage  in  Europe  chemical  apparatus 
and  materials,  which  have  been  forwarded  with  care  and  have  arrived  in 
safety.  The  purchase  was  made  in  the  most  judicious  manner,  consid- 
ering the  sum  which  remained  for  use  after  the  necessary  expenditure  in 
fitting  up  the  cabinet,  &:c.  The  laboratory  wiU  be  in  a  few  Yveeks,  when 
all  shall  have  been  i)ut  in  place,  in  good  working  order,  and  well  adapted 
for  the  general  ai^plications  of  chemistry  to  analytic  jjurposes.  As  so 
much  of  the  current  appropriation  has  been  expended  on  wood- work, 
the  chemist  has  been  unable  to  obtain  all  of  the  fine  chemicals  and 
chemico-physicai  apparatus  which  a  government  laboratory  needs  in 
order  to  be  prepared  for  that  variety  and  amount  of  general  or  special 
work  to  which  such  an  institution  should  be  devoted.  It  is  proposed 
that  the  approi^.riation  of  the  coming  year  be  allocated  to  this  purpose. 

The  necessity  of  connecting  a  chemical  laboratory  with  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  has  been  admitted ;  but  it  may  be  affirmed  that  the 
directiori  In  which  it  should  be  employed  is  hardly  yet  appreciated.  It 
is  only  by  reviewing  the  work  done  in  European  laboratories,  which  are 
fostered  by  the  several  governments,  that  the  right  application  of  an 
agTicuitiu-al  laboratory  is  rendered  apjoarent.  That  chemical  science  may 
be  brought  in  more  immediate  connection  with  agTicultural  experiences, 
there  should  be  established  an  experimental  garden  as  a  portion  of  the 
general  farm,  having  for  its  special  object  the  cultivation  of  plants  or 
crops,  under  certain  specified  conditions,  in  which  every  element  of  growth 
may  be  under  observation.  It  is  by  such  co  operation  of  garden  and 
laboratory  that  those  researches  of  Payen,  Boussingault,  Yiile,  Hoffman, 
Corenwinder,  and  others,  have  been  carried  out ;  and  I  would  therefore 
recommend  that  an  appropriation  be  made  for  this  purpose. 

As  an  integial  part  of  this  division  there  has  been  commenced  the 
formation  of  an  economic  mineralogical  cabinet,  which  will  serve  not 
only  to  illustrate  the  relation  of  soils  to  the  parent  rock,  but  will  also 
form  the  nucleus  of  an  industrial  collection,  illustrating  the  Kthological 
riches  of  the  country  which  are  available  for  architectural  and  other  art 
purposes. 


10  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

E>'T0:3I0L0GT. 

The  labors  of  tbe  entomological  division  bare  greatly  increased  during 
the  i)ast  year.  Letters  of  inquiry  in  regard  to  insects  destmetive  to  the 
crops  have  been  far  more  numerous  than  formerly.  The  ravages  of  the 
cotton  army- worm  at  the  south,  and  of  the  potato-bug  and  locust  at  the 
west,  have  aroused  the  attention  of  farmers  and  cultivators  generally, 
and  excited  an  unusual  degree  of  interest  in  the  subject  of  practical  ento- 
mology. 

As  lands  are  brought  under  cultivation,  insects  which  formerly  preyed 
upon  iutligenous  weeds,  finding  cultivated  plants  more  atti-active  and 
congenial  food,  have  multiplied  so  rapidly  as  to  alarm  the  farmer  and 
stimulate  inquiry  into  theii-  habits  and  the  means  for  their  destruction. 
Letters  on  these  subjects  are  daily  received,  many  containing  specimens 
of  the  insects  either  known  or  supposed  to  be  injiu'ious,  with  details  of 
the  damage  done,  the  means  used  to  prevent  their  depredations,  and  the 
success  or  failure  attending  them.  This  correspondence  is  filed  as  a 
record  of  the  progress  of  entomology.  All  the  insects  thus  received,  if 
new  or  hitherto  undescribed,  have  been  figured  by  Professor  Glover,  and 
copies  of  the  plates,  twenty  to  thiity  in  number,  have  been  added  to  the 
large  collection  in  the  museimi,  now  comprising  about  one  hundred  and 
eighty  plates,  containing  from  twenty  to  fifty  figures  each.  These  insect 
illustrations,  accompanied  as  they  are  by  names  and  references  to  habits 
and  means  of  destniction,  form  one  of  the  most  useful  and  instructive 
features  of  the  museum  of  which  they  are  a  part. 

THE  MTSEUU. 

In  removing  from  the  Patent  Oflice  to  the  new  building  of  the  depart- 
ment it  was  found  that  many  of  the  specimens  of  natural  history  were  so 
much  injured  by  dampness  and  consequent  mold  as  to  be  unfit  for  the 
uses  of  the  collection ;  these  were  destroyed,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to 
replace  them  with  new  and  better  tyjie^.  It  is  also  deemed  important  to 
procure  tyi^e  specimens  of  purebred  domestic  fowls,  and  some  of  the 
smaller  farm  animals. 

Now  that  adequate  accommodations  are  furnished  for  the  museum,  it 
is  hoped  that  greater  interest  will  be  shown  by  agricultural  and  horticul- 
tural societies  of  the  dilierent  States,  and  that  samples  of  grain,  fruits, 
&c.,  will  be  more  freely  contributed  than  heretofore,  so  that  each  may 
be  fully  represented  at  the  capital  of  our  national  government.  It  is 
designed  as  soon  as  possible  to  duplicate  this  collection,  for  the  purpose 
of  aiding  the  several  States  to  establish  museums  of  their  own,  in  which 
the  agriculture  and  natural  liistory  of  the  various  sections  may  be  cor- 
rectly represented. 

There  are  already  collected  about  fifteen  hundred  samples  of  foreign 
cereals  and  vegetable  seeds,  which  for  want  of  room  and  proper  conve- 
niences have  never  been  exhibited;  and  about  the  same  quantity  of 
native  gi-ains,  seeds.  &c.,  a  portion  of  which  were  shown  in  the  old  rooms. 
It  sjiould  be  understood  that  this  is  not  intended  to  be  a  mere  collection 


REPORT    OF    THE    COMMISSIONER.  11 

of  beautiful,  unique,  or  curious  specimens,  but  a  cabinet  of  reference, 
"svliere  the  merits  of  eacli  group  maj'  be  sliowu,  together  \rith  their  uses, 
habits,  and  adaptability  to  various  sections  of  the  country.  It  has  been 
planned  with  a  design  entirely  utilitarian  by  the  entomologist  and  natu- 
ralist of  the  department,  under  whose  special  charge  it  is,  and  who  has 
here  created  a  substantial  foimdation  for  a  great  national  agiicultural 
and  economic  repository  of  useful  knowledge.  A  glance  at  what  has 
aheady  been  done,  and  a  consideration  of  the  scope  and  bearings  of  the 
plan,  cannot  fail  to  recommend  it  to  popular  favor  and  insure  its  i^erma- 
nence  as  a  most  desirable  adjunct  of  the  department,  worthy  of  the  fos- 
tering care  of  the  government. 

EXPEEEIENTAL  aAEDEN. 

The  distribution  of  plants  from  the  garden  during  the  past  year  em- 
braced thiity  thousand  plants.  Many  thousands  of  scions  and  cuttings 
of  fruit  trees  have  also  been  disseminated.  Great  care  is  taken  to  pre- 
serve the  nomenclature,  to  guard  against  errors  in  the  numerous  varie- 
ties cultivated.  The  utility  of  the  garden  is  not  confined  to  the  propa- 
gation and  distribution  of  useful  plants.  The  information  derived  from 
observation  of  their  growth  is  of  gTeat  benefit  to  the  department  in  its 
correspondence.  Questions  relative  to  frait  trees,  medical,  and  other 
useful  plants,  are  daily  considered,  which  could  not  be  satisfactorily  an- 
swered without  the  aid  of  the  garden.  The  progress  of  horticulture  has 
never  been  so  rapid  in  the  country  as  it  is  at  the  present  time ;  and  the 
great  increase  of  new  fruits  and  plants  demands  vigilant  attention  and 
considerable  means  to  maintain  and  complete  the  collection,  since  the 
knowledge  derived  from  experiments  with  new  varieties  to  be  useful 
must  be  prompt. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  legitimate  operations  of  the  garden  should  be 
kept  in  view.  It  cannot  be  either  useful  or  expedient  for  the  depart- 
ment to  propagate  or  disseminate  plants  indiscriminately,  a  supposition 
that  seems  prevalent,  judging  fi'om  its  correspondence.  Orders  are 
received  for  almost  every  description  of  plant,  entailing  a  vast  amount 
of  unnecessary  correspondence,  since  all  such  orders  are  entirely  out  of 
place,  and  utterly-  beyond  the  means  and  inconsistent  with  the  objects 
of  the  dex)artment. 

DEPAETXEI^TT   GEOIIXDS  AXD   AEBOEETOI. 

The  grounds  connected  with  the  new  building  are  being  rapidly  im- 
proved. The  adoption  of  a  well-matured  plan,  before  commencing  active 
operations,  has  tended  to  facilitate  the  execution  of  the  work  at  those 
points  more  immediately  pressing.  The  roads  and  walks  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  building  have  been  constructed  as  far  as  practicable  with 
the  time  and  means  at  command.  A  jiortion  of  the  main  road  has  been 
finished  with  a  concrete  siuiace,  which  has  proved  even  more  satisfac- 
tory than  was  anticipated.  This  road,  while  it  is  no  more  ex|)ensive 
than  one  of  granite  properly  macadamized,  has  many  and  great  advan- 


12  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

tages  over  one  coiistnieted  iu  tljat  mode.  It  at  once  presents  a  sniootli, 
bard  sui-face,  %vliicU  it  constantly  maintains,  and  its  entire  freedom  from 
vegetation,  sucli  as  mosses  and  other  weeds,  will  be  an  annual  sa\dng  ot 
man}'  liundreds  of  dollars,  with  the  additional  advantage  that  there  is 
no  probability  of  any  necessity  for  repairs. 

The  main  feature  of  the  plan  is  the  arboretum.  This  it  is  proposed  to 
make  as  perfect  and  complete  in  species  and  varieties  as  the  climate  vrill 
admit,  and  will  prove  of  great  benefit  in  the  workings  of  the  department. 
With  a  strictly  botanical  arrangement  the  idea  of  landscape  effect  is 
happily* combined;  and -n  designing  the  roads  the  ultimate  connection 
of  the  contiguous  reservation  has  been  kept  in  view,  admitting  of  a  uni- 
form style  of  improvement  with  the  surrounding  grounds  iu  the  highest 
order  of  landscape  gardening.  This,  in  addition  to  the  intrinsic  utili- 
tarian value  of  the  collection,  cannot  fail  in  giving  great  attraction  to 
these  grounds. 

The  department  is  constantly  engaged  in  procuring  specimens  of  rare, 
plants  for  practical  uses.  The  most  important  of  these  are  collections  of 
both  hardy  and  exotic  plants  used  in  medicine,  the  fine  arts,  dyeing, 
and  in  manufactures.  In  the  arboretum  will  be  found  all  that  arc  suf- 
ficiently hardy  to  stand  unprotectetl  in  this  climate ;  but  the  most  valua- 
ble will  require  protection — some  constantly,  others  only  daring  the  pro- 
gress of  acclimatization.  A  commodious  range  of  glass  structures  should 
therefore  be  pro\-ided  at  once  for  these  purposes.  A  design  with  detailed 
plans  of  siutable  buildings  is  in  com-se  of  preparation,  and  will  be  sub- 
mitted for  consideration  when  completed. 

CULTIVATION  OF  RURAL  TASTE. 

While  all  these  improvements  will  be  highly  utilitari:\n  iu  tiieir  aim, 
the  love  of  rural  life  is  worthy  of  the  most  careful  culture.  In  this  con- 
nection it  is  proper  to  observe  that  one  of  the  most  certain  means  ol" 
encouraging  a  taste  for  rural  pursuits,  both  in  agriculture  and  horticul- 
ture, and  of  instilling  a  desire  for  the  study  of  botany  and  vegetable 
physiology,  is  that  of  i^roper  embellishment  of  school-house  and  college 
grounds.  SiuTound  these  seats  of  learning  with  an  extensive  variety  of 
trees  and  shrubs,  v/ith  the  name  of  each  conspicuously  attached,  arranged 
with  artistic  discrimination,  and  the  minds  of  students  will  necessarily 
be  drawn  to  the  study  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  To  know  how  to 
plant  and  cultivate  a  tree  should  certainly  be  a  knowledge  possessed  by 
every  person,  whatever  his  proposed  iirofession  or  aim  in  life.  This  is 
obvious  to  every  reflecting  mind ;  yet  there  is  a  total  v/ant  of  tills 
variety  of  external  attractions  in  these  institutions,  for  wliicli  there  is  no 
possible  excuse. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  SEEDS. 

The  seeds  contracted  for  by  my  predecessor,  (with  the  exception  of  the 
wheat,  wliich  was  inj]>orl('d  by  myself,)  undci"  the  very  liberal  appropri- 
ation of  the.  i)ast  fiscal  year,  have  been  distributed  extensively,  and  as 


REPORT    OF    THE    COMMISSIONER  13 

jiKliciously  as  the  nature  of  the  case  "^onld  admit.  Among"  tlie  thousands 
of  ;rpplicants  for  these  favors  from  every  ijortiou  of  the  United  States  it 
ha:s  been  difacult  always  to  discriminate,  but  great  care  has  been  taken 
ta  i)Iace  them  in  the  hands  of  those  appreciating  most  fully  the  object  of 
tl;e  government  in  the  appropriation^  and  their  obligation  to  the  depart- 
UK- nt  to  make  the  most  intelligent  and  careful  test,  to  disseminate  the  pro- 
Tiuct  throughout  the  community  in  yrhich  they  reside,  and  to  report  to  the 
department  the  results  of  exx)eriments.  While  many  recipients  give  lit 
tic  attention  to  the  invariable  request  going  forth  V\"ith  every  package 
of  seeds  and  i)lants,  it  is  gTatifying  and  encoiu'aging  to  note  the  reports 
of  many  successful  experiments,  especially  upon  the  staple  cereal  pro- 
ducts. The  result  of  a  single  importation  of  vrheat  has  alone  been  worth 
more  than  an  annual  appropriation  for  the  whole  department. 

Our  floral  wealth  has  been  enriched  by  the  introduction  of  new  and 
rare  varieties  of  seeds  and  plants.  Much  attention  has  also  been  given 
to  the  extension  of  our  knowledge  of  pharmaceutical  plants,  and  their 
adaptation  and  acclimatization  in  various  portions  of  our  widely  extended 
domain.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  fiber-producing  x)lants.  The  cul- 
tivation of  the  citrus  family,  and  other  sub-tropical  productions,  and 
their  introduction  into  Florida  and  other  portions  of  oiu'  country  favor- 
able to  theu'  growth,  has  received  earnest  attention. 

From  every  i^ortion  of  the  globe  seeds  and  plants,  and  information  as 
to  their  culture,  have  been  successfully  obtained,  and  the  results  promul- 
gated through  the  annual  and  monthly  reports.  The  care  bestowed  upon 
this  work,  in  reforming  the  former  pernicious  sj'stem  has  been  onerous 
and  difficult,  but  I  trust  will  ultimately  be  properly  appreciated  even  by 
those  whose  individual  interests  may  have  been  affected,  and  approved 
by  enlightened  agTicultui'ists  of  the  comitry  as  one  more  worthy  of  the 
nation. 

Every  day's  experience  develops  the  importance  of  a  more  liberal 
appropriation  for  this  particular  branch  than  was  given  it  for  the  present 
fiscal  year,  which  was  less  than  a  third  of  the  appropriation  of  the 
previous  year.  ISTew  objects  in  this  connection  have  been  developed 
demanding  special  attention.  The  arrangements  for  an  extended 
exchange  with  foreign  countries  of  our  valuable  cereal  and  forest  tree 
seeds  properly  come  under  this  head,  and  will  draw  heavily  upon  this 
limited  appropriation;  but  it  is  viewed  as  one  of  paramount  importance, 
and  destined  to  add  greatly  to  om*  national  wealth. 

The  economy  of  a  judicious  distribution  of  seeds  by  the  national  gov- 
ernment is  scarcely  understood  or  appreciated.  An  illustration  or  two 
v.iU  prove  suggestive  in  investigating  its  benefits.  At  a  low  estimate 
our  wheat  yield  is  reduced  six  bushels  per  acre  by  cultivation  of  new 
lands  for  ten  years.  If  one  bushel  per  acre  only  is  accredited  to  seed 
deterioration  that  might  be  remedied  by  a  proper  wheat  distribution, 
the  aggregate  will  be  eighteen  million  bushels,  worth  830,000,000.  Oats 
degenerate  more  rapidly  than  wheat,  and  it  is  perfectly  practicable  to 
increase  the  vnbio  of  tho  prop  ten  per  centum  by  change  of  seed,  and  this 


14  AGEICULTUEAI.  REPORT. 

increase  sliould  at  least  be  equivalent  to  815.000.0(X).  And  so  the  bene- 
fit might  be  aggregated  till  it  represented  more  millions  than  the  seed 
distribution  of  this  department  has  ever  cost  in  thousands  in  any  year 
of  its  existence.  If  nine-tenths  of  the  seed  distributed  are  sheer  waste, 
and  a  single  tenth  is  judiciously  used,  the  advantage  to  the  country  may 
be  tenfold  greater  than  the  annual  appropriations  for  agriculture.  This 
is  fully  shown  by  the  records  of  the  department. 

The  following  statement  exhibits  the  disposition  made  of  the  seeds  un- 
der the  appropriation  from  the  1st  December,  1867,  to  1st  December,  1S6S: 

Total  number  of  packages  and  papers  distributed,  592.398,  which 
includes  32.127  sacks  of  winter  wheat  importod  by  the  present  Commis 
sioner,  as  follows:  To  members  of  Congress,  223,072 ;  to  agricultural 
and  horticultural  societies,  98,861;  to  statistical  correspondents,  SG,391; 
to  individuals  on  applications,  183,474: ;  total,  592,398. 

FINANCIAL. 

In  presenring  for  your  consideration  the  financial  condition  of  the 
department,  it  is  gratifying  to  have  it  in  my  power  to  state  that  the 
expenditures  under  each  appropriation  have  come  within  the  sums 
appropriated. 

There  has  been  exi)ended  since  December  4.  1867 — the  date  of  my 
entry  upon  the  duties  of  Commissioner — $217,400,  leaving  a  balance 
unexpended  of  $103,600  for  the  remainder  of  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1869. 

The  report  of  Mr.  Cluss,  the  architect  employed  to  superintend  the 
erection  of  the  building,  and  the  necessary  fitting  and  furnishing,  shows 
the  completion  of  the  whole  in  a  substantial  and  workmanlike  manner, 
embracing  the  laboratory  with  its  new  and  complet«  chemical  apparatus, 
and  the  museum  with  its  convenient  and  tasteful  arrangement  of  cases, 
and  the  library,  at  a  total  cost  of  about  $140,000. 

The  balances  under  each  head  are  deemed  sufficient  to  meet  all  futare 
demands  of  the  present  fiscal  year. 

In  view  of  the  completion  of  the  building  in  all  its  internal  arrange- 
ments, the  sphere  for  the  operations  of  the  department  has  been  mate- 
rially enlarged,  and  it  is  now  prepared  to  assume  its  proper  rank  as  the 
representiitive  department  of  a  largely  predominating  class. 

The  work  of  each  division,  with  its  modtts  operandi^  has  been  outlined 
in  this  report,  and  new  ideas  suggested  by  the  working  of  the  depart- 
ment have  been  advanced  for  your  consideration  as  worthy  the  encour- 
agement of  Congress  as  a  part  of  the  whole  system,  and  in  fact  indispen- 
sable to  its  successful  operation.  My  estimates  for  the  next  fiscal  year 
are  based  ui>on  these  important  measures  for  the  enlargement  and  diver- 
sification of  the  industrial  interests  of  the  countiy,  and  I  trust  they  may 
be  nn't  in  a  liberal  and  justly  appreciative  spmt. 

HORACE  CAPEOX,  Commmioner, 

His  Excellency  Axdbew  Jokn'son, 


EEPOET  OF  THE  AECHITECT. 


Washington,  N'ovemher  20,  186S. 

Sm :  I  have  the  honor  to  report  the  completion  of  the  work  under  the 
contract  for  erecting,  fitting  up,  and  furnishing  the  new  building  for  tlie 
accommodation  of  the  department  under  your  charge.  '  AU  the  vrork 
enumerated  in  the  estimate  has  been  done  within  the  limits  of  the  appro- 
priations made  by  Congress. 

In  executing  the  work  a  strict  compliance  with  the  letter  and  spirit  of 
the  appropriation  bills  was  adhered  to  throughout.  The  appropriation 
for  all  the  work,  jjroperly  within  the  province  of  the  budder,  being  under 
one  head,  it  was  advertised  for  according  to  law,  and  given  out  in  toto 
to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder.  The  appropriations  subsequently 
made  for  fitting  out  and  furnishing  the  building  being  under  separate 
heads,  were  given  out  directly  to  mechanics  and  business  men  of  highest 
reputation  in  their  different  branches.  Superior  quality  of  work  and 
material  have  thus  been  obtained  at  very  moderate  rates. 

The  isolated  position  of  the  building  has  involved  a  considerable  outlay 
for  the  connections  with  the  gas-works  and  water-works  of  the  city,  as 
also  for  sewerage  leading  to  the  Washington  city  canal. 

The  building  is  now  finished,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  rooms  in  the 
basement  and  the  attic  story,  which  were  not  included  in  the  estimates. 
An  abundant  supply  of  gas  has  been  provided  for,  since  it  forms  the  heat- 
ing power  for  the  operations  in  the  laboratory.  Aside  from  the  supply  of 
water  for  the  accommodation  of  the  ofiice  rooms,  laboratory,  closets,  and 
boilers,  pipes  of  extra  size  have  been  carried  up,  feeding  fireplugs  in  the 
several  stories.  A  steam  heating  apparatus  is  in  successful  operation ; 
the  boilers  being  of  sufficient  vsizetoheat  also  the  attic  story  when  finished. 

All  the  principal  rooms  and  coiTidors  of  the  building  have  been  hiid 
off  in  chaste  panels,  painted  in  encaustic  oil  colors,  the  ceiling  being 
frescoed.  The  vestibule  and  main  staircase  have  received  a  strictly  artis- 
tic finish.  The  large  hall  in  the  second  story,  appropriated  to  the  museiun 
of  agi*icultu.re,  has  been  frescoed  with  due  regard  to  its  national  import- 
ance, the  coat  of  arms  of  the  United  States,  surrounded  by  the  escutcheons 
of  the  thirty-seven  States  of  the  Union,  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the 
embellishment. 

The  American  wood-hanging,  that  ingenious  new  patent  which  makes 
the  products  of  the  forest  in  their  i)rimeval  beauty  directly  subservient 
to  the  highest  efforts  of  the  decorator,  appeared  peculiarly  fitting,  and 
has  been  applied  for  the  finish  of  the  suite  of  rooms  occui)ied  by  the 
Commissioner. 

Candelabras  and  massive  chandeliers  have  been  put  up  at  all  places 
where  there  was  an  immediate  necessity  for  them. 

All  the  ofiice  rooms  of  the  building  have  been  furnished  with  substan- 
tial carpets,  and  the  desks,  fui"niture,  and  cases,  have  been  replenished 
to  the  full  extent  of  the  means  at  command.  The  laboratory  has  also 
been  fitted  out  of  the  appropriation  for  the  building  with  a  fine  set 
of  new  instruments  and  apparatus,  which  was  imperatively  required  for 
the  transaction  of  the  chemist's  operations. 

The  museum  has  been  partly  filled  with  absolutely  dust-proof  cases 
of  solid  walnut  shaped  in  the  best  style  of  the  art,  each  case  being  glazed 
with  three  hundred  square  feet  of  pure  white  glass,  and  provided  with 


16  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

the  most  :ti>i)ruved  bronzed  locks  and  lasteningK.  The  insufiicieiK'.y  of  the 
appropriadou  conld  not  have  been  construed  to  renuirc  a  full  supply  of 
indiflercnt  material  and  workmansliip. 

The  sum  total  of  all  the  appropriations  expended,  inclusive  of  sewerage, 
furniture,  carpets,  and  scientilic  apparatus  for  laboratory,  is  61-1:0,420, 
and  the  building  contains  live  hundred  find  sixty-five  thousand  cubic 
feet  of  available  space.  The  cost  is,  therefore,  but  twenty-four  and  three- 
quarter  cents  per  cubic  foot,  which  compares  most  tavorably  with  any 
similar  edifice  erected  by  government  or  private  individuals. 


ADOLPH  CLUSS,  Architect 


non.  Horace  Capron, 

Com  m  issmicr  of  Agriculture. 


EEPOK.T  OF  THE  STATISTICIAN. 


Sir  :  I  have  the  satisfaction  of  reporting  another  year  of  agricultural 
prosperity,  in  which  garners  have  been  full,  and  food  i>roducts  for  tho 
sustenance  of  forty  millions  of  human  beings  have  been  abundant,  and 
within  the  means  of  the  humblest,  while  prices  have  been  moderately 
remunerative  to  the  producer. 

The  tendency  of  po])ulation  to  the  cities  and  to  unproductive  and 
speculative  employments  is  less  marked  than  heretofore;  the  young  man, 
looking  for  a  career  of  business,  now  turns  to  agriculture  as  an  industry 
worthy  of  his  education  and  aspiration.  The  capitalist,  unlike  the  specu- 
lator holding  as  a  desert  thousands  of  fertile  acres,  now,  sometimes, 
enters  the  arena  of  agricultm'e,  and  shows  the  farmer,  doubtful  of  the 
prolit  of  his  business,  that  a  man  of  brains  and  means  can  legitimately 
hold  and  thoroughly  and  profitably  cultivate  ten  thousand  acres.  The 
defeated  Avarrior  in  a  cause  forever  lost  is  patiently  and  cheerfully  fol- 
lowing a  war-horse  that  is  now  a  plow-horse ;  and  the  freedman,  unused 
as  he  is  to  self-control  and  proverbially  unmindful  of  his  coming  wants, 
is  more  faithful  and  efficient  as  a  free  laborer  than  he  was  in  previous 
years.  Invention  and  mechanical  skill  were  never  more  active  and  benefi- 
cent in  their  gifts  to  productive  industry.  All  these  favorable  indica- 
tions point  to  increased  abundance  iti  the  future  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  a  rapidly  increasing  population,  and  a  more  ample  and  luxurious  style 
of  living. 

The  approaching  completion  of  the  Pacific  railroad  is  already  opening 
to  cultivation  the  fertile  plains  that  were  formerly  held  as  deserts,  and 
the  valleys  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  enlarging  our  field  for  the  collection 
of  agTicuitural  statistics,  and  furnishing  home  supplies  to  the  miners  and 
railroad  builders  of  the  new  west. 

The  extent  and  coustantly  changing  condition  of  our  vast  territory 
render  atteuq)ts  at  detailed  estimates  oi"  production  somewhat  hazardous ; 
yet,  so  far  as  opportunity  has  been  afforded  for  verification,  the  results 
have  been  (piiio  satisfactory.  As  to  theneAv  and  rapidly  growiug  settle- 
jiieuts  of  the  West  which  were  scarcely  commenced  at  the  date  of  the 
last  census,  it  is  simply  impossible  to  attain  a  high  degree  of  accuracy 
without  a  careful  census  annually. 


REPOST    OF    THE    STATISTIC  I  AX.  L7 

The  usual  tabulations  of  estimates  are  preceded  by  more  comprehen- 
sive statements  concerning  the  i^rincipal  crops  of  tlie  coimtry. 

WHEAT. 

A  disposition  to  increase  tlie  breadtli  of  Vneat-planting  Avas  evident 
early  in  tlie  season,  and  in  all  parts  of  tbe  country-.  Xew  England  felt 
the  impulse  slightly  in  the  spring  sowing,  though  the  eastern  crop 
scarceh'  affects  the  grand  aggregate.  The  increase  was  mainly  in  win- 
ter wheat,  except  in  Minnesota,  Iowa,  .and  Xebraska.  Texas  failed  to 
attain  tlie  acreage  of  the  previous  year,  and  Kentucky  and  Wisconsin 
scarcely  equalled  their  area  in  1SG8. 

The  early  reports  of  condition  were  generally  favorable,  and  noted  by 
the  absence  of  winter-killing,  except  to  a  very  limited  extent,  princi- 
pally in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Eust  was  i^revalent  only  in  small 
areas,  and  to  a  slight  extent ;  and  was  more  frequently  reported  in  the 
States  between  Maryland  and  Georgia,  and  in  Kentuckj',  than  else- 
where. 

In  June  the  i^rospect  was  unusually  cheering,  i)roniising  a  better  yield 
than  in  any  season  since  18G3,  and  with  a  larger  acreage  than  ever 
before,  rendering  probable  an  aggregate  production  of  nearly  a  bushel 
per  capita  more  than  the  supi)ly  of  the  previous  year.  The  excessive 
heat  in  the  latter  part  of  June  and  the  month  of  July,  which  served  to 
perfect  the  grain  in  deep,  well  drained  soils,  wrought  decided  injury  in 
checking  the  full  growth  of  the  stalk  and  shriveling  the  ripening  ker- 
nels, in  loose  prairie  sods,  and  in  undrained,  surface-scratched  fields,  so 
numerous  in  the  defective  cultivation  of  the  present  day.  There  was 
little  comj^Jaint  of  insect  attacks,  and  quite  as  little  loss  from  blight  and 
rust,  or  casualties  of  any  Idnd,  yet  the  loss  to  production  by  this  unsuit- 
ableness  of  lemperature  to  \50il  and  cultivation  was  probably  not  less 
than  twenty  millions  of  bushels. 

The  estimated  increase  over  the  previous  crop  (of  212,000,000)  was 
about  18,000,000,  the  aggregate  production  of  1SG3  being  estimated  in 
round  numbers  at  230,000,000  l>ushcls.  This  increase  was  obtained  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  tlie  older  Slates  failing  to  furnish  the  quantity  per 
capita  produced  in  1867 — failnig  to  advance  vrith  increase  of  popidation. 

Progress  of  icheat-groicin^  iccsttcard. — The  progress  of  wheat-growing 
westward  is  a  significant  feature  of  our  agriculture.  In  nine  years, 
since  1850,  it  has  been  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  increase  of  population 
in  the  same  section.  West  of  the  Mississippi,  in  1850,  the  quantity  har- 
vested was  about  25,000,000  bushels;  in  1867  it  had  increased  to 
65,000,000  bushels ;  and  in  I80S  the  product  was  70,000,000  bushels.  Nine 
years  ago  the  i)roportion  produced  was  but  fourteen  x^er  cent. ;  now  it  is 
thirty  per  cent,  of  the  total  i^roduct.  At  this  rate  of  increase  more  than 
half  of  the  wheat  of  the  country,  ere  many  yeai\s  shall  elapse,  will  be 
grown  west  of  the  3Iississippi — probably  before  this  western  section 
shall  have  half  the  population  of  the  area  east  of  it. 

A  comparison  of  the  movement  of  wheat  i^roduction  in  some  of  the 
principal  wheat-gTowing  States  will  illustrate  this  state  of  facts : 


State. 

1849.          ! 

I 

1850. 

1368. 

l.-lOl  ' 

1,530,581 

17,303  1 

14,487,351  1 

6,214.456  ; 

9,414,575  ! 

9,  lSfi.?03 
10,  449,  4'.)-.', 

.=>.  928.  470 
15,110.0-57 
]6,848,2(i7 
23, 837, 12 1 

14,  500,  000 

Iowa ... 

20  300  000 

California 

21,000,000 

OUo 

17,  550,  Ct;0 

J7,3(!6,000 
28, 56;),  000 

IllinoU 

18  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

The  -^heat  production  of  the  three  States  first  named,  as  shown  above, 
is  mainly  the  ^rowtli  of  the  past  twenty  years;  that  of  Illinois,  so  rapidly 
profxressive  between  1840  and  185!),  has  made  a  slow  advance  since, 
whiTe  the  product  of  Ohio  and  Indiana,  as  compared  with  the  advance 
of  population,  is  an  actual  reduction,  notwithstanding-  the  fact  that  there 
are  millions  of  acree  in  the  former  State  yet  in  original  forest,  and  in  the 
latter  a  still  larger  area,  both  in  forest  and  prairie,  not  yet  subdued  by 
the  i>low. 

The  following  statement,  furnished  by  J.  M.  Shaffer,  secretary  of  the 
Iowa  Agi'icultural  Society,  shows  the  rapidly  increasing  quantity  of  sui^- 
plus  wheat  shipped  (by  rail  only)  from  Iowa: 

Bnsbels.     il  Bushels. 

1865  3,  331,  7G9  1807 G,  530,  G2S 

18GG 4,  740, 440J1SG8 8,  843, 1G2 

The  reason  for  this  tendency  is  obvious.  The  pioneer  upon  the  prai- 
ries is  a  wheat-grower,  because  wheat  is  a  cash  crop,  and  demands  a 
small  outlay  of  labor;  he  depends  upon  its  proceeds,  not  only  for  a  liv- 
ing, but  for  farm  improvements,  the  purchase  of  stock  and  farm  imi)le- 
ments,  and  for  the  erection  of  a  farm-house  in  place  of  the  log  sliauty, 
and  for  barns  and  shelters  instead  of  stiaw-covered  sheds  and  straw 
stacks.  lie  knows  there  is  danger  of  reducing  the  productive  value  of 
his  land,  but  its  original  cost  was  an  insigniticant  fraction  of  its  intrin- 
sic value,  which  is  more  than  repaid  by  the  net  jjroceeds  of  a  single 
crop.  lie  cares  little  for  a  small  diminution  of  i)roductive  capacity, 
while  he  can  feiice  and  stock  his  farm,  and  place  money  in  bank,  from  the 
sale  of  successive  crops  of  wheat,  and  then  srll  the  naked  laud  for  tenfold 
its  original  cost.  Immediate  returns,  with  'the  lea.st  labor  and  capital, 
are  the  object  of  the  pioneer.  As  an  expedient,  for  a  poor  man,  the  pres- 
ent practice  may  be  tolerated;  as  a  regular  system  of  farm  manage- 
ment, it  is  reprehensible  and  ruinous.  It  will  doubtless  continue  in  vogue 
till  our  virgin  wheat  lands  are  run  over  by  pioneers,  who  will  ultimately 
be  succeeded  by  siMcntific  farmers  who  will  i)ractice  rotation,  draining, 
irrigatiiui,  in  cert.iin  sections,  and  fertilization  from  home  resources, 
when  the  yield  will  be  gi^eatly  increased  and  crops  will  be  surer. 

The  lelative  area  of  wheat  must  therefore  continue  its  decrease  east- 
ward, and  its  increase  westward,  till  our  agriculture  changes  from  its 
chry.salis  state  to  its  developnient  as  a  complete  system.  At  present 
our  agi-iculture  sutlers  from  want  of  balance  between  exhaustive  and 
restorative  crojts;  from  an  undue  prei)on(lerance  of  bread  crops,  cotton, 
tobaeco,  aiul  o  her  jtroducts  consumed  away  from  the  farm  ami  never 
in  ;yiy  of  thei  elements  returned  to  the  soil.  Koot  crops  and  hay,  fed 
upon  the  farm,  tend  to  increase  the  producing  cai)acity  and  market  value 
of  land,  ami  may  i»r()])erly  be  regarded  as  restorative  cro'ps.  Corn,  when 
fed  to  hogs  and' cattle  on  the  farm,  may  perhaps  be  placed  in  that  cate- 
gory, but  a  laige  projjortion  of  the  crops  sent  to  domestic  or  foreign  mar- 
kets, whether  I'or  human  food  or  feed  for  horses  or  other  animals,  is 
utterly  lost  as  a  fei-tilizing  agency  upon  the  farm. 

Tlic  careful  observer  will  lind,  upon  a  survey  of  the  statistics  of  pro- 
duction in  dilferent  countries,  that  wherever  the  balance  is  in  favor  of 
restorative  ciop.s,  the  yield  per  acre  is  highest,  and  rice  I'ersa.  He  will 
almost  be  inclined  to  regard  I  he  yield  as  necessarily  in  proi)ortion  to  the 
percentage  of  area  in  such  crops.  The  following  tabulation  presents  a 
fair  view  of  the  relative  percentage  of  area  in  restorative  and  exhaust- 


REPORT    OF   THE    STATISTICIAN. 


19 


ive  crops  in  the  countries  named,  and  also  tlie  average  yield  of  wheat 
per  acre  in  each  of  those  countries : 


Country. 


Restorative. 


lYieH  of  wheat 
I      per  acre. 


England 

Prussia 

France 

United  States 


Per  cent. 
33 
4.5 
54 
60 


Per  cent. 
67 
55 
46 
40 


Bushels. 
28 
17 
14 
12 


The  English  colonies  on  the  Pacific,  where  land  is  cheap,  follow  the 
exhaustive  practice  of  the  United  States,  rather  than  the  restorative 
system  of  the  mother  country,  and  the  result  is  shown  in  a  yield  of 
cereals  not  exceeding  our  own  rate  of  production. 

The  influence  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has  been  strongly 
directed  to  the  conservation  and  recuperation  of  all  the  elements  of  fer- 
tility in  our  soils,  and  to  the  encom^agement  of  restorative  processes  and 
systems  of  cropping.  If  wheat  plantations  may  still  predominate 
beyond  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri,  there  is  no  excuse  for  failing  to 
inaugurate  a  complete  system  of  American  agricultiu'e  in  Illinois  and 
more  eastern  States,  which  shall  be  self-sustaining  and  tending  con- 
stantly to  increase  of  i^roduction  and  profit. 

The  e\'il  tendency  of  slip-shod  culture  and  neglect  has  often  been 
shown  in  the  rapid  decrease  of  yield  and  reduction  in  quahty.  It  is  not 
winter  wheat  alone  that  is  decreasing  in  value.  The  deterioration  oi 
spring  wheat  is  shown  conspicuously  by  the  inspection  returns  of  Mil- 
waukee, iiom  which  it  api)ears  that  four-tenths  of  the  receipts  of  the 
past  four  years  have  been  marked  ''Number  2;"  in  18GG  but  one-tenth 
was  "Number  1,"  and  more  than  a  fourth  "Number  3;"  and  less  than 


one-half  in  the  four  years  has  been  accepted  as  "Number  1. 
statement  is  as  follows : 


The 


Crop  of— 

PER  CE.ST. 

No.  1. 

No.  2.  1   No.  3. 

Rejected. 

1868 

37.5 
60.2 
10.8 
77.0 

50.4 
34.3 
50.7 
15  6 

2.4 

1.8 
28.8 

0  7 

1867 

0.7 
9.7 
7  4 

1866 

1865 

The  fault  is  not  inherent  either  in  soil  or  climate.  It  is  fully  accounted 
for  by  deficient  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  rank  growth  of  grass  or 
weeds,  and  neglect  of  that  systematic  variety  in  cropping  necessary  for 
the  preservation  of  a  proper  equilibrium  in  the  elements  entering  into 
the  production  of  wheat. 

Quantity  required  for  consumption. — The  consumption  of  wheat  is 
increasing  in  this  country.  Formerly,  somewhat  less  than  a  barrel  of 
flour  yearly  j}€r  capita  would  supply  the  bread  consumption.  "Eye  and 
Indian"  or  "brown  bread"  in  the  east,  and  corn  bread  in  the  south,  were 
far  more  generally  used  than  at  present,  and  constituted  the  real  "stafl 
of  life."  A  barrel  of  flour  at  Christmas  was  the  entire  wheat  sui)ply  of 
the  year  for  a  large  class  of  soutbern  white  families,  while  of  course  the 
negroes  had  no  flour  bread,  except  a  casual  cnimb  from  tbe  ]»lauter's 
kitchen.  Kailroads  have  had  a  wonderful  influence  in  equalizing  con- 
sumption.   WhilCa  in  1860,  the  west  produced  nine  and  three-fourths 


20  AGEICULTUEA.L   EEPOET. 

busbels  to  each  iuliabitiinr,  Xevr  England  Aieldod  but  eleven  quarts  to 
eacb  individual:  and  yet  the  traditional  brown  bread  has  nearly  disap- 
peared from  eastern  tables,  and  no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  obtaining 
full  supplies  of  flour,  since  the  building  of  the  network  of  railways  con- 
necting nearly  every  village.  Even  the  larger  cities,  crowded  with  tens 
of  thousands  of  laboring  poor,  show  little  if  any  diniinurion  in  con- 
sumption of  flour  duiing  the  past  three  years  of  high  prices.  There  is 
another  reason  for  increased  consumption  in  the  enlarged  fticilities  for 
production,  by  means  of  machinery,  v»hich  has  superseded  at  least  half 
of  the  manual  labor  formerly  required  in  cultivating,  harvesting,  and 
cleaning. 

In  1S39  the  crop  was  8^,823,272  bushels,  or  4.70  to  each  inhabitant; 
in  1849,  100.4So,914,  or  4.33  to  each  individual;  in  1S59,  173,104,924 
bushels,  or  o.oO  per  capita  ;  in  18GS,  by  estimates  of  this  department, 
230,OU0,O0<^>  bushels,  including  Oregon  and  the  territories,  which  are  not 
found  in  the  tables.  As  the  increase  of  population  was  thirty-live  per 
cent,  from  1840  to  ISoO,  and  also  from  1850  to  18G0,  a  similar  pro  rata 
increase  fi'om  1860  to  ISG-S  would  make  our  population  39,000,000.  If 
the  same  ratio  of  increase  could  be  expected  through  this  decade,  viz., 
thirty-tive  per  cent,  in  iwpulation,  and  twenty-live  per  cent." in  the  wheat 
yield  in  proportion  to  population,  the  crop  of  1809  would  be  202,000,000 
bushels,  and  that  of  1807  shonUl  have  been  more  than  200,000,000  bush- 
els. Though  fiir  better  than  the  two  preceding  crops — a  fair  yield  upon 
a  broad  area — it  probably  did  not  exceed  our  estimate,  224,036,000 
bushels,  exclusive  of  that  produced  by  Oregon  and  the  Territories.  Of 
course  there  is  no  exiiectation  of  permanency  in  the  rate  of  increase  of 
the  last  decade;  yet  with  the  prodigality  and  wastefulness  of  food  for 
which  our  people  are  noted,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  we  shall 
attain  a  consumption  at  least  as  large  per  capita  as  that  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, viz.,  six  bushels,  in  addition  to  the  com  which  must  always  consti- 
tute an  item  in  our  subsistence.  The  rapid  dissemination  of  reapers 
and  threshers,  and  the  increasing  facilities  for  a  general  distribution  of 
wheat,  are  circumstances  favoring  a  lower  price  and  a  further  advance 
of  the  individual  rate  of  consumption.  The  present  increase  of  wheat - 
growing  in  the  south  is  the  commencement  of  a  movement  which  will 
add  materially  to  the  aggregate  of  future  crops;  a  conlident  expectation 
of  a  home  supply  of  *!iat  section  is  held,  but  it  is  neither  probable  nor 
desirable  that  exportation  of  southern  wheat  should  ever  be  a  promi- 
nent interest,  other  crops,  of  less  bulk  and  gi-eater  value,  promising  far 
greater  returns.  With  all  this  stimulus  to  enlarged  production — the 
food  requirements  of  a  prosperous  people,  the  larger  use  of  flour  by  the 
'poorer  classes,  extended  facilities  for  its  distribution  through  districts 
yielding  wheat  very  sparingly,  the  gi'eater  economy  of  production  by 
the  employment  of  farm  machinery,  and  the  more  general  growth  of  this 
cereal  in  the  distant  west,  the  soiith,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  it  would 
be  a  short  wheat  crop  in  1809  that  should  not  aggregate  270.000,000 
bushels. 

A  dispcsiiioii  was  jnanii.^ted  to  obtain  a  large  planting  of  corn  in  the, 
spring  of  1807.  The  South  was  anxious  to  be  independent  in  feed  for 
farm  stock  and  supplies  of  bread,  and  put  in  more  of  the  staple  grain 
than  usual.  Prices  vrcre  high  in  the  ^Yest,  a  large  meat  ])roduction  was 
wanted,  and  farmers  were  therefore  desirous  of  extending  their  fields  of 
maize,  but  their  labors  encountered  many  impediments,  the  principal 
being  a  spring  so  wet  as  to  retard  the  operations  of  the  plow,  and  a 
scarcity  of  farm  laborers. 


Ei;?OKT    OF    THE    STATISTICIAN. 


21 


The  cold  raias  also  cansed  slow  growth,  and  an  uupromisihg  appear- 
ance until  the  summer  was  somewhat  advanced,  when  a  serious  drought 
set  in,  which  continued  until  the  season  of  ripening,  resulting  in  a  loss 
01  one-third  of  the  exiiected  croi>  in  the  principal  corn-gTowing  section 
of  the  Union — the  Ohio  valley.  The  aggregate  yield  of  the  year  was 
less  by  250,000,000  bushels  than  shoidd  have  been  reasonably  expected 
as  a  g-ood  crop ;  the  revised  estimates  showing  but  708,000,000  bushels, 
against  838,000,000  in  1859.  when  1,000,000,000  are  required  for  con- 
sumption, cxiDort,  and  a  reserved  stock. 

In  1868,  the  necessity  for  a  determined  effort  to  make  good  the  defi- 
ciency of  corn  was  apparent  to  all.  Eeuirns  of  estimates  of  acreage 
showed  an  increase  of  more  than  two  millions  of  acres,  or  about  seven 
per  cent.  A  large  proportion  of  this  advance  was  in  the  southern  States, 
indicative  of  an  apparent  intention  to  make  that  section  self-supporting, 
audits  cotton  strictly  a  surplus  product.  The  following  is  a  statement 
of  the  estimated  increase  or  decrease  of  acreage  in  the  several  States : 


ACRES. 

^.. 

Izcrease. 

Decrease. 

6,200 

2,768 

i,440 

4  245 

1,363 

4,&i3 

Kew  York 

H.990 

21,531 

38,093 

92,251 

35,601 
14->,974 

84,504 
151,606 

67,431 

Florida 

COSS 
701,234 
825. 096 
1T9.  .555 
118,871 
262, 279 

44.648 
1,002 

Texas 

105,197 

157,811 

65^1.913 

94, 121 

Ohio 

52, 31 

&?.6S7 
86,561 
96,417 
187,  SX) 
149, 015 
74,499 


Wisconsin 

Iowa 

Nebraska 

The  high  temperature  of  July  was  favorable  to  the  gTowth  of  cor:i, 
which  is  generally  gTown  upon  deep,  rich  bottoms ;  and  the  pro.spect  was 
good  for  a  thousand  million  bushels  until  August,  when  unseasonably 
cool,  and,  in  some  localities,  wet  weather  set  in,  followed  by  early  fronts. 
The  result  was  a  sudden  and  an  injurious  check  at  the  critical  i)eriod  of 
eariug,  residting  in  late  ripening,  smut,  and  other  evidences  of  abnor- 
mal conditions. 

While  the  early  summer  was  excessively  warm,  few  localities  suffered 
from  drought ;  showers  were  sufficiently  frequent,  as  a  rrJe,  and  the 
heated  term  was  not  of  long  continuance.  In  August  the  rain-fall  be- 
came injurious,  and  much  damage  to  corn  was  reported  in  southern  Indi- 


22  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT.   . 

ana,  southern  Ohio,  West  Virginia,  and  Pennsylvania.  The  injury  from 
early  frosts  was  heavy  in  northern  Indiana,  northern  Illinois,  and  Iowa. 
Many  local  reports  contained  estimates  of  forty  per  cent,  of  soft  com  in 
consequence. 

These  causes  reduced  the  aggregate  yield  at  least  one  hundred  mil- 
lions. The  final  estimate  is  in  round  numbers  nine  hundred  millions  of 
bushels. 

COTTON. 

A  reduction  in  the  acreage  of  cotton  is  noted  in  every  State  except 
Texas,  in  which  the  increase  appears  to  be  about  thiity  per  ceut.  The  de- 
crease, as  compared  with  the  previous  year,  is  estimated  at  twenty-four 
per  cent,  in  Louisiana,  eighteen  in  Mississippi,  thirteen  in  Arkansas, 
twenty  in  Tennessee,  twelve  in  Georgia,  eighteen  in  South  Caroliua,  and 
thirty-two  in  Xoith  Carolina.  The  returns  of  diminished  acreage  in 
early  summer  did  not  excite  apprehensions  of  a  decrease  in  the  crop  of 
the  year.  On  the  contrary,  a  reasonable  exi)ectation  was  held  of  a  return 
at  least  equal  to  that  of  1SG7.  This  confidence  grew  out  of  the  fact  that 
cleaner  and  better  culture  was  attained,  and  in  the  Atlantic  States  a 
larger  amount  of  fertilizers  was  used,  while  a  steady  improvement  in  the 
quality  of  labor  was  realized. 

A  lack  of  rain  in  the  Gulf  States  gave  rise  to  apprehensions  of  loss, 
and  a  pretty  severe  drought  prevailed  in  Tennessee ;  but  the  cotton 
plant,  if  in  good  soil,  thoroughly  cidtivated,  can  only  be  injured  by 
excessive  drought,  and  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  the  high  tem- 
])erature  and  continued  sunshine  accomplished  as  much  of  injury  as  they 
effected  develoi)ment  aud  perfection  of  the  bolls,  and  ultimate  increase 
of  the  crop. 

Fewer  drawbacks  than  usual  were  reported.  In  jtarts  of  Georgia  the 
continued  dry  weather  (for  ten  weeks  in  ^lay.  June,  aud  July)  was  to 
some  extent  prejudicial.  The  cotton  caterpillar  destroyed  a  porrton  of 
the  sea-island  cotton.  The  boll  worm  appeared  in  some  places  to  a  lim- 
ited extent. 

The  autumn  Avas  remarkably  favorable,  both  for  ripening  and  picking; 
frosts  came  late,  and  the  weather  as  a  ride  continued  diy  aud  pleasant. 
The  mean  temperature  of  Mississippi  was  64°  in  October  aud  ol-  in  No- 
vember ;  in  Texas,  09°  in  October  and  37°  in  ^^STovember.  The  aggre 
gate  crop  of  the  year  was  estimated  in  October  at  two  million  three  hun- 
dred and  eighty  Thousand  bales. 

The  most  egi'egious  misstatements  are  regularly  made  by  the  bulls  and 
bears  of  the  cotton  markets,  prior  to  the  season  of  picking,  concerning 
the  probable  yield  of  the  year.  Estimates  will  inevitably  appear  in 
business  letters  aud  circulars,  and  in  the  news  journals  of  the  day :  and 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  judicious  estimates  should  be  made 
and  published  loug  before  the  actual  receipts  can  be  footed  up.  The 
Department  of  Agincidture,  baring  the  best  facilities  for  an  accurate 
estimate  of  the  coming  crop,  has  issued,  each  October  for  three  years 
past,  at  the  very  commencement  of  the  cotton  harvest,  bulletins  esti- 
mating the  probable  pnxluction.  The  first  estimate  was  of  the  crop  of 
ISGG:  and  while  another  department  of  the  government,  coinciding 
witli  the  views  of  the  planters  themselves,  placed  it  at  1,200,000  bales, 
our  tigures  were  1,835,000  bales.  The  actual  receipts  up  to  the  following 
September  showed  that  the  crop  of  1SG6,  after  deducting  the  cotton  of 
previous  years,  brought  forth  from  the  hiding  places  of  the  war,  was 


REPORT    OF    THE    STATISTICIAN. 


23 


about  1,900,000  bales.  The  estimates  of  1867  and  1868  were  respec- 
tively 2,340,000  bales  and  2,380,000  bales.  In  every  instance  the 
estimate  has  come  within  50,000  to  150,000  bales  of  the  result  as  known 
ten  months  afterwards.* 

The  mauufactui-e  of  cotton  in  the  United  States  is  steadily  increasing. 
The  rate  of  its  increase  is  indicated  by  the  following  figures : 

Pounds. 

Cotton  manufactured  in  1791 5,C00,000 

Cotton  manufactured  in  1801 9,000,000 

Cotton  manufactured  in  1811 17,000,000 

Cotton  manufactured  in  1821 .• 50,000,000 

Cotton  manufactured  in  1831 77,500,000 

Cotton  manufactured  in  1841 97,500,000 

Cotton  manufactured  in  1850 245,250,000 

Cotton  manufactured  in  1860 -. 422,704,975 

Eeturns  made  to  the  National  Association  of  Cotton  Manufacturers 
and  Planters,  to  the  date  January  30,  1869,  place  the  consumption  of 
seven  huncked  and  fifty  mills  at  417,367,771  pounds.  The  eighty-one 
known  mills  not  reporting  are  estimated  to  require  27,060,000  pounds. 
With  21,672,229  pounds  used  for  textile  fabrics  and  batting,  the  aggi-egat^ 
required  per  annum  is  470,000,000.  Allowing  for  possible  exaggeration, 
the  total  consumption  is  assumed  to  be  450,000,000  pounds.  Of  the 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  mills  reported,  eighty-six  are  in  the  southern 
States,  running  225,063  spindles,  consuming  31,415,750  pounds.  The 
following  table  presents,  in  condensed  form,  the  substance  of  these 
returns : 


state. 

Mills. 

Spindles. 

Average 
yarn. 

Cotton  spun. 

Average  per 
spindle. 

22 

49 

16 

150 

126 

81 

88 

30 

71 

9 

11 

5 

1 

1 

4 

10 

17 

6 

6 
4 
2 

10 
3 

443,  SCO 

734,  460 

28,038 

2.386,002 

1, 082, 376 

545, 528 

437,  482 

175,  042 

384,  828 

48,  892 

45,  502 

22,  834 

lU,  800 

Number. 
24? 
251 
29i 
27i 
35i 
29 
32i 
321 
17 
21 
121 
13 
14 

Founds. 

28, 638,  608 

48, 089,  439 

1,281,  125 

138,081,144 

51,9.38.373 

3I,6.-)2,920 

22,  097,  044 

10,  767,  6 .0 

34,  806,  .531 

3,  £88,  28:J 

7,  972,  896 

3,  170,  000 

1, 493,  C6i 

Pounds. 
65.00 

65.46 

45.69 

57.87 

Rhode  Island 

47.06 

58.00 

New  York 

50.51 

61.51 

90.45 

67.46 

175.22 

Ohio 

13a  82 

isasa 

13,  436 

30,060 

24.  249 

31,588 

69,782 

25,196 

8, 752 

8,528 

924 

13,720 

6,264 

10 
15J 
lOi 
131 
121 
17 
9 

9i 
8i 
10 
10 

2,  475.  000 
4,  010,  000 

3,  537,  000 
4,174,  IOJ 

10,864,350 
2, 820.  596 
1,  457,  OOO 
1,  372,  104 
258,  400 
1, 847,  200 
1,  075,  000 

184.  21 

111.  18 

14.5.  85 

132.14 

155.  70 

112.00 

166.48 

TfXa-i           ..         ...                 .           

16:).  90 

A  rkansaa 

268.83 
134. 00 

171.  62 

*  The  supplementary  report  of  the  honorary  commissioner  at  the  Paris  Expositiou 
recently  issued  by  the' State  Department  nses  the  following  language: 

"  It  is  much  to  be  desired  that  the  Statistical  Bureau,  established  at  "U'ashington, 
shall  prepare  and  publish,  periodically,  full  and  reliable  statistics  concei-ning  all  the 
important  branches  of  bu.siues9  in  this  country,  similai-  to  those  issued  by  the  British 
Board  of  Trade:  aud  it  is  equally  to  be  desired,  for  the  credit  and  business  interests  of 
the  country,  that  the  Agricultural  Bureau  shall  issue  accurate  statistics  in  place  of  its 
estimates  of  the  cotton  crop,  vrhich,  from  their  supposed  official  character,  have  obtained 
credence,  while  erroneous  beyond  excuse,  to  the  extent  of  about  300,000  bales  in  the 
statement  of  production  of  each  of  the  last  three  crops." 

As  the  estimate  of  this  department  for  the  last  of  the  "last  three"  crops  was  2.380,000 


24 


AGEICULTUEAJL   EEPORT. 


The  iucroase  in  the  mamiiacture  of  cottou  in  Eiu"ope  has  also  been 
steady.  From  1S35  to  1840  the  quautity  used  in  Great  Britain  was  less 
l^er  annum  than  for  a  similar  period  couimeuciuft:  with  1802,  the  year  of 
greatest  scarcity,  not  reaching  a  million  bales,  while  the  annual  average 
for  the  latter  i>eriod  of  live  years  was  1,2'JS,417  bales  of  400  poimds 
each.  The  average  for  the  i^eriod  of  five  years  commencing  with  185G, 
the  era  of  unexampled  production  of  cotton  goods,  was  2,307,647  bales, 
or  939,058,800  pounds.  The  falling  off  in  consumption  of  raw  cotton, 
therefore,  dui'ing  the  scarcity  of  American  cotton  was  forty-five  per 
cent.  The  present  requiicments  of  the  manufacture  are  fully  up  to  the 
average  of  18oG-'01,  or  about  2,400,000  bal(?s  of  400  pounds  each,  while 
the  continent  of  Europe  and  the  United  States  recjuire  2,000,000,  or 
5,000,000  bales  iu  tdl.  Of  this  supply  of  the  spindles  of  Eiuope  and 
America  this  country  takes  one-fifth,  the  jiropoition  attained  prior  to 
1800,  and  very  nearly  the  same  quantity.  Were  iirices  of  cotton  lower, 
a  still  larger  quantity  might  safely  be  placed  upon  the  markets  of  the 
world,  as  the  consumption  of  cotton  goods  tends  constantly  to  increase. 

The  following  table  presents  a  condensed  view  of  the  exports  of 
American  cotton  during  the  past  fori3--three  years.  It  makes  an  aggre- 
gate of  20,404,000,000  of  pounds,  and  the  exports  prior  to  1825  would 
bring  the  total  contribution  of  u.\jiierica  to  the  factories  of  Europe  up  to 
about  28,500,000,000  pounds. 

Statement  showing  the  actual  exports  of  cotton,  as  officially  reported,  from  J826  to  1863, 

iticlusive. 


Sea  Island  cotton.  {    Upland  cotton. 


Value  of  cotton — 
!         expong. 


Value  of  cotton 
— mannfactureg 
exported. 


Five  years  ending  IfcXJO 

Five  years  ending  1835 

Five  yearg  ending  1640 

Fire  yeers  ending  1 845 

Five  years  ending  16o<"i 

Fire  years  ending  1655 

Total,  30  years 

1856 : 

1857 

1858 

1859 

1860 

1861 

1862 

1863 

1864 

1865 

18*>; 

1857 

1K6S 

Total,  13  yearg 

Total,  43  vears 


Pounds. 
53, 3S2, 541 
44, 036, 795 
35, 004, 803 
36  495.  yxi 
43, 612,  .376 
54,  747, 909 


Pound*. 
1,219,349,740 
1, 651, 933, 614 
2,586,355,611 
3, 4Cf7, 262, 371 
3,  507, 423, 941 
5,  0r3,  547,  &Sfr 


$133, 

207, 
321, 
256, 
296. 

431, 


122,182 
614,983 
191,127 

846,555 
563,066 
169.  517 


$5,885,403 
9,833,079 
15, 370, 602 
16, 543, 492 
23,  013, 762 
35, 065, 947 


Vu, 279, 727  I   17. 445, 873, 173 


1,  TOe.  507, 4.'» 


105, 712, 284 


12,797,225  | 
12,940,725  I 
12, 101, 058  I 
13,713,536  i 
15,5!>8,6&b  i 
6,170,321 
66,443  1 
527,  747 

132.  r,n 

330,5J4 
7,284,473 
6,742,314 
4,998,315  I 


1, 338, 634, 476 

1,035,341,750 

1, 106.  522,  954 

1,372,755,006 

1, 752, 087, 640 

301,  345,  778 

4,998,121 

10, 857, 239 

11, 860, 390 

6, 276, 582 

643, 288, 356 

654.  731,  274 

779,765,318 


129,382.351 

131,57=i,859 

131, 3?S.  661 

161,  434,  923 

191,806,555 

34, 051, 483 

1,180,113 

6, 652, 405 

9,  895,  854 

.5, 750,  .=49 

281,385,223 

201,470,423 

l.';2, 820,  733 


6,967,309 
6, 115, 177 
5.651.504 
8. 316, 222 
10.934,796 
16, 957, 038 
2, 937, 464 
2,9-:6,41l 
1,456,901 
3,331,582 
1,780,175 
4, 6  »,  217 
4.871,054 


93.  403,  980 


9,019,464,684  1    1,437.763,132 


76,  8:13, 850 


360, 663, 707  j   26, 464, 339, 057 


3,144,270,562 


lc2, 546, 134 


liales.  and  a.^  pcam-ly  half  had  hoen  delivered  at  the  date  of  thi.';  report,  the  a.sswim>- 
tionof  an  x::ulii estimate  of  30(t.0u0  bales -was  as  un-warrar.table  as  it  has  proved 
eiToneoiL«i.  1  he  est uiiate  of  1867  -was  2,^40,000,  -while  the  Conimi.^siouer  places  the  viehl 
at  2,o£»y,241,  -wiiKh  is  a  greater  error  than  the  estimate.  He  declares  tlie  crop  of 
1H65  to  have  l>eeu  2,:i4-J.llG,  when  every  one  at  all  acquainted  with  the  historv  of 
that  crop  is  well  aware  that  a  large  proportion  of  this  aggregate  of  receipts  was  grown 
in  previous  years,  and  that  the  planting  season  in  the  vcrv  mid.st  of  the  expiriii"  throes 
of  the  war  was  generally  disregarded  or  utterly  ignored, '  His  error  mainly  consists  in 
not  discriniiiiatiiig  between  the  crop  of  a  given  year  and  the  cotton  movement  of  the  com- 
mercial year.  He  takes  no  account  of  the  old  cottou  in  the  hands  of  planters.  His 
attenUon  xs  rf^pccffnVy  called  to  a  single  instance— a  sale  of  COO  bales,  the  present  war,  aroicn 
during  the  var !  •>  '        ^  s      t  n 


KEPOST    OF    THi:    STATISTICIAN. 


2d 


CEOPS  OF  18CS. 


Tabic  shoicmg  the  rnnonnt  in  bushels.  Sfc,  of  each  principal  crop  of  the  several  SteU^s  named,  l.'te 
i/Lld  per  cert,  the  total  acreage,  tlieareruge  pries  in  each  State,andtlie  value  of  each  crop  for  Ih&i. 


5IAIXE. 

Indian  com bushels.. 

Wheat do 

Rye do 

Oats do 

Barley do 

Buckwheat da 

Potatoes do 

Tobacco pcaads. . 

Hay tons.. I        1,228,000 


1,590,000 
168,000 
145.000 

1, 8(3-2,  -jOJ 
oGO.OOO 
34S,000 

5,300,000 


29.8 
10 
15 
20 
16.1 
•33 
130 


5.%  335 
16.800 
9,666 
84,636 
34,782 
15,130 
4-2,307 


$1  38 

2  40 

1  61 

8-2 

1  26 

96 

78 


1, 203, 9-21  i    12  00 


Total. 


1, 460, 597 


KEW  HAMPSETTRE. 

Indian  com bushels..  1,511,000;  33 

ANTieat do....'  -257,000  1  11.7 

Rve do ,  13o,C00  I  12.8 

Oats do.-..:  1,23-2,000  26.5 

Barlev do ;  80.000  1  21.6 

Buckwheat do :  73,000  £0 

Potatoes do i  3,930,000  132 

Tobacco pounds.. 

Hay tons..;  917,000  1 


43, 171 
21,965 
10,623 
46.490 
3,703 
3,9C0 
29,924 


$143  I 

2  42 ; 

1  58  I 
76  I 

1  47  ! 
93  ' 
•71 


917, 000  I    13  50 


Total. 


1.0:5,  77S 


VERT.IO.VT. 

Indian  corn bc-heb. 

Wheat do 

Rve do... 

Oats do... 

Barley do... 

Buckwheat. .• do... 

Potatoes do... 

Tobacco pounds 

Hay tons 

Tot.".l 


1,  672,  000 
714,000  I 
141,000  I 

4,035,000  i 

91,009  I 

168,000  I 

4,800,0>A)  ■ 


.16 

14.8 

30 

23 

14 
135 


43,4-23  , 
44.025 

9,527  , 
135, 166  I 

3,956  , 
12,000  I 
35,533  : 


|1  34  1 

2  26  ; 

1  43 

75 

1  44 

96 

60 


MASSACHUSETTS. 

Indian  com bnshels. 

Wheat do... 

Rye do... 

Oats .• do 

Barley do 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do 

Tobacco pounds. 

Hav tons. 


2, 292, 000 

166,003 

445,000 
1,261,000 

138.000 
73.000 
4, 050.  f  00 
4,161,000  ;1300 
1,207. !  00  '•      1.-37 


37 
15. 5 
16.1 
24.1 
20.1 
13.2 
116 


61.945 

10,709 

27,639 

52,323 

6,665 

.%  5S0 

34,913 

3,203 

831,  Kl 


§1  32 

2  40 

1  63 

90 

1  58 

1  (K 

93 

2:1 

18  37 


Total. 


?2, 194. 200 
403,200 
233,450 
1, 326, 840 
705.600 
334.080 
4,290,000 


14,  736, 000 


24,  4-23,  370 


$2, 160,  730 
Kl,940 
214, 880 
936.320 
117. 600 
72.540 
2,804,500 


1-2.  379, 500 


19, 308, 010 


$2,  -240, 430 

1, 613, 640 

201,630 

3,041,230 

131,040 

161,230 

2,880,000 


1,  010,  OGO  ' 

1.02  1 

990,195 

14  30  ; 

14. 645,  000 

].  274,  453 

24  Q14  320 

$3, 0-25, 440 

3<>3, 400 

738, 7fO 

1, 134, 900 

215, 280 

78, 840 

3, 766,  500 

957,030 

2-2, 17-2, 590 


3-2,  437,  660 


RHODE  ISLAND. 

Indian  com bushels.. 

Wheat do 

Rye do 

Oats do 

Bariey Jo 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do 

Tobacco pounds.. 

Hay tons . . 


47.".  COO 

31,000 

200,000 

50,000 

3,  lO'J 

7eo,ou) 


27 

14.3, 
16.6 
£8 
23 
17 
101 


17,592  I 

601  ' 

1,867  I 

7,  142  ' 

2,173  j 

182 
6,930 


Si  65 
2  20 
1  85 

1  60 
1  17 
1  07 


rr«3,75{ 

18,  9-2t 

57,350 

154,000 

80.  OS.K) 

3.  6-27 

749,000 


ll.OvO 


63, 392  I    20  00 


1. 4-20,  000 


Total. 


99, 879 


3,  2e5,  647 


COSXECTICCT. 

Jridian  com bnshels . . 

Wheat do 

Rye do 

Oats do 

Harley do ■ 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do I 


2.152.000 

31 

73,  OCO 

15. 5 

337,  i\i  1 

14.5    1 

2.  7;'.5.  (...i: 

27.  7 

17,  000 

20 

200,000 

18.2 

1, 750. 000 

117        1 

f^..  294 
4,709 
57, 724 
97,033 
850 
10,989 
14, 937 


?1  35 

2  00  ; 

1  48  I 

32  I 

1  26 

1  20  I 

91  ! 


$2,905,200 

146,000 

1,233,760 

2, 218, 100 

21, 420 

240,000 

1,592,300 


26  AGBICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

TabU  shoicing  tlie  amount  in  bushels,  SfC,  of  each  principal  crop,  SfC. — Continued. 


Product 


5«~ 


c  u 
tea 


COSXECTIcrx — Continued. 

Tobacco pounds. 

Hay tons. 


T,  063,000 
883,  OciO 


1450 

1. 1: 


4,871 
767,826 


$0  25 
17  25 


Total. 


1.  0->2,  873 


SEW  TORK. 

Indinn  com bushels. 

Wheat do... 

Rve do... 


Oats do... 

Barley do 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do. . . 

Tobsicco pounds. 

Hay tons. 

Total 


20,910,000 
8, 497, 000 
4, 845. 000 

25, 000,  OOJ 
3, 84  1, 000 
5, 836,  OOO 

25, 340,  000 

12, 000.  o:o 

4,  510,  UOO 


3-2 
14.6 
15.1 
26 
21.4 
19.7 
94 
8'JO 
1 


NEW  JERSEY. 

Indian  com bui^hcls. 

Wheat do... 

Bye do... 

OaU do... 

Barley do... 

Buckwheat do... 

Potat<x-s do... 

Tobacco pounds. 

Hay tons. 


10,216,000 

1,  432.  000 

1,358,  (W 

5,368,000 

26, 0(0 

ava,  000 

3,  67D.  000 
150,000 
486,000 


37.5 
]a9 
13.5 
22.4 
22.9 
16.7 
97 
700 
1.40 


€53, 437 
581,9^6 
320, 860 
961,538 
179, 4  J9 
298,  781 
269,574 
15,000 
4,  500,  000 


$1  12 

2  06 

1  37 

74 

1  78 

1  01 

76 

12.5 

15  OS 


T,  78U,  C15 


270, 426 

103,121 

100,592 

239,642 

1,135 

51,017 

37,835 

214 

347,  14-2 


$3  99 

2  11 

1  50 

69 

1  55 

1  28 

97 

10.5 

19  00 


Total. 


1, 153.  024 


PEKXSTLVA.KL4. 

Indian  com boshels . 

Wheat do... 

Rye do... 

Oatd do... 

Barley do. . . 

Bcck\\heut do 

Potatoes do . . . 

Tobacco ". pounds. 

Hay tons. 


Total. 


DELAWARE. 

Indian  com bushels. 

Wheat do... 

Rye do... 

Oat* do... 

Biirlcy do 

Buckuheiit do... 

P*^  tfttoes do. . . 

Tobacco pounds. 

Hay tons. 


Total. 


MARTLA.VD. 

Indian  com bu  thels . 

Wlieat do... 

Rye do... 

Oat* do  .. 

Barley do. . . 

Buck  w  h  eat do . . . 

Potatoes do... 

Tobacco ...poni:ds. 

Hay tons. 


Total. 


vmoixiA. 

Indian  com bushels. 

Wheat do... 

Rye do... 

<>at« do... 

Barley do . . . 

Bnck»vbeat do... 

Potatot>s do 


31, 979,  Ot^O 
15, 300,  C!00 

6, 558,  UOO 

55, 108,  (00 

590,  OtX) 

8,  224,  000 
11,852,000 

4,617,000 

2,  448,  (.00 


35 

12.8 
13.2 
27.8 
21.4 
16.5 
86 
825 
1.35 


913, 685 

1,195,312 

496.818 

1, 982, 302 

27,570 

498, 424 

134, 661 

5,  .596 

1,  813, 333 


$1  00 

1  98 

1  32 

64 

1  64 

1  09 

93 

08 

16  00 


,  067,  721 


3, 27.i,  000 

691,000 

32.000 

1, 436, 000 

5,000 

22,  too 

345,  000 

12,000 

33,  COO 


25 
12 

6.7 

8 

24 

20 

75 

GOO 

1.25 


131,0(0 

57.583 

4,776 

179,500 

208 

1,100 

4,600 

20 

26,400 


$0  85 

1  9^) 

1  40 

€J 

1  22 

:  25 

1  00 

09 

20  00 


27.7 

las 

12.1 

18 
23.5 

18.7 
94 
560 
1.28 


19, 969, 000 

6.914,000 

76 '.  Oifl 

8,671,000 

5.000 

157.  CO  I 

1.350,000 


19.3 

8-4 
8.3 

17.8 

15 

ia4 

74 


4u5.  187 

44,^812 

559.411 
41,570 

338, 6i.6 

978 

10.053 

12,819 

29,292 

171,(83 


$0  87 

2  09 

1  35 

64 

1  22 

1  20 

93 

10.8 

16  77 


1,  609,  6.^*4 


1, 034,  063 

823.095 

91.506 

487,134 

333 

8.532 

18, 243 


$0  76 

1  90 

1  18 

54 

1  00 

98 

74 


REPORT    or    THE    STATISTICIAX.  27 

Table  shoicirig  the  amount  in  bushels,  SfC,  of  each  principal  crop,  ifc. — Contimied. 


u 

„- 

5 

C 

a  o 

11 

JO 

Product, 

3^ 

s 

o  ^ 

~  o 
1? 

■3 

o  = 
a 

> 

Ea 

■sj 

"0 

< 

< 

^ 

> 

&■ 

ViKGLviA — Continued. 

Tobacco. 

.poncds.. 

93,  COO,  COO 

783 

119,540 

$0  9.5 

$7,956,000 

Hay 

tons.. 

22rt,000 

1.2C! 

18o,245 

13  00 

2,938,000 

Total. 


2.  -68, 351 


45, 944. 040 


XORTH  C.^KOUN.i. 

Indian  corn bushels. 

W  heat do... 

Eye do... 

Oati< do... 

Barley do... 

Bnckwheat do 

Potato»»s do 

Tobacco pcnndi. 

Hsy toes. 


23, 3G6, 000 

2, 971, 000 

3^9,  CO  J 

3, 479,  too 

3. 10<J 

2.3, 000 

838,  IKM 

41,016.000 

186,  COO 


14.3 
5.9 
7.4 

13 

15.6 

15.6 

76 

607 

1, 


25 


1.  6P^.  9t6 

503,  c:-59 

52,567 

267,615 

198 

1,474 

11,006 

6J.  4->9 

14S,  800 


$0  78 

2  OJ 

1  £9 

65 

1  25 

83 

89 

Id.'; 

15  OJ 


fie,  225, 480 

5,  942, 000 

501,810 

2, 261, 350 

3,875 

19,09J 

745, 820 

6, 849. 673 

2,  790,  000 


Total. 


SOUTH  C.iKOLIX.A. 

Indian  com bushels. 

Wheat do. . . 

Bye do... 

Oats do... 

Barley do 

Buckwheat do... 

Potatoes do... 

Tobacco pounds. 

Hay tons. 

Total 


,870,000 

717.(00 

54,at0 

629,  COO 

7,400 


2, 681.  654 


,  339. 097 


10.2 
3.6 
5 

9.7 
9 


150,  COO  101 
102.000  500 
86.  OOJ         0.95 


967,647 

128.035 

10,800 

64,845 

822 


1,485 

204 

90, 526 


$1  00 

2  25 

1  58 

85 

1  90 


1  55 

17 

17  00 


$9. 870, 000 

1,613.250 

85.320 

534,650 

14,060 


232,500 

17.  340 

1.  462. 000 


1.264,364  I. 


13.  SJ9.  120 


GEORGIA. 

Indi.tncom bu^hcl3 

Wheat do.. 

Rye do.. 

Oats do.. 

Barlpy do.. 

Bui:  k  wheat do 

Potatoes do  - 

Tobacco pounds 

Hay tons 


$24. 83-;,  540 

4, 030, 400 

119.000 

894, 280 

25,370 


Total. 


FLORIDA. 

Indian  com bushels 

Wheat do. . 

Ky e do.. 

Oats do . . 

Barley do.. 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do.. 

Tobacco pounds 

Hay tons 


Total. 


ALABAMA. 

Inditin  com bushels 

Wheat do.. 

Rye. do.. 

Oats do.. 

Barley do 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do 

Tobacco pounds 

Hav tons 


513. 400 

9.1,200 

1,6:^,800 


Total. 


0.  I4t,  847 


snssissiTPi. 

Indian  com btishela. 

Wheat do... 

Rye do... 

Oats do... 

Barley do . . . 

Buckwheat _.do 

Potatoes do... 


35.  519, 000 

242,  OW 

21,000 

110,  OCO 

8,100 


17.1 
9.1 
10.5 
15.3 
10 


2,077,134 

2",  593 

2,000 

7,  189 

810 


442,000  I    63        I 


6,800 


31..^34.  730 


$0  74 
2  !9 
1  97 
1  CI 
I  40 


$26, 284. 060 
529, 980 

41,370 
111,  ICO 

11,340 


1  45  I 


640,900 


28 


AGRICCLTU2AL    REPOm 


T*Mc  shouias  ^'C  amount  t/t  LusUeh,  Sfc,  of  each  princ:pal  crop,  A"c. — Continaed. 


0«ts do. 

Barley io 

Baek-wbeat do... 

Potatoes do... 

Totwcco ..pounds. 

Uay loru. 

Toul. 

KE.VTCCKT. 

Indian  com btuheli. 

Wheal do... 

Rye 

0«u 

B«iey 

Bnckwbeat 
POUtOM  ... 


-do... 
do.... 
-do.... 
.do... 
-do.... 


sejer.ooo 
2,  er,  j,  000 

477,  Oii'j 

149,000 

11,600 

2. 100. 000 


22.7. 
8.5 
11.5 
52 
16 
15 
fcO 


779,418 

e0  47 

XJ5,294 

1  66 

41,478 

1  22 

2C?,454 

49 

9,312 

1  67 

773 

1  23 

2C,250 

67 

$27, 347, 690 

5, 301, 000 

581,940 

2, 634,  eeo 

2-}8,S30 

14,268 

1,407,000 


REPORT    OF    THE    STATISTICIAN.  29 

Table  showinir  tJic  amount  in  bushels,  ^'c,  of  each  principal  crop,  iVc  — Continued. 


5  a 


—  "2 

11 


c-  ^ 


KJESTUCKY — Continued. 

Tobacco pounds . 

Hay tons. 


•16, 400,  OCO     705 

1-'^,  000  !     1.  L'' 


65,815 

lOU,  737 


$0  12.7 
13  2o  1 


$5,  893, 800 
1,  CiW,  000 


Total. 


JUSSOCIU. 

Indian  com bushels. 

Wheat do. . . 

Rye do  — 

Oats do. . . 

Barley do 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do 

Tobacco pounds. 

Hay tons. 


,G-,T,5i?l 


45,  324.  CC8 


60, 9G7,  COO 

5, 357,  000 

269.000 

4, 509;  000 

106, 000 

64,000 

1,040,000 

10, 957, 000 

652,000 


Total. 


ILLINOIS. 

Indian  coi^ bushels. 

■Wheat do . . . 

Rye do. . . 

Oats ". do... 

Barley do... 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do... 

Tobacco potinds. 

Hay tons. 


Total. 


LSDIA.SA. 

Indian  com bushels. 

^Vheat do . . . 

Rye do... 

Oats ...do 

Barley do — 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do  — 

Tobacco pounds. 

Hay tous. 


Total. 


OHIO. 

Indian  com bushels. 

Wheat do... 

Rye do... 

Oats do. . . 

Barley do... 

Buckwheat  do — 

Potatoes do — 

Tobacco pounds. 

Hay tons. 


Total. 


MICHIGA.V. 

Indian  com bushels. 

Wheat do . . . 

Rye do. . . 

Oat.s do... 

Barley do — 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do... 

Tobacco pounds . 

Hay tons. 


134, 363,  OCO 

28, 5G0,  OuO 

645,  000 

32, 479,  OCO 

976,000 

11)8,  000 

3, 800,  OCO 

15, 160,  000 

2,  667,  000 


30.3 
14 

18.5 
3-2. 9 
24.2 
17.3 
90 
796 
1.40 


2,012,112 

332,  C42 

J4.540 

137,659 

6,859 

3,699 

11,555 

13,  765 

465,  714 


€-0  57 

1  49 

96 

43 

1  74 

1  ttJ 

SO 

11.3 

11  OO 


$34, 751, 190 

7,981,930 

258, 240 

1, 947, 470 

£88, 840 

65, 920 

936,  0.  fl 

1,238,141 

7, 172, 000 


3, 048, 545 


.1        54,639,731 


j4,2 
11.5 
16.2 
31.9 

2.'i.8 
16.6 
71 
757 
1.40 


3, 938, 742 

2, 483, 478 
39,814 

1, 018. 150 
37. 829 
11,927 
53, 521 
20.  f.-^fi 

1,  905,  OUO 


eo  43 

1  20 

93 

39 

1  36 

1  07 

81 

09.1 

l:;  00 


$57, 776, 030 

34,  272,  COO 

599, 850 

12, 666, 810 

],327,3(:o 

211,860 

3, 078,  000 

1,379,-560 

26,  670,  000 


9,  498, 487 


90, 832, 000 

17, 366, 000 

4-23,000 

11, 285, 000 

SJo.OOO 

370,  OuO 

3, 10!',  000 

7, 237,  OOO 

1, 280, 000 


34 

11.0 
14.9 
26.5 
20.  5 
19.3 
88 
705 
1.35 


74,  040,  000 
17, 050,  OOO 

1, 104, 000 
24, 227, 000 

2, 343, 000 
992.  000 

7, 200, 000 
11,000,000 

2,  030, 000 


18, 815,  OOO 

16, 012, 000 

6U6,  OCO 

7, 562,  OOJ 

430,  OCO 

:,0<37,0O0 

.■),  6.50,  000 

3, 430,  OOO 

1, 473,  000 


34 

13 

13.6 
29 
22.5 
17.3 
79 
814 
1.30 


33 
12.5 
18.1 
30.1 
23.3 
19.4 
94 
1100 
1.25 


2,  671, 529 

1,550,535 

28,389 

425, 849 

16,341 

19, 170 

35,227 

10,265 

948, 148 


5, 705, 453 


2, 177,  647 

1,311,538 

81, 176 

835,413 

104,133 

57,341 

91, 139 

1.3,513 

1,561,538 


6,  233,  4.38 


to  52 

1  50 

1  06 

46 

1  57 

95 

75 

10.5 

11  09 


137,  PSl.  530 


$47, 232,  640 

26,  049,  OCO 

448, 380 

5,191,100 

52.5, 950 

351,500 

2,  325.  000 

759,  885 

14. 195, 200 


97,  078,  655 


$0  60 

1  65 

1  14 

50 

1  47 

1  07 

84 

07.6 

13  8J 


044, 424,  COO 

28, 132, 500 

1,258,560 

12,113,500 

3,444,210 

1,061,440 

6,  048,  000 

836,  0"0 

28,  014.  OCO 


570, 151 

1, 280, 960 

3:),  480 

251, 229 

18,454 

65,309 

60,106 

3,118 

1,178,400 


TotiJ. 


WISCONSI.N. 

Indian  com bushels . 

Wheat do... 

Rve  CO 


Oats do. . 

Barley do. . 

Buckwheat do.. 

Potatoes do. . 


12.565,000 

22,  CSO,  000 

1,018,000 

18, 753;  000 

885,000 

57,000 

3, 900, 000 


33 

13 

18.6 

33 

24 

18.5 


3,461,207 


.380, 757 
1,743,076 
54, 731 
586, 031 
36,875 
3,081 
50, 649 


S0  7Q 

1  64 

1  09 

50 

1  56 

82 

56 

21 

15  00 


$0  .58 
1  00 
90 
49 
1  35 
SI 
72  j 


125,  332, 210 

£14,299,400 

26,  259,  68U 

660.  540 

3,  781,tXJO 

67;i,  80  > 

1,0:J8.940 

3,  164.  000 

720  3^0 

22,  095,  000 


72. 689,  660 


$7,287,700 

23, 660,  mJO 

916, 200 

9,188,970 

1,  194.7.-)0 

46. 170 

2,808.000 


30  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Table  shovnng  die  amount  in  bushels,  Sfc,  of  eacJi  principal  crop,  &-c.— Continuecl. 


crop 

Id  per 

acroii 
op. 

h 

s 
o 

Product. 

li 

|1 

of- 
•=■0 

"5 

g 

fe 

e  = 

3  C 

^ 

> 

< 

< 

5i 

>• 

r" 

WISCOSSIS— Continued. 

Tohacco... pounds.. 

76,  coo 

750 

101 

$0  20 

$15,200 

Uay tons.. 

1,274,000 

1.20 

1,C61,656 

11  CO 

14,0U,0lX) 

Total. 


3, 1U6,  907 


MINNESOTA. 

Inrlian  com busbek. 

Wheat do... 

Rye do... 

Oats do... 

Barley do... 

Back  whe.tt do.  - . 

Potatoes do — 

Tobacco pounds. 

Hay tons . 


Total. 


8,255,000 

14. 5'X),  000 

505,  OCO 

7,011,000 

4C6,000 

44,000 

3,250,000 

76,000 

582,000 


33.5 
15 

20.6 

36 

25 

19.4 
151 
700 
1.40 


246, 417 

966,666 

25,485 

194,750 

16,240 

2,268 

21.523 

108 

415,  714 


$0  64 

83 

6S 

48 

1  14 

1  03 

61 

20 

7  OO 


1,  fS9, 171 


Indian  corn bushels. 

■Wheat do... 

Bye do... 

Oata do. . . 

Barley do. .  • 

Bucktrbeat do. . . 

Potatoes do — 

Tobiicco pounds. 

Hay  tons. 


Total. 


€3,330,000 
20, 300, 000 
577,  too 
15.(>UO,000 
1,125,000 
257,000 
3,37(1,000]    96 
374. 00  I  775 
1, 4W);  000  j      1. 50 


37 
14.5 
19 
33 

26 
17.2 


1, 765, 729 
1, 400,  OoO 
3i,3G8 
472,  727 
43,2C9 
14.941 
35,104  I 

482 
933,333 


$0  37 

95 

K> 

35 

1  24 

1  05 

63 

23 

6  50 


4,  e05,  95 


Indian  com btt>hsls. 

^Theat do... 

Rye do. . . 

Oat« do... 

Barley  do... 

Buckwheat do 

Potatoes do 

Tobacco ponn'is . 

Hay tons. 


Total. 


NEBRASKA. 


Indian  com bushels . 

Wheat do . . . 


.do. 


Bye 

Oatg do 

Burley do. . . 

Buckwheat do 

Potato<-8 do 

Tobacco pounds. 

Hay tons. 


Tot.-.I 


fi,  487, 000 

l,«7,C0O  ' 

3,900  ; 

247,  cop  I 

5.700  ] 

23.000  I 

S50,000  I 

130,000 

1x8,000  I 


18 

15.6 
20.8 
25 
23 
17.5 
85 
C50 
1.45 


360,388 

$0  99 

y8,525 

1  35 

187 

1  03 

9,8ao 

S? 

£47 

98 

1,314 

1  27 

10,000 

94 

200 

22 

81.^ 

8  16 

.■icj.  i-;o  I 


3, 185, 000 
565,000 

1,9C0 
544,000 

7,000 


^9 
15.5 

je.3 

30.4 
25 


300,000  66 
2!,(!00  '  525 
35, 7.0  I       1. 87 


139.082 

36,451 

103 

17,894 

230 


4,545 

40 
19.090 


$0  09 
96 

1  00 
54 

1  41 


1  03 

22 

5  40 


217, 485 


CALrroR.viA. 

Indian  com bushels . 

Wheat do. . . 

Rve do... 

Oat« do... 

Barley - do... 

Buckwheat do 

Pot.-itoes do 

Tob:icco pounds. 

Hay tons. 

Total 


1, 220, 0':t)  I 
•JI,  I  (1(1  ty.M, 


1.,:.  .     . 

M,0ou 
3,142.000 


430,000 


27,111 

1,050,U» 

1,428 

63,333 

375,000 

777 

23,*X> 


$1  00 
1  03 
1  40 

70 
1  03 
1  00 

56 


338, 345       15  00 
1.879,794  i 


42. 986. 520 


REPORT    OF    THE    STATISTICIAN, 


31 


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REPORT    OF    THE    STATISTICIAN. 


33 


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34 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


A  general  summary,  shoteing  the  estimated  gu/ir.tities.  number  of  acres,  and  aggregaic  zaltu. 
of  the  prinripcl  crops  of  Uu  farm  in  1868. 


Prodncto. 


Ko.  of  b&Ebelg. 


No.  of  acreK. 


Value. 


Indiim  com. 

Wheal 

Bje 

Oau 

Barley 

BnckTfheat. 
Potaioes 


Total. 


Tobacco ponads. 

Hay 1  one . 

Cotton bales. 


Total. 


906,  ST.  000 

2-:;4,  (:36,  600 
22, 504.  800 

254,  960.  800 
22,  K>6,  100 
19.  66,1,  TOO 

106,  090,  000 


1. 556,  879,  000 


320,982,000 

26, 141,  900 

2,500,000 


34,  e?T,  246 
16, 400, 132 
1,651,321 
9, 665, 736 
937,491? 
1,113,993 
1, 131, 552 


67,  B46, 478 

427,169 

21, 541, 573 

7, 000, 000 


96, 816, 240 


8£6!»,  512,  460 
319,  195,290 
2a  683,  6T7 
142,484,910 
29,  eop,  931 
20,  814, 315 
84, 150,  040 


1,194,650,623 


40, 081,  M8 
351,941,930 
25,000,000 


1,  6U,  671, 495 


Table  shoicing  the  average  yield  and  cash  value  of  farm  producis  per  acre  for  Hit  year  1866. 


Articles. 


Indian  com basbels.. 

Wbeat do 

Rye do 

OiitH do 

Barley do 

Bnckvrbeat do 


Arersge 
yield. 


25.9 
12.1 
13.6 
26.3 
24.4 
17.8 


Average 

value. 


|16  32 
17  29 

17  37 
14  74 
31  79 

18  68 


Articles. 


Potatoes busbels.. 

Tobacco ponnds.. 

Hay tons.. 

Cotton ponnds.. 

Sugar do 


Average 

yield. 


93.7 
751 

L21 
16a  7 

1,504 


Arerags 
Taloe. 


$74  as 

93  es 

16  33 
32  14 


Tabic  shoicing  the  average  yield  of  farm  products  per  axrtfor  tke  year  18C.S. 


8Ut«B. 


Maine 

New  Dampihire 

\ermr.-2l 

MaSftachcBetts  . . 
Rhode  Kland... 

Connecticut 

Ktw  York 

New  Jersey 

PeDncylTania... 

Delawiire 

Maryland 

Virtrinia 

North  Carolina  . 
South  Carolina  . 

GecTpifv 

Florida 

Alu)>au:a 

Mis(i(iM{'{ii 

LouiKiana 

Texa- 

ArkauBas 

Tennessee 

West  Virginia  . . 

Kentucky 

MioKouri 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Ohio 

Michigan 

WisroniUn 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

KauKa* 

Nebraska 

California 


29.8 

35 

38.5 

37 

27 

34 

32 

37.5 

35 

25 

27.7 

iy.3 

14.3 

10.2 

12.7 

10.5 

10.8 

17.1 

22 

25 

30.5 

25.3 

35 

32.7 

30.3 

34.2 

34 

34 

33 

33 

33.5 

37 

18 

22.9 

45 


10 

1L7 

16 

15.5 

14.3 

15.5 

14.6 

13.9 

12.8 

12 

10.8 

a4 

5.9 

5.6 

5.6 

9 

6.1 

9.1 

7.3 

6 

13.5 
6.6 

10.7 
8.5 

14 

1L5 

1L2 

13 

las 

13 
15 
14.5 

lae 

15.5 
20 


BikA. 

15 

12.8 

14.8 

16.1 

16.6 

14.5 

15.1 

13.5 

13.2 

6.7 
12.1 

8.3 

7.4 

5 

6.9 
10 

5.8 
10.5 
11.5 
11.8 
13.3 

9 

lae 

11.5 

ia5 

16.2 
14.9 
13.6 
18.1 

lae 

20.6 

19 

20.8 

las 

14 


Busk. 
22 
26.5 
30 
24. 1 
28 
27.7 
86 
22.4 
27.8 

8 
13 
17.8 
i3 
9.7 
12.5 
11.5 
11.7 
15.3 
15 

26.6 
22.5 
17.4 
24.7 
22 
32.9 
31.9 
26.5 
29 
30.1 


33 
25 

30.4 
3J 


Bvsh, 
16.1 
21.  C 
23 
30.1 
23 
20 
21.4 
22.9 
21.4 
24 

23.5 
15 
15.6 

!> 
15.5 
14.3 

lai 

10 


11 
11 

1&3 

17.2 

16 

24.2 

25.8 

2a5 

22.5 

2a3 

24 

25 

S6 

23 

25 

28 


Busk. 
23 
20 
14 

13.3 
17 

l&S 
19.7 

la? 

16.5 
20 

]&7 

ia4 

15.6 


1L4 

21.8 

15 

17.3 

1«.6 

ia.3 

17.3 
19.4 

las 

19.4 
17.2 
17.5 


18 


Bulk. 

130 

132 

135 

116 

101 

117 

94 

97 

68 

75 

94 

74 

76 

101 

102 

110 

61 

63 

ie2 

61 
63 
73 

&f 
80 
90 
71 
88 
79 
94 
77 
151 
96 
85 
66 
90 


Pounds. 


1,300 


1,450 
8O0 
700 
625 
600 
560 
783 
€57 
500 
585 
530 
565 
783 

-  7i»0 
466 
900 
615 
611 
705 
796 
757 
705 
814 

1,100 
750 
TOO 
773 
650 
525 


Ten*. 
LOS 

1 

Loe 

L37 

LIS 
1.15 

1 

1.40 

L35 

L25 

1.28 

1.28 

1.S 

a95 

1 

1 

1.66 

1.S5 

2 

1.25 

1.25 

1.25 

1.25 

L27 

1.40 

1.40 

L33 

Lac 

1.25 
L20 
1.40 
1.50 

1.45 
1.87 
1.33 


REPORT   OF   THE    STATISTICIAN. 


a5 


Table  showing  the  average  cash  value  cf  farm  products  per  acre  for  the  year  1868. 


Maiup 

New  Hampshire  ... 

Vtnnont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 


$41 
.30 
51 
48 
44 
45 
35 
37 
35 
21 

Maryland 24 

Virginia 

Nonh  Carolina 

Sonth  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennei;<ee 

"West  Virginia 

Ki-ntncky 

Mif-ouri 

liliuois 

Indiana 

Ohio 

Miohigan 

■Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kebraska 

California 


$24  <X) 
£8  31 

36  16 

37  20 
31  46 
31  00 
30  36 
29  30 
25  34 
22  80 
21  31 
15  96 

11  80 

12  60 
12  32 
24  75 

12  07 

19  92 
18  25 

13  50 
27  00 

12  40 

20  11 

15  81 

20  86 

13  80 

16  80 

21  45 

20  50 
13  00 

12  45 

13  77 

21  06 

14  88 
20  60 


n 


$24  15 

20  22 

21  16 
26  72 
30  71 
21  46 
20  63 
20  25 
17  43 

9  38 

16  33 
9  79 
9  54 
7  90 

11  73 

17  SO 
9  80 

20  68 

21  85 

18  76 
14  C9 
11  25 

16  59 

14  03 

17  76 

15  06 
15  79 

15  50 

19  72 

16  74 
14  00 
16  15 
21  42 

18  30 

19  60 


$18  04 

20  14 
22  50 

21  69 

21  56 

22  71 
19  24 
15  45 

17  79 
4  80 

11  52 
9  61 
8  45 

8  24 

9  87 

11  50 
10  29 
15  45 
24  00 

23  94 

18  00 
10  96 

12  59 

10  56 
14  14 
12  44 
12  19 

14  50 

15  05 

15  68 
17  28 

11  55 
14  25 

16  41 
21  00 


^  28 
31  75 
33  12 
31  35 
36  80 
25  20 
38  09 
35  49 
35  09 
29  28 
28  67 
15  00 
19  50 

17  10 
33  32 
28  60 

18  48 
14  00 


» 


$22  08 

18  60 

13  44 

14  25 

19  80 
21  84 
19  80 

21  37 

17  98 
25  00 

22  44 

18  03 
12  94 


23  76 

23  10 



26  16 

13  79 

31  99 

•  22  01 

26  72 

18  45 

42  10 

17  81 

35  08 

17  76 

32  18 

18  33 

33  07 

18  51 

36  34 

15  90 

32  40 

14  98 

28  50 

19  98 

32  24 

18  06 

22  54 

22  '.!2 

35  25 

14  12 

28  84 

18  00 

$101  40 

93  72 

81  ai 

t  107  88 

!  108  07 

106  47 

71  44 

94  09 
81  84 
75  00 
87  42 
54  76 
67  64 

156  55 
150  96 
187  CO 
92  11 
94  25 
283  50 

91  50 
83  16 

54  75 
62  10 
53  60 
81  00 
57  51 
66  00 
66  36 
52  64 

55  44 

92  11 
60  48 
79  90 
69  30 
50  40 


i§299  CO 


362  50 
109  CO 

73  50 
66  CO 
54  CO 

60  48 
66  55 

109  71 

85  00 

175  50 

148  40 
158  48 
260  73 
210  CO 

149  12 
1C4  40 
133  66 
104  48 

89  53 
89  94 
68  88 

74  02 

61  86 
231  00 

150  00 
140  00 
178  25 
143  CO 
115  50 


$12  24 

13  50 

14  79 

20  16 
22  40 

19  83 

15  00 
26  60 

21  60 
25  00 
21  46 

15  86 

18  75 

16  15 
21  90 
21  00 
32  00 
21  25 

20  00 

12  50 
20  00 

19  37 
18  75 

16  82 
15  40 
14  00 
14  97 

17  94 

18  75 

13  20 
9  80 
9  75 

11  83 
10  09 

19  95 


Table  showing  the  total  average  cash  value  of  the  above  products  per  acre  for  the  year  1668. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts... 
Rhode  Island... 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania... 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina  . 
South  Carolina  . 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 


$16  72 

18  03 

19  54 
29  96 
32  7D 
24  79 
21  49 
28  46 
23  58 

14  91 
21  16 
16  59 
13  92 
10  93 

12  13 

15  50 
9  97 

13  17 


Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkanea^j 

Tennessee 

West  Virginia 

Kentucky 

Missouri 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minne.''ota 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

Calilomia 


$17  30 

16  11 
20  18 
14  48 
22  19 

17  20 
17  92 
14  52 

17  01 

20  10 

21  00 
14  84 
14  62 
13  28 

18  62 
16  35 

22  86 


COXDITIOX  AXD  XU^JBERS  OF  FAEM  STOCK. 

The  mildness  of  the  present  "winter  has  been  favorable  to  health  and 
condition  of  all  kinds  of  farm  stock.  In  the  more  northern  States  there 
have  been  fev,-  sudden  changes  of  temperatra-e,  few  alternations  from  one 
extreme  to  another,  and  very  little  weather  of  much  severity  or  discomfort 
to  the  denizens  of  the  bam  and  stock-yard.    The  reported  losses  from 


36  AGEICULTUHAL.    REPORT. 

diseases  of  all  kiuds  are  less  than  for  any  year  since  this  record  has 
been  systematically  kept,  showing  conclusively  that  all  cattle  diseases 
are  far  less  the  result  of  climatic  causes,  or  of  feeding  upon  injurious 
plants  and  unwholesome  fodder,  than  the  c-ffect  of  starvation,  exposure, 
and  neglect. 

The  condition  of  cattle,  as  compared  with  their  status  last  year,  is 
improved,  except  in  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi.  Kansas,  and  Xebraska. 
Cases  of  pleuro-pneumonia  are  reported  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cities  of 
New  York,  PhiladeliJuia,  Baltimore,  and  Washington.  The  S]>anish 
fever,  communicated  by  southern  cattle,  caused  a  brief  season  of  panic, 
and  occasioned  heaA-y  local  losses  at  points  of  reshipment  in  Kansas, 
Missouri,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  to  a  smaller  extent  eastward  to 
the  Atlantic  coast.  Abortion  has  been  somewhat  prevalent  on  dairy 
farms  of  the  middle  and  eastern  States.  Black  tongue,  black  leg,  hollow 
hom.  and  a  variety  of  '-distempers,"  '-murrains,^  and  other  undefined 
forms  of  disease  are  reported,  but  not  to  the  usual  extent.  Less  than 
one  county  in  ten  of  the  entire  number  reported  the  prevalence  of  dis- 
ease, further  than  the  slight  ailments  which  rarely  prove  fatal.  Kot  a 
county  in  Ohio  or  ^iichigan  ftu-nishes  e\idence  of  the  existence  of  unusual 
disease  among  cattle. 

Those  States  in  which  winter  shelter  is  not  provided  are  marked  by  a 
lower  condition  of  farm  stock,  and  a  higher  rate  of  mortality,  than  Maine 
or  Minnesota.  The  southern  States,  the  best  portion  of  the  country  for 
stock-gi'owing.  have  almost  literally  no  provision  either  for  feed  or  shel- 
ter in  any  poition  of  the  year.  As  a  business,  stock  production  there  is 
little  more  than  an  appropriation  of  spontaneous  gi'owth,costing  neither 
money  nor  labor,  except  in  the  in-gathering  or  harvest. 

The  reports  relative  to  sheep  are  not  so  favorable.  The  wool  business 
has  been  comparatively  unprofitable  of  late,  and  the  inevitable  result  is 
neglect,  short  commoas,  a  supply  of  moldy  hay,  and  the  roughest  treat- 
ment, in  too  many  instances  resulting  in  leanness,  weakness,  and  the 
insidious  approaches  of  disease.  Where  they  have  been  suitably  cared 
for  they  are  healthy,  and  as  Merinoes  are  in  present  disfavor,  disease  is 
mainly  among  flocks  of  that  breed.  Were  it  not  for  the  culling  process, 
by  which  several  millions  of  the  poorest  (sixty  thousand  in  some  cases 
in  a  single  county)  have  been  remorselessly  slaughtered  fc«'  their  pelts 
and  the  small  modicum  of  fat  that  could  be  drained  by  hydraidic  pressure 
from  their  juiceless  carcasses,  the  ravages  of  disease  would  have  proved 
far  greater.  This  weeding  out  of  the  victims  of  poverty  will  residt  bene- 
ficially in  elevating  the  average  of  health  and  condition.  Wool-gTowers 
whose  fears  have  overcome  their  judgment  and  caused  the  depreciation 
of  their  flocks  or  the  abandonment  of  their  business,  will  ere  long  regret 
their  hasty  action.  Already  a  reaction  has  commenced ;  prices  of  wool 
are  stiffening,  and  the  value  of  sheep  is  slightly  advancing.  If  there  is 
no  legislative  interference  with  the  growth  or  manufactui-e  of  wool,  a 
better  day  will  soon  dawn,  and  the  time  will  prove  auspicious  for  enlarging 
rather  than  abandoning  the  production  of  wool. 

The  States  in  which  the  comparison,  in  point  of  condition,  is  unfavor- 
able with  last  spring,  are  Maine,  Xew  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Alabama, 
Jlississippi,  West  Virginia,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Kansas.  The  losses  from  disease,  dogs,  wolves, 
and  freedmen  and  other  plunderers  in  the  South,  together  with  the  depre- 
ciation from  slaughtering  for  pelts,  present  an  unfavorable  comparison 
with  the  previous  year  in  almost  every  State  in  the  Union,  and  represent 
n  total  reduction  in  iiiuubers  of  not  less  than  4,000,000.  Yet  ali  these 
losses  exclusive  of  the  voluntary  destruction  of  sheep  for  Mieir  vrool,  sliin.;, 


EEPOKT    OF   THE    STATISTICIAN.  37 

and  fiit,  make  an  aggregate  of  loss  no  greater  tliau  that  of  tiio  previous 
year. 

Horses,  being  valuable,  are  generally  well  fed  and  stabled,  and  appear  to 
have  been  remarkably  exempt  from  disease  the  past  year.  Glanders, 
which  became  so  prevalent  in  the  territory  swept  by  the  ravages  of  war, 
is  a  disease  yet  dreaded,  though  far  less  common  than  in  186G  and  1867. 
Blind  staggers  is  yet  common,  especially  in  miasmatic  localities;  char- 
bon  is  fatal  in  Arkansas  and  elsewhere  in  the  southwest ;  lung  fever  and 
other  diseases  are  occasionally  reported. 

The  following  notes,  furnishing  briefs  of  the  most  noticeable  data 
received,  will  give  an  idea  of  the  extent  and  character  of  the  diseases  of 
farm  animals  during  the  past  year,  though  the  returns  are  necessarily 
deficient  in  veterinary  accuracy : 

DISEASES   OF   CATTLE. 

For  several  years  i>ast  there  has  been  some  loss  of  cattle  in  mountain 
pastures  of  Xew  Hampshire,  from  some  unknown  form  of  disease.  The 
cattle  are  generally  found  dead  before  any  appearance  of  sickness  has 
been  observed.  A  few  cattle  in  Massachusetts  have  died  from  eating 
"smut  corn."  Pleuro-pneumonia  has  been  very  fatal  for  the  past  twelve 
or  fifteen  years  in  King's  County,  Xew  York.  Since  vaccination  has 
been  practiced,  the  loss  lias  been  diminished  greatly. 

A  new  disease  prevails  among  milch  cows  in  Erie  County,  Xew  York. 
Symptoms:  watery  eyes,  yellow  matter  running  from  nostrils,  breath- 
ing heavy,  blood  i)assing  from  the  intestines,  cramps,  residting  in  death 
in  eight  to  twelve  hours.  A  few  cases  have  been  saved  by  giving  calo- 
mel in  doses  of  twenty  to  thirty  grains,  in  cold  water,  once  in  three  or 
four  hours. 

It  is  remarked  in  Pennsylvania  that  disease  among  horned  cattle,  so 
destructive  during  the  last  few  years,  has  almost  entirely  disappeared. 
The  principal  remedy  applied  appears  to  have  been  simply  a  comjilete 
renovation  of  barns  and  stalls,  ventilation  and  free  use  of  lime,  and 
a  regular,  healtliy  diet. 

Pleuro-pneimionia  has  prevailed  considerably  in  Delaware  Comity, 
Pennsylvania,  proving  fatal  to  animals  first  attacked,  but  becoming 
milder,  so  as  to  admit  of  treatment  in  subsequent  cases. 

Our  correspondent  hi  Baltimore  County,  Maryland,  says: 

We  have  had  the  xiieuro-pneuraouia  hi  our  county  amouf;;  cattle  durinej  the  past  three 
years.  The  malady  lias  been  very  destructive,  some  individuals  losing  almost  their 
entire  herds.  The  disease  is  of  a  highly  contagious  character,  and  the  most  skillful 
cattle  surgeons  are  unable  to  control  it.  The  losses  have  been  much  Ughter  dimug  the 
past  year.  Sistee]i  valuable  Ayi'shire  cows  perished  in  one  stable ;  a  lew  other  losses, 
varying  from  five  to  fifteen,  occurred.  Inmost  of  the  stables  where  the  disease  prevailed 
with  great  vinilence  the  previous  year  it  has  subsided,  owing  to  a  strict  quarantine. 
The  careful  isolation  of  the  infected  herds  had  the  desired  effect  in  reducing  the  mal- 
ady to  a  much  smaller  scale. 

Pleuro-pneumonia  attacked  one  herd  in  Prince  George  County,  Mary- 
land, and  foiu-  or  five  died.  The  remainder  were  fient  to  Washington  for 
beef,  and  the  disease  did  not  spread. 

In  Lawrence  County,  Indiana,  there  has  been  considerable  mortality 
among  calves  weaned  in  the  foil,  dying  during  the  winter  with  bloody 
diarrhoea.  After  death  there  was  found  underneath  the  skin  a  quan- 
tity of  yellow  serum;  and  even  before  death  this  yellow  serum  would 
collect  in  dependent  portions  of  the  body,  where  there  was  loose  skin, 
as  under  the  jaw.    About  half  of  the  calves  that  were  attacked  died. 

The  inhumanity  disclosed  in  reports  of  losses  from  "  want  of  shelter," 
from  "starvation,"  and  fi'om  "small   quantity  of  food,"  is  sickening 


38  AGBICULTUKAL   EEPOST. 

and  disgnstin^  to  any  one  possessed  of  a  singrle  kindly  impnlse.  There 
is  no  portion  of  the  country  where  shelter  and  feeding  are  not  requisite 
at  times.  In  Texas,  \rh8re  cattle  grow  and  thrive  by  millions,  are  places 
where,  during  the  present  season  at  least.  "  fully  twenty  per  cent,  die  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  winter  and  early  spring  from  iwverty.^  It  is  grarl- 
fsing  to  remark,  amid  the  general  neglect  of  this  latitude,  that  in  one 
county  in  Georgia  "  those  that  hare  been  housed  look  weD."  and  that 
in  another  **  they  are  better  than  usual  from  being  cared  for.'' 

THE  SPAXISH  FEVER. 

The  ravages  of  the  Spanish  or  splenic  fever  were  gi-eater  last  season 
than  evL-r  lK;fore.  The  mode  of  transi'ortation.  by  steam  eastward  from 
the  fix)ntier  railway  stations,  and  up  the  Mississippi  river  in  steamboats, 
brought  the  contagion  into  the  heart  of  the  country  and  disseminated 
it  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Atlantic.  Formerly  it  was  confined 
to  the  frontiers,  the  length  of  time  elapsing  in  travel  on  foot  sufficing 
to  eliminate  the  \irus  of  the  disease  £ix)m  the  systems  of  the  emigrat- 
ing cattle  before  their  arrival  on  the  banks  of  the  ^Mississippi. 

A  few  cases  are  reix)rted  in  the  eastern  States — in  Xew  York,  Xew 
Jersey,  and  in  Lancaster  Comity.  Pennsylvania. 

In  Ohio,  slight  losses  were  suffered  in  Hamilton  County:  six  head, 
among  two  car  loads,  in  Wyandot ;  a  few  cases  in  Greene,  Mercer,  and 
Hancock. 

In  Indiana,  from  four  to  six  hundred  case.s  in  Benton  County ;  two 
droves  were  destroyed  in  Jasper  County:  one  hundred  deaths  are 
reported  in  Marion,  and  losses  are  given  in  White,  Xewton,  and  Hen- 
dricks. 

In  Illinois,  among  other  reports,  are  losses;  in  Ford  County  of  five  hun- 
dred head ;  one  hundred  in  Gnindy :  Ijirge  numbers  in  Champaign, 
(valued  at  $150,000  at  least:)  forty  in  Douglas;  nineteen  in  Clinton; 
and  small  losses  in  liiassac.  Pulaski,  ESingham,  Cook.  Iroquois,  Macon, 
Pope.  Morgan.  Alexander,  St.  Clair,  and  Du  Page. 

In  3Iissouri  heavy  losses  occurred ;  in  St,  Louis  there  were  one  thou- 
sand four  hundred  cases  of  cows  and  three  hundred  of  heifers :  in  Newton 
the  loss  numbered  three  hundred.  In  many  other  sections  of  the  State 
the  disease  was  more  or  less  prevalent,  as  in  McDonald.  Butler,  Clark. 
Polk,  Bates.  Cass,  Henry,  Montgomery,  Benton,  Mississiijpi,  Cedar. 
DadcN  and  Hickoiy;  but  the  details  of  these  returns,  together  with 
those  of  other  States,  are  reserved  for  a  more  complete  history  of  the 
outbreak. 

Five  western  cattle  died  of  Spanish  fever  at  !Millerton.  Dutoli-^ss 
CountA",  Xew  York,  where  they  were  quarantined.  The  iufection  did  uvi 
spread- 

A  large  number  of  Texas  and  Indiana  cattle  were  brought  into  the 
cattle  >-artls  and  abattoirs  in  Hudson  County.  Xew  Jersey,  last  Augusr. 
sick  with  Spanish  fever.  The  State  AgriciUtural  Society  forbade  any 
more  being  brought  into  the  State.  Those  sick  were'  quarantined, 
and  after  a  thorough  examination  were  put  into  rendering  vats  and  the 
yartls  and  pens  disinfected  with  carbolic  aci(L  2^^o  disease  afterward 
api>eared.  Tliree  inspectors  were  appointed  by  the  State  society,  who 
quarantined  all  the  suspected  cattle  on  arrival:  and  when  it  proved 
sickness  from  any  infectious  disease  they  were  kdled  and  put  in  the  ren- 
dering \"ats. 

A  lot  of  western  cattle  were  driven  through  Westmoreland  County. 
Pennsylvania,  last  summer,  stopping  orer  night  on  a  farm  three  miles 


EEPORT   OF   THE    STATISTICIAN.  39 

south  of  Greensbiu'g.  Eiglit  or  teu  head  «took  sick  during  the  night, 
and  were  left  with  the  former  to  be  killed.  The  symptoms  were  said 
to  be  those  of  Spanish  fever. 

Eeports  of  the  existence  of  this  disease  have  come  from  Georgia,  but 
the  symptoms  are  not  sufiQciently  defined  for  its  absokite  identihcation. 

Our  Lamar  County  (Texas)  correspondent  states,  as  the  result  of  his 
observations  in  Texas  and  other  States,  including  Illinois  at  the  time  of 
the  greatest  \'irulence  of  the  disease  there,  that  there  is  no  such  disease 
in  Texas,  or  south  of  the  latitude  of  middle  Tennessee  or  Arkansas.  He 
mentions  the  fact  that  hundreds  were  herded  for  months  on  Grand 
Prairie,  Arkansas,  at  the  season  of  the  highest  excitement  in  Illinois, 
without  disease  among  either  Texas  or  Arkansas  stock.  The  following 
points  are  indicated  as  the  result  of  his  observations: 

1.  That  it  tlid  not  show  itself  until  the  very  hot  weather  that  \isited 
that  section,  although  Texas  cattle  had  come  in  nearly  two  mouths 
before. 

2.  That  Texas  cattle  were  free  from  any  signs  of  disease,  and  improved 
rai)idly  on  arrival. 

3.  That,  although  healthy,  they  left  disease  behind  them;  and  ail 
home  cattle  feeding  upon  the  same  pastures  or  drinking  at  the  same 
fountains  were  in  danger  of  the  contagion. 

4.  That  removal  to  new  pastures  and  clean  water  would  stay  the  pro- 
gress of  the  disease  among  those  not  yet  afiected  by  it. 

5.  That  native  cattle  would  not  take  the  disease  from  running  on  new 
pasture  with  other  native  cattle,  although  the  latter  might  be  suffering 
and  dying  with  the  disease. 

6.  That  the  disease,  its  mode  of  action  and  of  communication,  and  the 
remedies,  were  mysterious. 

It  is  reported  from  Fayette  County,  Texas,  that  Spanish  fever  only 
prevails  among  unacclimated  animals.  A  teaspoouful  each,  of  spmts  of 
turpentine,  copperas,  and  sulphur,  is  claimed  there  to  be  a  certain  cure  it 
given  in  time. 

The  following  exti^acts,  from  detailed  reports  pubUshed  in  the  ]Monthly, 
give  an  indication  of  its  i)revalence  in  the  centi^al  portions  of  the  west : 


Xewton  County. — Prevailed  during  the  sunn-iier  aud  fall.  Los3  not  over  tkree  liundred 
head. 

McDonald  County. — Five  jier  cent,  of  all  native  cattle  have  been  lost.  Texas  cattle 
do  not  saiier  unless  there  is  an  adniisture  of  more  than  one-half  native  blood.  Eeme- 
dies  prove  unavailing. 

C2ark  County. — Has  visited  some  portions  of  the  county. 

Butler  County. — Three  cases  reported.  TJemedy  used:  a  drench  made  Ly  mixing  hall 
a  poimd  of  Epsom  salts  vrith  a  strong  decoction  of  peach-tree  leaves — one  quart  of  the 
latter. 

Folk  Coutity. — In  the  eastern  jiart  of  the  county,  in  August,  from  the  passage  of  Texas 
cattle  tlirough  that  section. 

St.  Louts  County. — Fourteen  hundred  milch  cows  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three 
hundred  heifers  and  steers  lost  by  this  disease. 

Bates  County. — To  some  extent,  but  less  than  in  years  past. 

Cass  County. — Few  losses  this  year,  as  diligent  vratch  has  been  kept  against  droves. 

Henry  County. — Loss  t"wo  hundred  to  three  hundred  head. 

Montgomery  County. — Forty-five  head  lost  last  autumn.  Only  three  of  those  attacked 
recovered. 

Benton  County. — A  few  isolated  cases. 

Mississijjpi  County. — Slightly  ;  brought  in  fi'om  Cairo,  Illinois,  by  Texas  cattle.  Loss 
forty  head. 

Cedar  County. — A  few  cases  imported  with  southern  cattle. 

Dade  County. — During  the  summer  and  fall,  along  the  highways  where  Texas  cattle 
stopped  to  graze  ;  the  loss  was  twenty-five  pex  cent. 

Hickory  County. — To  some  extent,  but  no  new  facts  noted. 


40  AGRICULTIJKAJ.    EEPOKT. 


Champaiffii  Counti/. — Our  correspoudcnt  says:  "Spanish  fever  has  prevailed  in  this 
county,  coiiimeuciug  on  the  27th  tlay  of  July,  1S68,  and  cattle  have  continued  to  die  of 
the  same  disease  up  to  January  1, 1539.  In  this  to^vnship  the  loss  is  ninety  iier  cent. ; 
intire  county, seventy-five  per  cent.  It  is  a  Llood  disease ;  the  blood  under  a  powerful 
;5la8s  proves*  this.  It  has  been  argued,  and  tried  to  be  jiroven,  that  it  is  a  disease  not 
easily  taken.  I  now  have  in  my  possession  a  large  amount  of  evidence  liom  good  men, 
showing  it  to  be  a  disease  very  easily  given.  A  number  of  cases  can  be  given  where 
the  only  exi>osuie  was  by  tlriving  a  short  distance  over  the  road  where  the  Texas  cattle 
liad  passed  from  tame  pasture  to  bam  lot.s,  tlie  natives  being  kept  up  all  the  time  only 
when  in  transit  from  lots  to  pasture.  Blood  examined  in  the  earliest  stages  of  the  dis- 
ease shows  a  diseased  condition  of  the  same.  As  the  disease  progresses  from  day  to 
day  the  blood,  examined  by  a  good  glass,  shows  the  gradual  destruction  of  vitality,  and 
at  dissolution  is  a  mass  of  i>tftridity." 

Clinton  County. — Spanish  fever  among  the  cattle ;  loss  nineteen  head. 

Douglas  Countji. — Forty  head  lost  from  Spanish  fever  in  one  neighborhootl  through 
which  Texas  cf.ttle  passed. 

Iroqvois  County. — Spanish  fever  has  prevailed. 

ZTacon  County. — ^No  cases  except  those  that  came  in  contact  with  one  lot  of  Texas 
cattle. 

Massac  County. — A  few  cases,  supposed  to  be  Spanish  fever. 

Pope  County. — Spanish  fever  in  one  locality  for  a  short  time. 

Morgan  County. — A  few  drove  cattle  died,  but  more  from  ill  usage  than  Spanish 
fever. 

Alexander  County. — Spanish  fever  prevailed  in  Cairo,  but  did  not  get  into  the  country. 

Cook  County. — Some  Spanish  fever  in  the  south  part  of  the  county,  from  contact  with 
cattle  shipped  to  Chicago. 

Effingham  County. — Spanish  fever  kUled  a  few  cattle  in  one  neighborhood,  where  some 
Texas  cattle  were  herded  for  a  short  time.    Loss  small. 

Ford  County. — Loss  about  five  hundred  head;  a  majority  of  them  cows. 

Grundy  County. — SpanLsh  fever  in  one  town ;  loss  about  one  hundred  head. 

Pulaski  County. — A  few  deaths  irom  the  passing  of  Texas  cattle. 

St.  Clair  County. — ^A  few  head  have  died  from  supposed  Spanish  fever. 

Du  Page  County. — One  man  Inst  eighteen  head  by  Spanish  fever. 


Marlon  County. — ^About  one  hundred  head  died  of  Spanish  fever. 

White  County. — Some  loss  from  Spanish  fever. 

Benton  County. — From  four  hundred  to  six  hundred  head  of  native  cattle  have  died 
rrom  Spanish  fever.  In  a  neighboring  county  a  herd  of  diseased  cattle  were  driven 
about  eight  miles  along  a  road,  and,  the  wind  bein-r  from  the  sonth,  cattle  alon^  on  the 
north  side  of  the  road  took  the  disease,  without  either  being  driven  along  the  road 
traveled  by  the  Texas  cattle  or  drinking  water  that  had  been  exposed  in  any  manner. 
These  facts  induce  the  belief  that  the  disease  was  communicated  by  the  wind.  The 
Texas  cattle  were  taken  right  ofl'the  cars  and  driven  along  the  road.  ' 

Hendricks  County. — Spanish  fever  in  a  few  places.    Comparatively  little  loss. 

Xcicfon  County. — Eight  to  ten  head  died  of  Spanish  fever,  taken  from  a  drove  of  Texas 
cattle  driven  along  the  road. 

Laicrence  County. — Considerable  los.s  from  Spanish  fever  along  a  road  traveled  by  a 
flrove  of  Texas  cattle. 


Hamilton  County. — ^^'e^y  slight,  and  only  among  the  cattle  that  have  come  in  contact 
with  foreign  stock. 

Wyandot  County. — Loss  six  head,  in  two  car-loads  brought  from  Chicago. 

Greene  County.— T<ri  u>  -■  v-ri  ve  native  cattle  died.    Disease  taken  from  Texas  cattle. 

KA3fSAS. 

Dickinson  County. — Spanish  fever  has  prevailed  to  a  great  extent.  Loss  over  sis  thou- 
sand dollars. 

llcpuhlic  County.— Ten  head  of  oxen  died  of  Spanish  fever  last  fall,  after  feeding  on  the 
track  of  Texas  herds.    A  few  cases  recovered. 

Butler  County. — Cases  last  summer  and  fall.  Many  of  the  Texas  cattle  have  died 
here  during  the  winter. 

Wyandot  County. — Six  fatal  cases  in  the  liill;  contact  with  Texas  cattle. 


REPORT    OF    THE    STATISTICIAN.  41 

DISEASES  OF  HOESES. 

Horses  liave  been  comparatively  free  from  disease  during  the  year. 
Glanders,  so  prevalent  after  the  close  of  the  "war,  is  no^  scarcely  to  be 
found.  Pneumonia  has  caused  some  loss  in  Xew  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Elincis,  and  jMissouri.  Blind  staggers  has  been  somewhat  fatal  in  the 
south  and  west.  Less  fatality  is  reiiorted  in  the  southwest  from  '•  char 
bon'  than  for  several  previous  years.  In  Clinton  Coimty,  Illinois,  forty 
or  fifty  abortions  occm-red  among  mares.  Other  diseases  are  mentioned 
in  various  Iccahties,  as  diphtheria,  imtrid  sore-throat,  inllammation  of  the 
iiver,  the  "loin  disease,''  and  other  diseases  Imown  only  by  reported 
symptoms. 

DISEASES  OF  SWINE. 

The  losses  Irom  "hog  cholera,"  though  less  than  last  year,  are  very 
heavy  in  the  south  and  west.  In  x>  ew  England  and  Xew  York  it  only 
appears  among  western  di'oves.    Pennsylvania  has  been  nearly  exempt. 

In  Virginia  it  has  prevailed  in  a  few  coimties,  and  in  the  Carolinas 
jiretty  extensively,  in  some  counties  the  loss  reaehmg  thirty  per  cent. 
Similar  reports  come  froui  portions  of  all  the  Gulf  States.  In  Kentucky 
;Tnd  Tennessee,  where  corn,  Iiogs,  and  distilleries  abound,  it  is  still  worse. 

The  details  have  liOGii  annually  presented  cd  natiseam,  and  we  i^ropose 
to  omit  those  of  the  present  year,  giving  only  an  idea  of  the  extent  ot 
the  loss  in  the  districts  most  infected. 

In  nuieteen  counties  in  Tennessee,  in  which  were  C4:1,CS0  hogs  in  1860, 
the  loss  in  18G8  was  about  1-10,000,  according  to  the  percentages  of  loss 
returned  from  the  several  counties ;  in  tvrelve  counties  in  Kentucky  a 
loss  of  thirteen  per  cent.,  or  44,000;  in  nine  counties  of  Indiana  a  loss 
of  fifteen  per  cent.,  or  47,000 — an  aggregate  loss  of  231,000  swine  in 
forty  counties,  averaging  to  each  comity  5,775. 

DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 

Foot-rot,  scab,  and  rot  are  reported  in  all  sections  of  the  country  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent,  causing  a  small  percentage  of  mortality,  vary- 
ing in  i^rcporticn  to  the  degTee  of  neglect  suffered. 

The  reduction  of  numbers  during  the  winter,  in  the  general  slaughter 
of  culls  for  pelts  and  tallow,  relieved  the  llocks  of  the  country  of  the  old, 
weak,  and  diseased  sheep,  and  left  those  remaining  in  better  condition, 
;md  with  a  better  prospect  of  health  and  needful  attention. 

In  Kennebec  County,  Maine,  a  fatal  disease  of  the  head  and  throat 
iqipeared.  It  was  attended  with  loss  of  appetite,  the  liesh  and  skin 
became  a  dull  green,  and  death  ensued  in  a  few  days;  decomposition  was 
^pid,  and  the  odor  "fearfully  fetid."  Scanty  pastiu-e  in  the  faU,  and 
poor  condition,  were  assumed  to  be  predisposing  causes.  Merinoes  were 
principally  affected. 

In  parts  of  2sew  IIami>6hiro  great  fatahty  among  sheep  has  'been 
reported,  A  disease  called  "wafer  garget*'  has  been  slightly  prevalent 
in  MeiTimaek  County. 

It  is  stated  that  in  Hampden  County,  Massachusetts,  three-tenths  oi 
the  lambs  have  died  from  want  of  natural  food,  many  of  the  mothers 
having  little  milk. 

A  flock  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  lambs  in  Winnebago  Comity,  Illinois, 
<lropped  in  May,  did  weU  until  a  few  days  after  the  hot  term  in  July, 
when  many  of  them  were  taken  with  severe  purging,  as  in  cholera;  a 
few,  without  pui'ging,  vraudered  around  in  a  small  circle,  nibbling  grass 
and  dirt.    All  of  the  latter  and  most,  of  the  fii-st  cases  died  in  a  few 


42  AGRICULTITIAL   KEPORT. 

honrs  after  being:  attacked.  They  coiDinence<l  dying  at  the  rate  of  tvro 
or  three  a  day  the  first  week,  increasing  to  four  or  live  a  day  in  the  third 
week,  when  they  were  taken  from  the  ewes.  Eighty  weix?  tkiven  to 
another  pasture;  the  remaining  twenty-four,  affected  with  the  appear- 
ance of  dysentery,  were  put  inthe  sheep-biirn  and  treated  for  that  dis- 
order. Of  the  hatter  nine  died:  of  the  former,  but  one.  Xone  of  the 
sheep  were  aflected. 

A  gi-eat  many  himbs  died  in  Monroe  County,  Ohio,  many  of  them 
api>arently  in  good  order.  The  mortality  was  greatest  when  the  drought 
was  most  severe  Last  summer,  and  the  gi\isshop]>ers  most  abundant,  and 
many  think  the  excrements  from  the  hitter  on  the  grass  were  i>cisouous. 

In  a  Hock  in  Houston  County,  Minnesota,  occuiTed  several  cases  of 
sores  under  the  shoulder,  in  one  or  two  instances  invohing  face  and 
legs,  emitting  waters'  matter  and  a  noisome  odor.  One  died  after  suf- 
fering two  yeai*s.    Sulphiu-  proved  to  be  a  partial  remedy. 

LOSSES  AXD  DEPIlEDATIO^'S  BY  DOGS. 

Letters  fi'om  correspondents  ia  eveiy  section  of  the  countiy  lament  the 
ravages  of  dogs,  the  many  losses  incurred  by  the  killing  and  maiming  of 
sheep,  ajul  especially  the  tar  greater  loss  in  the  repression  of  wool-growing 
and  the  prevention  of  efforts  for  its  extension  into  regions  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  business.  Millions  of  aci^es  of  herbage,  suited  to  the  wants 
of  line-wool  sheep  in  all  portions  of  the  United  States,  are  annually  depas- 
tured pai'tially,  or  not  at  all,  and  left  to  decay  and  waste,  for  want  of  ani- 
mals to  consume  the  abundant  spontaneous  gi'owth.  Millions  of  dollars 
are  thus  annually  lost  to  the  production  of  the  countiy.  The  followiug 
quotations  ai-e  merely  samples  of  statements  fi^om  every  quarter : 

Hartford  County,  Conn. — ''Formerly  every  farm  kept  fi-om  twenty  to 
three  hundi-ed  sheep:  now  there  are  very  few,  the  dogs  having  driven 
them  aU  out." 

Baltimore  County,  21d. — "Many  sheep  are  annually  lost  by  the  ravages 
of  dogs." 

Monroe  County,  West  Va. — ''Loss  by  wolves  and  dogs  ten  per  cent, 
annually." 

Burle  County,  X.  C. — "Were  it  not  for  the  dogs,  sheep-raising  could  be 
carried  on  with  very  little  cost  and  trouble  in  this  section  of  our  State." 
Oranm  County. — "A  gi'eat  many  sheep  killed  by  dogs.  We  wish  Con- 
gress would  impose  a  tax  on  all  dogs.''  Stanly  County. — "Sheep-raising 
woidd  be  profitable  but  for  the  depredations  of  dogs." 

St€2co)-t  County,  Ga. — "Not  raised  on  account  of  dogs;  twenty  dogs  to 
one  sheep  here.*' 

Putnam  County.  Fla. — "The  raising  of  sheep  here  is  impracticable 
fix)m  the  fact  that  nearly  every  negro  and  many  whites  keep  a  lot  of 
hall'-starred  cms,  which  they  call  "hunting  dogs,"  but  all  the  evidence 
of  their  hunting  qualities  that  1  have  yet  seen  is  that  they  will  destroy 
a  flock  of  sheep  in  about  twenty  minutes." 

Giles  County,  Tcnn. — "The  dogs,  'curs  of  low  degree,'  have  played 
havoc  with  the  sheep.  O  for  a  dog  law!  A  neighbor  of  mine  lost 
thirty-five  fine  Southdowns  in  one  night,  among  them  two  bucks  worth 
one  hundred  dollars  each,  either  one  worth  more  than  all  the  dogs  in  the 
county."  Perry  County. — "Dogs  kept  in  a  stai'viug  condition  i>revent 
success  with  sheep.    Otherwise  wool-gi-owiug  might  be  profitable.'' 

Lirin<jston  County.,  Ey. — "Wool-growing  would  be  profitable  if  it  were 
not  for  ravenous  dogs." 

Monroe  County.  Ohio. — "Dogs  have  been  very  bad  on  sheep.  One 
farmer  lost  sixty  iu  one  night," 


EEPOET    OF   THE    STATISTICIAN. 


43 


Harrison  County,  Ind. — "The  to^msbip  trustee  of  Corrdoii  lias  paid 
Out  to  farmers,  for  loss  of  sbeep  by  dogs  for  the  year  ending  March  1, 
three  hundred  and  ninety-eight  dollars,  at  the  rate  of  tvro  dollars  per 
head.  The  amounts  paid  out  by  the  other  townships  would  probably 
make  a  total  of  one  thousand  dollars  for  the  county."  Spenctr  County. — 
"Lost  one  thousand  sheep  by  dogs — more  than  ever  before." 

Douglas  County,  III. — "Lost  two  hundred  sheep  by  dogs." 

Stearns  County,  Minn. — "  The  most  serious  obstacle  to  successful  sheep- 
raising  is  the  midtitude  of  worthless  dogs,  which  threaten  to  exterminate 
the  sheep." 

Lee  County.,  loica. — "Without  legislative  protection  from  dogs,  wool 
in  our  State  cannot  be  made  ]>rofitable  at  present  j^rices." 

Atchison  County,  Kansas. — "Some  of  cur  farmers  have  disposed  of  their 
flocks  mainly  in  consequence  of  the  destruction  by  dogs  and  prairie 
wolvCvS.  Dogs  are  quite  numerous  and  the  gTcatest  nuisance,  and  1  think 
our  legislature  should  tax  them  heavily." 

The  following  statement  represents  the  losses  from  dogs  in  Ohio  dur- 
ing ten  years,  so  far  a.s  they  were  returned  by  assessors: 


Sheep 

killed  or  injured. 

Years. 

Number 
killed. 

Value. 

Nnmber 
injured. 

1 

Value. 

1858 

60,536 
40, 786 
41.979 
31,750 
36,778 
3-M75 
30, 716 
31,118 
27, 175 

$109,  661 
74,753 
77, 170 
75,000* 
101,561 
166, 607 
130, 069 
112,367 
89,  797 

36. 441 
23,409 
22,730 
24,a54 
24, 972 
22, 657 
21,037 
21.681 
17, 128 
19,416    1 

$37, 097 

1859 

24, 842 

I860 

25,288 

1861. 

30, 000* 

1802 

34,786 

1863 

39, 419 

1864 

44,026 

1865 

41,729 

1866 

32,208 

1867 

34, 141 

92,  713 

31, 114 

Total 

357, 154     L      1,  (^,  698 

233,  745 

340,509 

'Estimated. 

Thus  the  average  for  this  period  is  35,715  killed  per  annum,  and 
23,37-4:  injured;  the  annual  average  losses,  respectively  $102,969  and 
634,050— total,  8137,019.  In  Iowa,  in  186G  the  loss  sustained,  so  far 
a»  reported  by  assessors,  was  $82,G1G  from  sheep  killed,  the  total  stock 
of  the  State  being  1,598,226.  The  same  ratio  would  make  the  loss  in 
the  United  States  $2,080,000,  without  counting  the  damage  trom 
maiming. 

The  loss  of  Xew  York,  in  1862,  as  estimated  by  Secretary  Johnson  of 
the  State  AgTicultural  Society,  was  50,000  sheep,  worth  $175,000.  On 
this  basis  the  loss  in  the  United  States  would  amount  to  $2,000,000. 

Eeturns  made  by  correspondents  of  this  department  in  1866  from  five 
hundred  and  thuty-nine  counties  give  an  aggTegate  of  130,427  sheep 
lolled,  or  an  average  of  212  in  each  comity.  On  this  basis  the  number 
killed  in  all  the  States  would  be  about  half  a  million. 

Similar  returns,  in  1867,  from  three  hundred  and  eightj'-nine  counties, 
report  a  total  of  78,375  sheep  killed,  an  average  per  county  of  201.  The 
proportion  of  loss  is  greatest  in  the  southern  States,  where  the  business 
of  wool-growing  needs  most  encouragement  and  promises  the  most  suc- 
cessful results.  The  average  numbers  kiEed  per  county  in  the  counties 
reported  are  greatest  in  the  following  States :  In  Mississippi,  509  per 
county ;  Texas,  372  per  county;  Tennessee,  331  per  county;  Xew  Jersey, 
287  per  county;  Ohio,  263  per  county;  Iowa, 261  per  county;  Missouri, 
253  per  comity ;  Indiana,  252  per  county. 


44 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


The  Ohio  average  is  for  twenty-two  couuties,  and  is  less  than  the 
average  lor  the  ciJtire  State,  which  was  383  i)er  county  by  the  assessors' 
returns  for  1SC7. 

A  careful  analysis  of  these  facts,  and  of  other  data  of  similar  purport, 
justifies  the  estimates  previously  made  in  these  reports  of  an  annual  loss 
of  two  millions  of  dollars  in  sheep  killed,  and  nearly  a  million  in  injimes. 
The  loss  is  equivalent  to  the  value  of  six  millions  of  pounds  of  wool.  It 
is  a  tax  of  two  per  cent.  ui)on  the  total  sum  invested  in  sheep — a  tax 
fjreater  than  the  average  levied  upon  t^irmers  by  the  assessors  for  county, 
State,  and  national  purposes  combined.  Such  a  bitrden  is  intolerable — 
a  drain  upon  the  profits  of  industry  that  should  speedily  be  checked. 

There  are  not  less  than  six  millions  of  dogs  in  the  country,  of  which  five  are 
utterly  worthless,  destroying  food  worth  many  millions  of  dollars,  commit 
ting  serious  depredations  upon  farm  property,  and  repressing  and  depress- 
ing wool  industry  to  the  injury  of  business  and  the  loss  of  national  wealth. 

Will  not  our  national  legislators  heed  the  call  from  every  State  in  the 
Union  for  the  levy  of  a  national  tax  upon  dogs  ■?  Great  Britain  has  for 
a  long  period  levied  and  collected  such  a  tax;  other  countries  include  it 
i!i  their  tax  lists.  There  is  no  nation  in  which  a  greater  necessity  exists 
for  such  taxation.  A  uniform  tax  of  not  less  than  two  dollars  per  head 
should  be  required.  Its  influence  would  be  in  every  way  salutary. 
Losses  of  wool-gTowers  would  decrease,  and  the  business  be  extended 
into  localities  where  it  is  now  uniDrofltable.  Mongrel  curs  too  worthless 
to  be  claimed  by  owners  would  be  sacrificed,  useful  dogs  vfould  be  pro- 
tected, and  canine  tribes  would  experience  an  improvement  gratifying 
to  all  who  appreciate  the  desirable  qualities  of  the  race,  and  a  nuisance 
would  be  abated  to  the  benefit  of  all  and  the  injury  of  none. 

Talilc  shotcing  the  total  value  of  live  stock  in  the  following  States  in  1860,  February  1,  1868 

and  February  1,  1869. 


States. 


1860. 


February  1, 1868.     Febniary  1, 1869. 


Maine 

New  Hamp«hi."e 

Vermont 

MasKachusetts  .. 
Rhode  Island  ... 

Connecticut 

New  York...... 

New  Jersey 

PonnHvlvauia... 

Delinviirp 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina  . 
South  Carolina  . 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabnraa 

MiMt-iahippi 

Louiuiana 

Texas 

ArkansaH 

TcnneHsee 

We^t  Virginia  . . 

Kentucky 

Miiiaouri 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Ohio 

Michigan 

WiHconBin 

Minoehota 

Iowa 

Kunisag 

Nebraska 

California 

Total 


10, 
16, 
32, 
2 

ii! 

103, 
16, 
69, 
3, 
14, 
35, 
;u, 

23, 

38, 
5, 
43, 
41, 
24, 
42, 
22 
60,' 

12, 
f>1, 
53, 
72, 
41, 
80, 
23, 
17, 

3, 
22 
~3[ 

1, 


437,  533 
924, 627 
241,989 
737,  744 
042,  044 
311,079 
656, 296 
134,693 
672,  726 
144,  706 
667, 853 
420, 369 
130, 805 
934, 465 
372,  734 
553,  356 
411,711 
891,692  I 
546, 940 
825,  447 
096, 977 
211,425 
382,  680 
mS,  237 
693,  673 
501,  225 
85.5,  539 
.?84,819 
714,771 
807,  375 
642,841 
476, 293 
.332,  450 
128,771 
585,  017 


1, 075, 940, 902 


$19,  974, 800 
12,474,029 
20, 418, 9.02 
19,214,502 

2,869,744 
18, 699,  012 
166,  557,  969 
25,  502,  769 
112,118,603 

4, 263,  973 
18,  992,  336 
3.5, 148,  572 
20, 052,  456 
10,693,117 
26, 463, 675 

4,  190,484 
21, 126, 8.32 
16,815,802 

8, 492, 468 
33,  606,  563 
15,309,989 
38,  708, 702 
15,679,7.34 
40,  491,  619 
50, 728,  286 
109,  798, 764 
72,  79(),  080 
123,834,351 
50,084,011 
.54,851,907 
16,  301,  354 
75,718,514 

9,962,311 

0, 169, 536 


$2.3,801,314 
15,  113,113 
22,782,711 
22, 807, 568 
3, 786, 043 
24,687,141 

182,  766, 369 
32,  595,  638 

121,138,589 

4,  445, 632 
22,  178,  887 
37, 705,  568 
24,  434,  747 
15,-361,888 
34,  692,  001 

5,  007, 939 
27, 255, 962 
28,  545,  453 
15, 162, 289 
.32,651,895 
20, 360,  380 
53,  136,  552 
17, 088,  568 
49, 189,  403 
64,490,717 

120,589,917 
79,  728, 231! 

140,991,600 
.54,426,109 
55,  507,  096 
18,612,171 
95,  109,  517 
12,  902, 830 
7,  1 86,  454 
41,457,732 


1,277,111,816 


1, 527,  704, 029 


EEPOET    OF    THE    STATISTICIAX. 


45 


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—  IJ  Ci  —  H  —  i(  i<  "  S  ~  c!  5;  j-:  >S  £  ^  t^ 


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1.-  X  3  —  x-  x  ; 


Ci .—  o  ^  t~  :) 


I  —  —  L-:  X  Lo  o  —  c! 


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46 


AGEICULTUEAL    REPOBT. 


i«  c  i^  it  r-  c  .-  —  X  h-  I  r.  ;  r;  I 

7^ '-xi  ?.  T  Z  i'~  c  1-:  i  o  X ;?;  ^  ^ ' 


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r:  f^  a  cc  —  c<  '-i  —  : 


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5 

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c  = 


_  c  tt 


REPORT    OF    THE    STATISTICIAN. 


47 


EXPORTS  OF  WHEAT  AND  COEN. 

The  receipts  from  the  export  of  cereals  are  of  equal  importance  with 
those  from  the  same  value  of  cotton  or  cheese;  and  though  they  maybe 
small  in  amount,  they  are  not  to  be  despised;  yet  the  policy  of  growing 
grain  for  exportation,  except  as  a  pioneer  expedient  in  opening  and  im- 
proving farms,  is  not  to  be  commended.  No  material  portion  of  our 
exports  can  ever  be  made  up  of  breadstuffs,  nor  is  it  desirable  that  they 
should  be.  Grain  exportation  as  a  settled  policy  would  soon  so  reduce 
the  yield  of  cereals  that  there  would  be  no  surplus  to  export.  The  price 
of  wheat  in  the  distant  west  has  been  remunerative  from  the  influx  of 
settlers  to  be  fed  until  the  ripening  of  another  crop,  and  from  the  mar- 
kets opened  among  the  miners  of  the  mountains,  rather  than  from 
exportation.  It  is  the  policy  of  this  country,  and  its  destiny,  to  bring  con- 
sumers into  the  very  iields  of  production,  and  to  export  surplus  products 
of  industry  not  in  the  bulky  and  burdensome  form  of  raw  material,  but 
in  products  enhanced  in  value  by  the  expenditure  of  labor,  with  a  reduc- 
tion to  a  minimum  of  the  relative  expenses  of  transportation. 

That  the  comparative  unimportance  of  the  grain  export  may  be  seen 
at  a  glance  the  following  tabulations  have  been  prepared,  showing  the 
number  of  bushels  of  wheat  and  barrels  of  flour  shipped  to  foreign  ports 
since  1825,  a  period  of  forty-three  years.  In  the  first  table  the  quantities 
are  condensed  into  aggregates  for  periods  of  five  years  each  : 

Statement  showing  the  quantity  ofivheat  and  flour  exported  from  1826  to  1855,  inclusive. 


Years. 


Five  years  ending  1S30 
Five  years  ending  1835 
Five  years  ending  1840 
Five  year»  ending  1845 
Five  years  ending  1850 
Five  years  ending  1855 

Total  in  3 J  yeai-s 


Wheat,  bushels. 


125,  547 

614,145 

1,842,841 

2,  946,  861 

10,184,645 

16, 446,  955 


32, 160, 994 


Flour,  barrels. 


4,  651,  940 
5,241,964 
4,  092,  9.32 
6,  274,  697 
12, 284,  828 
13, 149,  518 


45, 695, 879 


Total  wheat  and 
fiour,  in  bushely. 


23,  385, 247 
26,  823,  965 
22,  307,  501 
34,320,346 
71,608,785 
82,  194,  545 


260,  640, 389 


Statement  showing  the  quantity  of  tcheat  and  flour  exported  from  1856  to  1868. 


Years. 

Wheat,  bushels. 

Flour,  barrels. 

Total  wheat  and 
fiour,  in  bushels. 

1855 

8,  154, 877 

14,570,331 

8,926,  196 

3,  002,  016 

4, 155,  1.53 

31,2.38,0.J7 

37,  289,  572 

36,  160,414 

23,081,712 

9, 937, 152 

5,579,103 

6,146,411 

15,  940,  899 

3,510,026 
3,712,053 
3,512,169 
2,431,824 
2,611,596 
4,  323,  756 
4,  882,  033 
4,39(1,055 
3,  557,  347 
2,  604,  .542 
2, 1 83,  050 
1,300,106 
2,  076,  423 

25,  708, 007 
33,  130,  596 
26,487,041 
1.5,161,136 
17,213,133 
52, 856,  837 
61,699,7.37 
58,110,689 
41,468,447 
22,  959,  862 
16,494,353 
12,046,941 

26,  323,  014 

1857 

1858 

1859 

1860 

1861 

1862 

1863 

1864   

1865 

1866 

1867 

1863 

Total 

204,  781,  893 

41,095,580 

410,259,793 

Total  for  43  years 

236,  942, 887 

86,791,459 

670,  900, 182 

48 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


Statanent  showing  the  value  of  hreadsiuffs  exported  from  182C  to  1S55,  inclusive. 


years.                                                   "Wheat. 

nour. 

All  breadstaffs. 

Five  years  ending  1830 ^iJH' 7" 

$24, 708. 090 
29, 347,  (J49 
27,2ni,<152 
31,0.56,156 
69,3';  ."•.74) 
75. 775, 22J 

$42,363,119 
48, 095, 352 

Five  ynani  CDdiug  184  J 1,817,007 

47,114.914 
51,705,513 

Five  vcars  cndiD"  1851            ]2,80i,093 

]42,232,3s« 

134,181.567 

Total  in  SOyearH 1        40,053,  8i6 

257,  494, 608 

405,  692,  863 

Statement  shoicing  the  value  of  breadstuffs  exj>ortedfrom  IfGG  to  1858,  inclusive. 


1856 

1857 

1858 

1859 

1660 

1861 

1862  

1863 

1864 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

Total  in  13  years 

Total  in  43  years 


All  breadstuffs. 


$15, 


30, 


115,661 
240, 857 
061,504 
849,  192 
076^  7..'4 
313,624 
573,  295 
754, 195 
432, 133 
397, 197 
842, 749 
882, 555 
247, 632 


$29. 
25; 
19, 
14. 
15, 
24, 
27, 
28, 
25, 
27, 
18, 
12, 
20, 


275, 148 
BB-J,  316 
328. 834 
433, 591 
448,  507 
64.5, 849 
.534, 677 
366.069 
588,  249 
222.  C3l 
396,686 
603, 775 
867, 798 


277,787,293  |   289,613,580 


317,641,124 


547, 306, 368 


559. 010, 219 
57,915,232 
35,569,068 
23,562,  169 
26. 989. 709 
73. 534, 544 
84, 340,  053 
89, 26:{,  736 
63.  46.!.  3."'3 
53,  502. -.!! 
40.  b--,  5!': 

4i,!J>:;.  ,i-- 

79. 046,  lt7 


727. 862,  863 


1,193,555,74- 


A  di\ision  of  these  results  into  decades  makes  the  quantity  and  value 
of  wheat  and  floiu-  as  follows: 


Years. 


Five  years  ending  1S30  . 
Ten  years  ending  1840. . 
Tod  years  ending  1850. . 
Ten  years  endiug  1860.. 
Eight  years  ending  1668 

Total  bushels 


Qnaniity. 


Value. 


Bushels. 

23,  .365,  247 

49,131,460 

105.929,131 

199.894.4,53 

292,  559,  68J 


524,820,844 
59,  ]34,03.'> 
116,133,775 
25.5, 172,  346 
409, 888, 514 


670, 900, 182 


665, 149, 512 


Statement  showinj  the  export  price  of  wheat  and  flour. 


Flour, 

per 
barrel. 


Ten  years  to  1^40 
Ten  years  to  IfoT 
Ten  years  to  1660 

In  1£61  

In  1862  

In  1863  

In  1864  

In  1865  

In  1666  

In  1867  

In  1866  -• 


Thus  in  forty-three  years  our  total  exijoiis  of  wheat  have  been 
230,942,887  bushels,  and  of  Horn-  80,791,450  baiTels,  making  an  equivalen: 
in  wheat  and  Hour  of  070,000,182  bushels  of  wheat,  valued  at  $805,149,512, 
an  average  of  $1  29  per  bushel. 


ELFORT    OF    THE    STATISTICIAN. 


49 


For  thirty  years  the  average  export  was  8,683,012  bushels;  for  tlie  last 
thirteen  years,  31.558,445  bushels;  for  the  whole  period  of  forty-thi-ee 
years,  I5',G02,329  bushels;  for  eight  years  since  18G0,  36,569,985,  sold 
at  an  average  of  81  -10  per  bushel,  or  851,236,064.  The  receipts  for  these 
eight  years  have  been  8409,888,514,  while  the  value  of  the  exports  of 
thirty-live  years  pre\ious  was  but  8455,260,998;  the  number  of  bushels 
sent  abroad  in  eight  years  202,550,880,  against  378,340,302  in  the  prior 
period  of  thirty-five  years.  While  the  total  ex])orts  bear  a  small  propor- 
tion to  the  total  amount  produced,  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  in  a  period 
of  distraction  and  war,  during  a  part  of  which  a  million  of  men  were 
withdrawn  from  industry,  as  nuich  wheat  was  sei:t  abroad  as  in  a  pre- 
ceding period  of  four-fold  duration. 

EXPORTS  O'F  COEN. 

The  ex|)orts  of  corn,  the  gTeat  cereal  of  the  country,  and  the  dis- 
tinguishing cro])  of  the  western  world,  present  a  meager  showing,  which 
will  serve  to  illustrate  the  impolicy  of  reliance  i\i)on  the  foreign  demand 
for  maize  as  an  aid  to  national  industry. 

Statement  shoicing  the  quantity  and  value  of  ervurts  cf  cum  itiid  corn  meal. 


Yeara. 


Five  years  ending  lS:3!.i... 
Five  year.H  ending  1835... 
Five  years  ending  1840... 
Five  years  ending  1845... 
Five  years  ending  1850... 
Five  years  ending  1855 


Total  in  00  years 


1851). 
1857. 
185S. 
1859. 
1860. 
1861. 
1862. 
1863. 
1864. 
1865. 
1866. 
1867. 
1863. 


Total  in  13  years 


Euihels.      I       Dollars. 

I 


3,  5.^0,  710 
!>,  .=68, 946 
1,  184,973 
3, 474,  109 
43, 8-2-2. 1.53 
ii3,  905,  198 


78,  486,  087 


Total  in  43  year-i 198, 249, 975 


10, 


119,763,888 


2,  019.0Q6 

1,804,711 

873,  104 

1,7.55,  60-.> 

31,277,  9-JO 

17, 712,  699 


COR.S   ME.4L. 


BaiTcls.  Dollars. 


783,  408 
8.7,3tf3 
643, 930 

1,  132,749 

2.  493,  700 
1,  121,456 


2,  404,  371 

2,  731,  077 
3,471,215 

3,  037,  021 
8,  984, 252 

4,  147,318 


55,  443, 962  '    7,  U).',  626  j  24, 775, 254 


622, 565 
184.666 
259,  039 
323,  103 
399, 8U3 
8P0,  865 
387,  383 
592, 704 
3.53, 280 
679, 133 
070, 395 
871,0!)2 
094,  036 


293,  607 
267,  5  4 
237,  G37 
258.  885 
233,  709 
203,313 
253,  570 
257.  948 
262,  357 
199,419 
237, 275 
281.281 
336,  5U8 


1, 17.5,  688 
9.')7,  791 
877,  692 
994,  J69 
912,  075 
692,  003 
778,  344 

1,013,272 

1,  349,  765 
1,489,886 
1,129,484 
1, 555,  585 

2,  068,  430 


93,  728, 069       3, 326,  013     14, 994,  284 


149,172,031 


10,  518,  639  i  39, 769,  538 


TOTAL 
VALUE. 


DoUars. 


4,  424, 297 
4.  535,  788 
4,344,319 
4,  792,  6.'3 
40,  262,  172 
21,  860,  017 


80,219,216 


8, 798, 253 
6, 142,  457 

4,  136,731 
2,317,372 
3,311,883 
7, 582, 868 

11,  165, 727 
11.605,976 

4, 703, 045 

5,  169,019 

12,  199,  879 
16,  426,  677 
1.5,  162,  466 


108, 722, 353 


188, 941,  569 


Statement  showing  the  export  of  corn  and  corn  meal  in  decennial  periods. 


Years. 


Five  ye;irs,  ending  1830. 
Tea  years,  ending  1840. 
Ten  yearj*,  ending  18-50. 
Ten  years,  ending  1860. 
KIgbi  years,  ending  1868 

Total 


Corn. 


Bushels. 
3,  530,710 
3,75.3,919 
47,  296,  262 
51,50.3,092 
92,  165,  992 


198, 249,  975 


Corn  meal. 


Barrels. 
783,  408 
1,661,313 
3,  626,  449 
2,412,798 
-',  034,  671 


10,518,639 


50  AGBICULTUBAL   REPOKT. 

The  values  of  these  exports  in  the  decades  named  were  as  follows : 

Fire  years,  ending  1830.— Corn di*.  019.  920 

Com  meal 2.401,371 

:ir"^    81.421,297 

Ten  veai-s.  eDding  1S40. — Corn 2.  G77, 815 

Corn  n^eal     *>.  202, 292 

^.  *s(»,  107 

Ten  rears,  ending  1850.^Corn 33, 033, 522 

Cor;;  meal 12. 021. 273 

4-5. 054,  795 

Ten   rears,  ending  1860.— Corn 37. 501. 880 

Corn  meal 0. 0(>4. 833 

40. 566,  713 

Eight  rears,  ending  1868.— Corn 73. 93S.  SS.S 

Com  meal lu,  07G.  7G9 

84. 015, 657 

Total  ralue,  com  and  com  meal,  exported  in  43  years 18S.  941.  589 


The  arc-rage  erport  prices  of  com  for  periods  of  ten  years  hare  been 

as  follovrs : 


Period.  j  Per  bn&heL  .  Per  barrel 

I 

Period  ending  1S40 ^'' 'H  ^  T3 

Period  eniUng  18:>0 ^j  3  31 

Period  ending  ld60 j  72|  j  3  76 

The  prices  since  1800  hare  been  as  follo^vs  : 


Yt  rirs. 

Per  bnsheL 

PerbaireL 

i-i-Zl 

$0  G4i 
55 
65f 

1  30    1 
82    1 
99f 

1  17i 

$3  40 
3  07 

l^v> 

ISoJ 

3  93 

Isd4 i 

5  14 

l&(i5 

7  47 

1856....: ' 

4  76 

lcC7 

5  47 

IsGS 

6  15 

Conrerting  com  meal  to  com  at  fonr  bnshels  to  the  barrel,  the  total 
amount  of  com  exix)rts  during  forty -three  years  is  two  hundred  and 
thirty  millions  bushels,  or  one-fourth  of  the  crop  of  last  year :  and  all 
the  corn  erer  exijorted  from  this  country  could  be  replaced  by  one-third 
of  that  crop.  For  thirteen  years  past  the  annual  arerage  has  been  but 
ton  millions  of  bnshels  annually,  and  for  forty-three  years  fire  and  a 
half  millions,  or  one-eightieth  part;  of  the  crop.  Diu'ing  the  entire  i>eriod 
since  1825  an  arerage  of  one  bushel  has  been  exix)rted  for  erery  hundred 
produced. 

The  tanner  who  has  han-ested  one  thousand  bushels  has  been  depend- 


REPORT   OF   THE   STATISTICIAN. 


51 


ent  upon  the  foreign  demand  to  the  extent  of  ten  bushels,  for  which  he 
may  have  received  two  dollars,  while  the  price  of  thirty  bushels  lias  been 
expended  in  shipping  it  from  the  prakies  to  the  markets  of  Europe. 
This  is  a  very  meager  showing,  bnt  an  export  of  ten  times  the  amount 
would  be  worse,  as  a  herald  of  the  exhaustion  and  poverty  that  must 
result  when  so  exhausting  a  crop  is  sent  abroad  at  so  gTcat  expense  and 
little  profit,  and  nothing  returned  to  the  depleted  soil.  An  export  of 
corn  is  therefore  undesirable  and  unwise. 

IMPOETS  OF  Yv^OOLS  AND  WOOLENS. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  imports  of  wool  during  the  year 
ended  June  30,  18C8,  as  reported  by  the  statistical  bureau  of  the 
Treasury  Department  : 


Description. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Wool,  at  12  cents  or  loss  per  pound 

Wool,  value  over  12  ci-nts  per  pound. 

Clothing  wools,  class  No.  1,  value  32  cents  or  less  per  ponnd 

Clothing  wools,  class  No.  1,  value  over  32  cents  per  pound 

Combir.g  wools,  class  No.  2,  32  cents  or  less  per  pound. 

Combine  wools,  class  No.  2,  over  32  cents  per  pound 

Sheepskins,  raw  or  unmanufactured,  with  the  wool  on,  washed  or  unwashed . 
Woolen  rags,  waste,  shoddy,  mungo,  and  flocks 


Total. 


e,  907,  864 

10,  001, 697 

3,068,013 

31,259 

2, 109,  •28i) 

6,690 


5.%,  414 


$972, 204 

1. 882,  482 

454,  204 

13,042 

467,661 

3,063 

237, 589 

49,  619 


24, 681, 217  I      4,  079, 894 


The  imports  of  woolens  for  the  same  period  are  as  follows : 


Quantity.  Value. 




Clothri , poundis . 

Shawls pounds. 

All  manufactures,  VFholly  or  in  part  of  wool,  not  otherwise  provided  for.  .pounds. 

Flannels >..  .pounds.. 

Blankets pounds . . 

Hats  of  wool pounds.. 

Knit  goods — h "81617 pounds.. 

Knit  goods — shirts,  drawers,  &c pounds. - 

Balmorals pounds.. 

Woolen  and  worsted  yams pounds.. 

Manufacturi  s  composed  wholly  or  in  part  of  worsted pounds.. 

Clothing  and  wearing  apparel  of  every  description,  composed  wholly  or  in  p.irt  of 
wool  or  worsted pouiids. . 

Ready  made , pounds.. 

Articlns  of  wear pounds. . 

Webbingfi,  beltings,  bindi.'ijrs,  braids,  galloons,  &c.,  of  wool,  worsted,  or  mohair, 
or  of  which  either  is  a  component  material pounds.. 

Bunting 

Women's  and  children's  dress  goods,  and  real  or  imitation  Italian  cloths,  wholly  or 
in  part  of  wool  or  worsted sq.  yards.. 

Kndless  belts  or  felts  for  paper  or  printing  machines 

Carpets,  A  ubusson  and  Axminster,  and  carpets  woven  whole  for  rooms 

Cr.rpets,  Siixony,  Wilton,  and  Tournay  velvet,  wrought  by  the  Jacquard  ma- 
chine  sq.  yards. . 

Carpets,  Brussels,  wrought  by  the  Jacquard  machioe sq.  yards.. 

Carpets,  patent  velvet  and  tapestry  velvet sq  yards.. 

Carpets,  tapestry  Brussf  Is sq.  yards.. 

Carpets,  treble  ingrain,  three-ply,  and  worsited  chain  Venetian sq.  yards. . 

Yarn,  Venetian,  and  two-ply  ingrain sq.  jards.. 

Druggets  and  bockings,  printed,  colored,  or  otherwise sq.  yards.. 

Carpets  of  wool  not  otherwise  specified 


Total. 


4,  801, 9^5 
158, 896 
5i7,018 
28,011 

74,  58H 
84,  593 

2;;0,  :156 
79, 200 
18,919 

407, 416 


59, 596 


357, 371 


60,  238,  332 
104,  907 


69, 513 
536,019 
2.")1,012 

1,848,497 
26,  832 
74,  2!.5 
03,  977 


$7,139,605 
526, 272 
750,  558 
.*:■•:?,  037 
35,  561 
171,757 
483,  186 
103,  605 
14.755 
4G1,  4)7 
1,681,194 


248,419 
1,082,532 

71.1, 415 
4,957 

15,  449,  787 
100  070 
277,  485 

11.3, 193 

720,  343 
389, 163 
1,583,374 
25,  703 
53, 084 
28,730 
151,095 

i-32,371,329 


52 


AGRICULTURAL    REPOR"' 


AGKICXJLTUEAL  EXPOET.i. 

Statement  of  the  exports  of  agricultural  products  of  the  United   States, 
icith  their  immediate  manufacturer,  for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1SG8. 


Products  and  manafactores. 


Quantity. 


1,399 
JC.  liSi 
1,2»5 
1.109 
l7,9tG 


28,693,133 
43,  GJD,  OTA 
6i,  Sw,  46-2 
•J7H,  432 
i:*,  522 
02,  CtfJ,  531 


Animals  living— hcg-s nv.mber. . 

Horned  caiile ncmber. . 

Horses cumber. . 

Mules Duiuber.. 

Sbeep number . . 

All  other,  and  fowls ctunher.. 

Animal  matter — guts,  fehinF,  bladders,  &c j 

Pork pounds.. 

Ham3  and  bacoa pounds. . 

Lard pounds . . 

La.'doU gallons.. 

Ncat's-foot  and  other  animal  oils gullocs.. 

Beef pounds..  | 

Poturry '. 1 

Preierved  meats — 

Tallow poundis..       C2,CS2,412 

Hair,  utunannfactured j 

Hair,  laanufacinred i 

Butier pounds..]        t:,  071, 873 

Ch^-e^e ponuds. .  |      5;,  097, 2-)3 

Eggs doz!-u8..l  19,6fM 

Candles,  tallow,  ice ponnd.-i..j        2,975,517 

Soap,  perfajned ! 

Soap,  other pounds.. 

Glue poucds. . 

Stearine pounds . . 

Wax ponuds.- 

Leatber pounds.. 

Leather,  morf^cco  and  other,  fine 

Leathern  boots  and  ^!;oes pairs.. 

Leathern  saddli-ry  and  harness - --j . 

Leathern  mantiiactiires  not  specified 

Wool pounds..  556,435 

Manufectures  of  wool  not  specified ] 

Furs  and  ^kius 


304.231 

]»:,  8r>4 

207,  7(  0 
820, 687 
47j,fe97 


363,419 


Bone<  and  bone  dast c?rt..  6, 172 

■R-ine-black,  ivory -black,  &c pounds. .  185, 358 

Breadrttiffi — Indian  com btL-hels. .       11, 147, 490 

Indian  meal barrels..]  336, 5l8 

Wheat bushels..!      15,940,899 

Wheat  flour ». barrels. .  I        •-',  C7fi,  423 

Bye bushels. .j  50), 349 

Bye  flour barrels. . ;  10, 592 

Barley bushels.-]  i>,Si0 

Other  small  grain  au'i  pul»e ■ 

Rice pounds . .         3,  (-79,  C43 

BreaJ  and  biscuit pounds..!        8,294,224 

ilaccaroDi.  vermiceili.  and  all  other  preparations  from  breadstufls ].. 

Cotton,  8ea-i-4land pounds..]        4,998,313 

Cotton,  other  kinds pounds..!     779.705,318 

Cotron  manufactures,  colored yards. .  I        2,  979, 275 

Cotton  QBDUfiictures,  uncolored yards..]      10, SJ9, 177 

•i.r.-*,  all  other 

•urcsof  wood — boards,  planks,  and  scantling 31  feel..  131,673 


O'.tton  1 
Woo' 


720 


for  barrels  and  bogsbeat>s  . 


31,  160 


•Is,  (empl  V ) number . .  I 

^* - M.l 


20,955 
177,614 
16,930 


.rniinrc 

^  of  wood  not  spccjfi,^ 

Ashco,  pu!  und  pearl cwt.. 

Rosin  and  turpeniicc barrels. . 

Tar  and  pitch barrels . . 

Apples,  green  or  ripe bnsbeU.. 

Apples,  dried bushels. . 

Fniit,  green,  ripe,  or  dried,  not  specified 

Potatoen bushels.. 

Onions bushels.. 


22,030 
443,  501 
20, 751 
54,6.54 
31,028 


378,605 

60,  849 


Sl8,447 

330,183 

143. 521 

147,706 

83,936 

9, 540 

48. 205 

3, 2(T7,  &J2 

5, 476, 998 

9, 427, 831 

3:K),  179 

23,  433 

2,  696,  Oil 

1,484 

7.5,  226 

2,510,227 

79, 642 

60,648 

582, 7^5 

7, 010. 424 

5,  ^65 

533,095 

5,171 

C21, 823 

4.346 

22,280 

2.'55,365 

eOl,  175 

5, 93(1 

578, 650 

97, 39,i 

131,224 

191,  119 

206,870 

1,989,849 

9,678 

12,  (31 

13, 094, 036 

2  068,  4:ki 

30, 217, «!  2 

20, 887, 71(8 

836, 838 

91, 95M 

10,  981 

989,  C(i5 

17(^  357 

649, 492 

43,  (KiC 

3,  02;i,  334 
149,  797,  Xrj 

531,669 
1,551,339 
2,  788, 046 
2,806,239 

177,010 

84-5,  49;» 
12,  437 

122,101 

1,  397.  261^ 
139,519 

3, 393, 884 
680, 137 

2,  377,  7!'2 

288,  on 

821,949 
217,174 

1,  199,  ICO 
688.;;91 
2.56,  .330 

2, 028, 514 
110,641 
94,748 
121,910 
189,854 
483,385 
79.187 


RRPOST    OF    THE    STATISTICIAX. 
Statement  of  tlie  exports  of  agricultural  products.  iVc — Contiuued. 


55 


Products  and  manafacrsiros. 


Qaactirv. 


Value. 


Pickles  and  sauces I 

Vegetables,  prepared  or  preserved j 

Ve^tftbles,  uot  specified 

Clover  seed bushels.. 

Flax  seed bushels.. 

Liaseed  oil gallons..' 

Castor  oil gallous.-l 

Essential  oi! -.1 

Oil  cake ponads..! 

Hemp,  nnmanulactared cwi. . j 

Manufactures  of  hemp — bags 

Cables  and  cordage cwt..| 

Hemp  cloth l 

All  other  manufactures  of  hemp ! 

Hops pounds . .  j 

'''''  tons. .  i 


2,W5 

44 

16,6-50 

6,  Wo 


115, 503. 9T7 
141 


15,  491 


Hay. 

Ginseng pounds. 

Salt bushels. 

Beer,  ale,  porter,  and  cider,  in  bottles dozens. 

Beer,  ale.  porter,  and  cider,  in  casks gallons. 

Spirits,  distilled  from  molasses gallons. 

Spirits,  distilled  from  graia gallons. 

Spirits,  distilled  from  other  materials gallons. 

Spirits  of  turpentine gallons. 

■VViue gallons. 

Molasses gallons . 

Vinegar g;U!or.s . 

Sugar,  brown - pounds. 

Sugar,  refined pounds. 

Candy  and  confectionery 

Cigars I M- 

Snnff rionuds . 

Tobacco,  manufactured pounds . 

Leaf  tobacco,  unmanufactured 


332,038 

5,645 

370,066 

624,970 

1,387 

79,006 

1, 140, 553 

574,905 

1,061,133 

3,068.K» 

27,070 

42,543 

60,963 

3,943 

2. 214, 207 


1,870 

11,393 

10, 470, 0^ 

206, 020,  504 


$29,094 

16,720 

169,692 

11,193 

332 

21,545 

13,043 

173,656 

2, 913, 448 

2,193 

9,154 

331,238 

1,594 

250,631 

2frl,  129 

118, 443 

330,454 

289,936 

3,603 

30,372 

491.601 

325,651 

598,869 

1,627,577 

33,564 

21,691 

17,5.10 

009 

313,378 

12,901 

70,350 

8,730 

3, 100, 084 

22,  898, 623 


REC-irl  r  ULATIOX. 


Animal  production  . 
Breadstuff's 


: $37,626,063 

Cy,  089, 249 

Cotton  acd  its  manufactures 157, 691,  767 

Wood  and  iis  products 1~.  ~6] ,  755 

iUscellaneous 35,  52i'>,  924 


Total 317,  669,  778 


mivIIGEATIOy. 


Since  tlie  organization  of  our  government,  eighty  years  ago,  a  people 
of  three  millions,  of  European  extraction,  have  become  forty,  not 
altogether  by  natural  inerea.se.  but  iu  part  by  immigration,  in  a  rippling 
stream  at  lirst,  which  has  gathered  volume  uutil  its  ciuvent  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  third  of  a  inillion  annually,  and  its  total  aggi^^gation  eight 
millions.  It  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  eveutfrJ  nine  years  since  1860, 
that  one-fourth  of  all  the  immigTants  who  have  ever  sought  our  shores 
have  come  during  the  frightful  civil  war  or  since  its  close.  Two  milhons 
of  haman  beings,  two-thirds  as  many  as  fought  the  war  of  the  revolu- 
tion, have  tlius  been  added,  to  our  numbers  since  the  taking  of  the  last 
census. 

The  records  of  immigTation  from  1820  to  ISGO  present  an  aggregate 
of  5,459,421  passengers  arrived.  From  1700  to  1820  about  200,000  arri- 
vals were  reported  or  estimated.  About  one-seventh  of  these  retiu-ned, 
and  perhaps  as  many  were  received  through  Canada.  Of  all  these  nrnn- 
bers,  three-fifths  were  males,  and  one-half  were  in  the  vigor  of  youth, 
between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  tiiiity. 

Of  the  numbers  alri^ing  between  1820  and  ISGO,  2,750,874  were  from 
Great  Britain,  of  whom  967,3GG  were  from  Ireland ;  and  1,480,044  came 


54 


AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 


from  Germany.  Thus  the  same  Auglo-Saxon  elements,  constituting  the 
bulk  of  our  original  ])opulation,  enter  in  nearly  the  same  proportions  into 
the  accretions  gained  by  annual  immic^ration. 

More  than  a  million  of  these  immigrants  were  children ;  the  numbers 
■with  occupations  not  noted  -vrere  2,978,599 ;  th^e  were  764,837  farmers, 
and  872,317  laborers,  many  of  whom  either  immediately  or  ultimately 
became  farm  laborers  or  farmers.  It  is  evident  that  more  than  half  of 
all  these  immigrants  became  cultivators  of  the  soil. 

Diu-iug  the  past  nine  vears  the  arrivals  of  immigrants  make  an  aggre- 
gate of  2,141,403—880,545  from  Great  Britain,  (Ireland,  390,032;)  Ger- 
many, G1U,2G8 ;  British  America,  87,602 ;  China,  40,081.  Every  quarter 
of  the  globe  has  been  represented,  even  Africa  and  the  isles  of  the 
Pacilic.  Among  the  African  countries  couti'ibuting  are  Abyssinia, 
Egypt,  Liberia,  and  South  Africa ;  among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific, 
New  Zealand,  Australia,  the  Society  and  Sandwich  islands ;  and  the 
immigration  from  Iceland  includes  eleven  souls. 

The  German  immigi'ation  has  been  large  since  the  war,  amounting 
to  343,183,  and  the  total  for  four  years  past  exceeds  the  aggregate  num- 
bers of  the  nine  previous  years.  The  largest  influx  from  Great  Britain 
was  in  ISGG — 131,029  immigrants;  and  the  largest  from  Ireland  was 
69,977,  in  1807.  The  gi'eatest  movement  from  Germany  was  also  in 
1807,  numbering  121,240.  In  the  last  ten  years  the  total  numbers,  in 
he  order  of  theii'  magnitude,  were  as  follows :  1866,  359,943 ;  1807, 
333,627  ;  1868,  326,232 ;  1865,  287,399 ;  1804,  221,535 ;  1863,  199,811 ; 
1860,  179,691;  1859,  155,509;  1862,  114,463;  1861,  112,702. 

The  following  statement  of  the  occupations  of  immigrants  of  the  past 
thirteen  years,  from  1850  to  1808  inclusive,  is  obtained  from  the  Treasury 
Bureau  of  Statistics : 

Occupations  of  immigrants. 


Occupations, 


Laborers 

Farmerrt 

Mcchacics 

Merchants 

lliners 

Servants 

MarinurB 

Clerki) 

Bakers 

Butchcrg 

Seiuutitrosiie:!  and  miliiccrs 

Phyuiciana 

Artlatg 

Clergymen 

Weavers  and  gpionera 

Tiiilora 

Shoemakers 

Lawyirs 

JMiumfacturers 

Krgineers 

Ttachers 

Jliisons 

Blillern 

Muriciasa 

Actors 

Tai  liters 

I'rinters 

np.tlerit 

All  other  occupations i 

Occujiations  not  specified 13l', 


Aggregate . 


:*»M,  ^ya 


REPORT   OF    THE    STATISTICIAN. 
Occupations  of  immigrants — Continued. 


55 


Occupation. 

1863. 

le61. 

1865. 

1866. 

1867. 

1868. 

TotaL 

46, 198 

12, 349 

14,418 

7,582 

4,314 

9,088 

2,088 

1,277 

520 

403 

347 

264 

377 

231 

347 

75 

73 

156 

66 

95 

16 

31 

5 

7 

15 

27 

15 

48,  041 

13,837 

14, 156 

9,468 

6,093 

15,629 

2,106 

1,574 

647 

545 

640 

515 

340 

258 

130 

147 

148 

132 

107 

86 

29 

37 

24 

12 

20 

29 

19 

1 

308 

106,  657 

45, 245 

20,  012 

20,218 

12,  676 

7,631 

9,236 

2,518 

2,775 

1,003 

843 

304 

399 

606 

374 

143 

366 

^09 

249 

181 

100 

59 

77 

40 

10 

18 

43 

20 

1 

455 

161,589 

58, 629 

30, 302 

23, 939 

15, 834 

8,010 

8,905 

2,  687 

2,  731 

966 

840 

373 

521 

663 

453 

135 

323 

272 

359 

254 

142 

143 

132 

54 

21 

47 

65 

44 

12 

648 

202, 442 

55,  443 

29,717 

25, 966 

11,841 

7, 2:)5 

6;  367 

2,  501 

2,317 

988 

974 

336 

438 

661 

454 

156 

299 

250 

252 

198 

111 

33 

184 

65 

32 

94 

60 

22 

4 

437 

192, 222 

68,947 

19, 804 

17, 29S 

8, 393 

4,698 

8,021 

1,892 

1,351 

751 

623 

283 

365 

4G8 

302 

76 

205 

186 

17 

183 

24 

337 

102 

36 

14 



515, 2ir 

264,  949 

196.503 

138, 214 

71,414 

68,628 

20, 988 

Clerks  

13.864 

5,380 

4,658 

Seamstresses  and  milliners 

3,770 
3,  736 

.3,561 

3, 322 

2, 8G6 

2,151 

2,128 

1,  942 

1,696 

1,345 

809 

799 

Millers 

497 

450 

378 

18 

19 

1 

426 

191, 493 

363 

Printers 

347 

26 

360 
99,047 

5,984 

1,602,411 

199,811 

221,535 

287,399 

359,  943 

339,  627 

326,233 

2,938,296 

SUGAK  PE0DUCTI0:N"  IX  LOUISIAXxV. 

Louisiana  continues  to  be  the  main  source  of  sugar  production  in  tlie 
United  States,  tliough  the  Gulf  coast,  from  Florida  to  Texas,  is 
beginning  to  be  dotted  with  sugar  plantations,  from  vrhich  little  income 
lias,  as  yet,  been  derived.  At  the  present  time  the  business  stands 
high  in  popular  appreciation. 

In  Louisiana,  production  has  been  -vronderfully  stimulated  by  the 
high  price  of  the  product.  The  severe  frost  on  the  29th  of  January 
everywhere  injured  the  rattoons  very  severely,  though  the  se«d  cane 
escaped  ;  and  with  favorable  weather,  producing  an  extraordinary 
growth,  a  large  croj)  was  anticipated,  untd  October  2,  when  the  cane 
was  prostrated  by  a  sevore  storm  of  wind;  bad  weather  intervened, 
delay  in  obtaining  fuel  occurred,  frosts  injured  the  outlyiag  cane,  elec- 
tion excitements  interfered  with  labor,  a  series  of  unusual  misfortunes 
combined  to  diminish  the  total  production  of  the  year  ;  yet  an  aggregate 
of  84,256  hogsheads  was  reached,  or  95,051,225  pounds,  and  0,081,907 
gallons  of  molasses,  against  37,0-17  hogsheads  in  1807.  This  result  was 
attained,  notwithstanding  the  loss  of  8,000  acres  of  cane  totally  lost. 

A  local  census  of  this  important  crop,  made  by  Mr.  L.  Bouchcrean, 
the  facts  of  which  he  has  communicated  to  this  Department,  affords 
abundant  evidence  of  energy  and  progress  in  this  branch  of  agTicultural 
production. 

The  acreage  in  cane  was  about  03,199,  and  the  average  ;>ield  1,504 
pounds  of  sugar  and  80  gallons  of  molasses.  A  larger  proportion  of  mo- 
lasses than  usual  is  due  to  the  injiu^y  of  the  crop  by  the  weather,  which 
rendered  its  use  for  sugar  impracticable.  The  total  number  of  sugar- 
growers  was  747  ;  sugar-houses  iu  operation,  073 ;  portable  mills.  8 ; 
steam-power  sugar-hou.ses,  540 ;  horse-i)0\ver  sugar-housCvS,  133 ;  open 
kettles,  507;  open  pans,  GO;  vacuum  pans,  40;  board  aud  slate  sugar- 


56  AGEICCLTUEAL    REPOET. 

houses.  85 ;  board  and  shingle  sugar-bouses,  231.  The  following  is  a 
revised  statement  of  production  since  1SC2  and  18G3,  of  wbicb  years  no 
report  is  made,  sho\ring  tbe  rate  of  recuperation  since  tbe  var : 

Ilogsbe.ids. 

1SC4 C,G6S 

18G.3 15,  500 

18GG 41, 000 

18G7 37,  047 

1SC8 : 84,256 

THE  GEE  AT  STOCK  :\IAEKETS. 

EECEIPTS  OF  Un:   STOCK  AT  XEW  YOEK  Lis    1SC8. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  receipts  of  live  stock  at  Xew  York  in 
the  years  1S66-'G7-'G8. 


YiiT. 

Beevii. 

Co-i. 

Calves. 

Sheep. 

Swine. 

TolaL 

1S« 

isfr: 

lets 

^C'-.  ?:-' 

4.8S5 

5,S&2  ; 

fiil24 

1.  COO,  621 
],  174, 154 
1,  €00, 623 

666,392 
1, 102, 643 
976,511  j 

2.092,894 
2, 643, 939 
2,758,552 

The  weekly  average  of  1868  is  as  follows:  beeves,  5,637;  calves,  1,595 ; 
sheep,  26,935 — an  increase  of  2.000  over  the  average  of  the  previous 
year :  swine.  18,179.  The  following  are  the  average  prices  for  the  year : 
beef,  15f  ctfuts  per  pound ;  sheep  6  cents :  hogs,  9^  cents.  In  beeves 
an  average  advance  is  shown  over  the  previous  year  of  one-foiuth  to  one- 
half  cent  i)er  pound.  In  sheep,  a  slight  diminution  of  price,  owing  to 
large  increase  in  supply.  There  was  a  considerable  decrease  in  the  sup- 
ply of  hogs  which  ruled  two  to  three  cents  per  pound  higher  than  m 
18G7,  the  advance  being  cjuitc  three  cents  at  the  clo.se  of  the  year.  The 
decrease  in  numlM?r  amounts  to  126,000  head  for  the  year.  The  follow- 
ing is  an  exhibit  of  sources  of  supply  of  beef  cattle  :  Illinois,  165,668 : 
Xew  York,  28,757;  Ohio,  27,303:  Kentucky,  19,372;  Indiana,  14,6.55; 
Texas,  11.300:  Missouri,  9,781;  Pennsylvania,  3.455:  Canada,  3,068; 
Iowa,  2,950 ;  Connecticut,  2,705 :  Michigan,  1.506 ;  West  Yirginia,  1,046; 
Kansas,  818 ;  Nebraska,  263 ;  Massachusetts,  249 ;  Xew  Jersey,  200. 

There  has  been  but  little  variation  in  the  average  price  of  beeves  for 
the  last  three  years.  In  186S  they  brought  the  highest  price  in  Ai)ril, 
running  up  to  an  average  of  eighteen  cents  in  the  early  part  of  the 
mouth,  and  were  at  their  lowest  in  October  and  Xovemljer,  reaching  an 
average  of  thirteen  and  a  half  cents.  In  January,  the  prices  of  the 
difi'erent  qualities  ranged  fiom  eleven  to  twenty  cents :  in  December, 
from  eight  to  twenty  cents.  Sheep  brought  the  highest  prices  in  April, 
at  an  average  of  eight  cents  for  the  month ;  and  the  lowest  price  in 
October,  when  the  receipts  averaged  nearly  45,000  head  per  week.  At 
the  last  of  the  month  prices  ranged  from  three  and  a  half  to  five 
cents. 

BOSTON  LITE  STOCK  3IASKET3,   1868- 

The  numbers  of  live  stock  sold  in  the  Boston  markets  during  1868  are 
as  follows :  cattle.  110,010 ;  calves,  13,700 ;  sheep.  492,735 :  hogs,  127,544 : 
pigs,  10,443.    The  sources  of  supply  of  cattle  are  as  follows:  Mainel 


REPORT    OF    THE    STATISTICIAN. 


57 


10,574 ;  Xew  Hainpshiro,  7,209 ;  Vermont,  1S,-42G ;  Massnclinsetts,  2,780 ; 
^ew  York,  4,327  ;  Western  States,  01,080 ;  Canada,  5,00o.  Sources  of 
supply  of  sheep :  Maine,  0,174;  New  Hampshire,  41.903;  Vermont, 
173,802;  Massaclinsetts,  18.300;  Xew  York,  39,083;  Western  States, 
107.410 ;  Canada,  42,401. 

The  number  of  cattle  for  1808  v\'as  somewhat  greater  than  that  of 
1807,  but  less  by  about  8,000  head  than  the  exhibits  of  1805  and  1800. 
Comparison  of  sales  of  sheep  during  the  six  years  from  1803  to  1808 
shows  a  greater  amount  for  the  last  named  than  for  any  of  the  five 
previous  years.     The  excess  of  1808  over  1807  was  70,795  head. 

The  best  beef  brought  thirteen  and  a  half  to  fourteen  and  a  half  cents 
dimng  January.  During  the  subsequent  months,  fifteen  to  sixteen  cents. 
From  June,  prices  declined  till  the  first  of  September,  after  which  they 
ranged,  Ibr  the  most  part,  from  twelve  and  a  half  to  thirteen  and  a  half 
cents.  The  lower  grades  varied  much  more  in  price.  During  the  fall, 
grass-fed  cattle  were  sold  at  seven  to  nine  cents  per  pound,  while  during 
the  spring  and  early  summer  there  were  several  weeks  when  sc-arcely 
any  animals  were  to  be  bought  short  of  twelve  to  tliirteeu  cents  per 
pound.  4 

EECEITTS  OF   CATTLE  IX  CHICAGO,  1807-08. 


Source  of  supply. 


1867. 


Illinois  Central  R.iilroad 

Rock  Island  R.iilroad 

Michigan  Central  Railroad 

Pittsburg  and  Fort  Wayne  Railroad 

Great  Eatitcrn  R.iilroad 

Alton  and  St.  Louis  Railroad 

Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad 

Northwestern  Railroad , 

Slichigan  Southern  Railroad 

Driven  in 

Total 


fio,  om 

58, 882 

35,  616 

41,241 

2,215 

1,466 

444 

439 

1,392 

1,  347 

64,  9=12 

54, 143 

108,  9JI 

119,9.11 

4G,  7C8 

50, 189 

796 

I,  050 

2,548 

5,500 

324,  524  {  334, 138 


Of  the  receipts  of  1808,  one-third,  or  108,901,  were  transported  by  the 
Burlington  and  Quincy  road,  which  runs  through  a  fine  cattle  region, 
and  connects  with  the  railroads  of  iSTorthern  Missouri.  The  Alton  and 
St.  Louis,  pissing  in  the  same  du-ection  through  the  State,  and  also 
leading  to  Missouri,  brought  the  next  largest  number,  04,952;  the  Illinois 
Central  contributed  00,902;  the  Northwestern,  (through  Wisconsin,) 
40,758;  and  the  Eock  Island,  35,610. 

The  receipts  of  Texas  cattle  in  Chicago,  during  18G7,  was  about  35,000 
head ;  duiing  1808,  about  55,000  head.     The  price  in  xiugust  averaged 

83  72  per  100  pounds ;  in  September,  when  they  were  sold  with  diiUculty, 
generally  by  the  head,  at  824  to  832  each;  in  ^November,  83  93  per  100 
pounds.    At  the  same  time  Texas  cattle  wintered  at  the  north  realized 

84  25  to  80  50  per  100  pounds. 

Prices  of  hecf  cattle  and  live  hogs. — The  prices  obtained  averaged  as 
follows:  iBest  fat  shipping  cattle,  87  20  to  87  98  per  100  pounds; 
steers  in  good  flesh,  weighing  1,150  to  1,250  pounds,  80  14  to  80  05; 
steers  weighing  850  to  950  poiinds,  84  48  to  B^  08 ;  stock  cattle,  $3  S3  to 
84  32 ;  cows  and  heifers,  Bo  78  to  85  78. 

The  receipts  of  live  hogs  in  1808  were  1,705,433,  according  to  Mr. 
Griiieth's  register,  and  the  shipments  1,020,329.  The  total  of  weekly 
sales  was  1,780,075,  averaging  223  pounds. 

The  mean  annual  range  of  prices  of  beef  cattle  and  of  live  hogs,  as 


58 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


jratbered  from  the  review  of  the  Chicago  stock  trade  in  the  Live  Stock 
Kcpoiter,  for  the  past  six  years,  are  as  follows : 


BEEF  C4TTLE. 


Year. 


la  correaoy. 


1863 $C  33  to  $4  80 

1864 2  5C  to    7  52 

1865 2  94  to    8  45 

1866 3  53  to    7  72 

1867 3  52  to    8  02 

1S68 3  44  to    8  10 


In  gold. 


$1  GV  to  $3  28 
1  26  to    3  C4 

1  90  to 

2  49  to 
2  55  to 
2  45  to 


S  49  I 
5  46 
5  81 
5  79 


IJVE  HOGS. 


la  carreacy. 


la  gold. 


$3  11  to  $5  00 

5  94  to  9  80 
8  81  to  11  55 
7  87  to  9  47 
4  76  to    7  01 

6  72  to    9  40 


$2  16  to  $3  44 

2  87  to    4  74 
5  66  to 
5  5e  to 

3  44  to 

4  60  to 


7  40 
6  80 

5  06 

6  72 


PPJCES  OF  BREADSTUFFS  AT  XEW  YOEK. 

The  following  averages  of  prices,  at  the  dates  named,  show  the  great 
decline  in  breadstuffs  duiing  the  year  18GS : 


j  April  2.1, 1869.   Ai.ra25,186a 


Flotir — superfine pcrbbl.. 

est ra  .State do \ 

shipping.  Ohio do ' 

extra  western,  common  to  gofd do | 

double  extra  we.stem  and  St.  Louis do ' 

eontheru  siiperfinfs do ! 

sontlicra  extra  and  family do ! 

California do \ 

Rye  flour do ' 

Com  meal do ' 

Wheal — eprinp per  bushel. -i 

red  winter do I 

amber  wljter do I 

white do j 

Com — western  mixed do | 

yellow do i 

while do I 

Ryo do j 

Oata — ^western do 


«5  45 

$9  70 

5  95 

10  60 

6  15 

10  70 

585 

10  33 

8  95 

13  88 

6  45 

10  78 

9  13 

13  25 

8  50 

13  63 

5  73 

8  88 

4  48 

6  00 

I  33 

2  58 

1  53 

2  85 

I  71 

2  95 

1  83 

3  20 

83 

1  18 

85 

1  23 

65 

1  15 

1  33 

2  15 

78 

86 

The  results  of  statistical  researches  upon  special  subjects,  are  pre- 
sented in  other  pages  of  this  volume,  and  a  variety  of  important  matter, 
not  yet  sufficiently  full  or  comjjlcte,  is  withheld  for  use  in  futiu'e  publica- 
tions. 

J.  Jl.  CODGE. 
Hon.  H.  Capeon, 

Commissioner. 


REPORT  OF  THE  CHEMIST. 


Sm  :  In  makiug  a  report  of  tlie  ^rork  done  in  the  laboratory  during 
the  past  year,  it  is  proper  to  mention  that  tlie  removal  of  tlie  depart- 
ment to  its  present  location  necessarily  led  to  the  suspension  of  ehemi- 
Ciil  work  for  tvro  months  as  regards  most  analyses,  and  for  a  much 
longer  period  on  dry  methods,  owing  to  delay  in  completing  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  fnmi^are  of  the  laboratory  apartments.  The  necessary  prep- 
arations for  removal  also  forbade  entering  on  any  extended  course  ot 
analyses :  hence  the  laboratory  has  been  chiefly  occnj)ied.  during  the 
year,  with  the  performance  of  analyses  of  agricultural  substances  used 
as  maniu'e,  and  in  satisfying  immediate  demands  for  information  made 
by  correspondents.  The  total  analytical  work  in  the  laboratory  for  the 
year  embraces  the  following  classes,  viz : 

1.  Marls,  including  varieties  both  recent  and  fossil. 

2.  Earths,  clays,  slates,  and  sods. 

3.  Ores  of  gold,  silver,  iron,  manganese,  tin,  nickel.  &c. 

4.  Wines  iiom  diHerent  States. 

5.  Mineral  waters. 

G.  Pharmaceutical  preparations. 

7.  Cases  of  suspected  criminal  jioisouiDg  requiring  analysis. 

8.  Artificial  fertilizers. 

9.  ;Many  mineral  determinations. 

10.  Proximate  analyses  of  plants  for  technical  purposes. 

The  work  has  been  contined  very  strictly  to  sui^plying  the  demands 
of  practical  agTiculture,  consisting  rjriricipally  of  analyses  of  marls, 
soils,  and  vegetables ;  and  to  tha  examination  of  deposits  newly  opened 
which  i^romise  to  be  sources  of  local  wealth.  In  carrying  out  the  latter, 
it  is  foimd  dilScidt  to  avoid  subserving  private  interest  while  seeking 
public  good.  The  opinion  being  somewhat  prevalent  that  this  depart- 
ment should  constitute  itself  the  official  examiner  of  all  manures  in  the 
market,  both  natural  and  artificial,  samples  of  fertilizers  suspected  of 
adulteration,  obtained  n-om  merchants  and  traders,  have  been  forwarded 
for  analysis.  Such  correspondents  have  been  informed  that  the  labora- 
tory of  this  department  is  devoted  to  the  analysis  of  soils,  waters,  and 
natui-al  manirres,  such  as  peat,  marls,  &:c.,  and  other  matters  of  State  or 
public  interest.  It  does  not  make  analyses  of  commercial  manures,  as 
gimno,  bones,  superphosphates,  &c.,  either  for  the  farmer  or  the  manu- 
facturer. The  department  does  not  pertorm  any  work  which  has  for  its 
object  the  establishment  of  works  or  manufactures  of  private  enter- 
prise 

A  chemical  laboratory  is  necessarily  incomplete,  for  the  purposes  of 
industrial  analysis  of  materials  useful  to  the  farm  or  to  commerce, 
without  a  museum  of  tyiiical  specimens  embraced  within  the  scope  of 
worlc  of  this  division,  and  it  is  deemed  desirable  that  such  should  be 
formed.  Already,  through  the  con-espondeuts  of  the  departments,  valu- 
able specimens  of  geological  strata,  buikling  materials,  limestones, 
and  other  illustrations  of  the  economic  wealth  of  the  country,  have  been 
collected,  and  more  might  readily  be  obtained  through  the  same  agcn 
cies.  These  S])ecin]ens  v.ill  form,  when  catalogued  and  displayed,  a  vt^' 
valuable  and  interesting  collection,  not  represented  in  other  museums, 
and  having  for  its  object  the  exposition  of  the  industi'iid  :md  the  techno- 


60  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT 

logical  value  of  the  mineral  vrealtli  of  the  country  rather  rhau  purely 
scientLfic  relations.  To  carry  out  this  plan  would  involve  some  expeud- 
itnre  for  the  fitting  np  of  necessary  shelving,  &:c.,  for  the  specimens. 

GEEENSAXD  ISTARLS. 

Of  the  mineral  analyses  performed  during  the  year  those  of  marls 
much  exceeded  all  others.  These  marls  were  not  those  of  the  alluvial, 
or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  quaternary  formation,  as  the  name  might 
imply;  but  were  derived  either  from  the  cretaceous  or  the  tertiary; 
and,*as  many  greensand  marls  from  Maryland  and  Virginia  were  among 
the  number,  some  remarks  concerning  them,  as  regards  their  peculari- 
ties  and  contrast  with  other  beds  of  same  age  further  north,  may  not  be 
out  of  place. 

THEIR  POSITION  AXD   GEOLOGICAL  RELATION. 

The  greensand  beds  of  the  Atlantic  States  are  a  very  important  geo- 
logical formation,  whether  we  consider  them  as  occupying  a  large  tract 
of  country  or  as  affording  a  valuable  amendment  to  the  soil  which  they 
underlie. '  Extending  in  a  gentle  and  continuous  ciu've  along  the  sea- 
coast,  they  are  found  in  every  coast  State  li'om  the  Hudson  River  to  the 
Mississippi.  The  beds  have  a  very  general  ti'end  north-northeast  and 
south-southvrest,  and  a  similar  dip,  being  about  twenty  feet  to  a  mile  in 
2^ew  Jersey,  and  almost  precisely  the  same  in  Mississippi :  showing  a 
great  unifi)rmiti'  in  the  causes  v.hich  led  to  their  deposition  and  eleva- 
tion, and  in  the  conditions  governing  them.  OccuiTing  at  the  close  of 
the  cretaceous  period,  owing  to  the  absence  of  cementing  material  orig- 
inally present,  or  subsequently  percolating,  they  have  never  consolida- 
ted, and  are  still  beds  of  sand,  (clayey  and  calcareous  sand,)  differing  in 
no  physical  respect  from  the  alluvial  and  later  beds,  which  cover  them 
to  the  depth  of  several  feet 

Although  the  lithological  character  of  the  beds  is  not  the  same  in  the 
northern  and  the  southern  exti'emity  of  the  deposits  exposed,  yet  their 
identity  can  be  at  all  times  recognized  by  the  fossil  shells  most  abund- 
antly present,  and  vrhich  are  by  far  the  most  uniform  in  occurrence. 
Wlien  the  manner  of  de^wsition  of  this  sand  over  so  large  a  tract  of 
country  is  examined,  it  is  tbund  that  the  amount  of  material  varies  con- 
siderably in  thickness,  generally  diminishing  the  further  south  it  is  ex- 
amined. 

In  New  Jersey  these  marl  beds  occupy  a  very  narrow  belt  of  land 
from  four  to  sixteen  miles  vdde,  from  the  ocean  shore  near  Sandy  Hook 
(New  York  Bay)  to  Salem,  on  the  Delaware.  A  sandy  soil,  destitute  of 
diluvium,  covers  the  region,  which  has  a  stiike  south  55^  west,  and  a  dip 
southeast  about  twenty  feet  per  mile.  This  formation  is  composed  of 
six  beds,  three  of  which  are  true  greensand  layers,  and  three  arc  beds 
of  marine  sand  separating  the  others.  In  Maryland  and  Virginia  it  is 
probable  that  these  three  beds  or  their  equivalents  may  exist,  but  they 
have  not  been  accurately  distinguished ;  and  in  Xorth  Carolina  but  two 
of  the  three  have  been  recognized,  the  lower  bed  being  formed  at  Black 
llock,and  the  upper  bed  at  Tarborough,  on  Tar  Eiver,  at  Colonel  Clark's. 
In  the  latter  place  the  shell  bed,  containing  pecten,  exogyra,  belemnites, 
lignite,  and  p\Tites,  is  found  immediately  over  the  stratum  of  gi-eensand, 
which  is  conlined  to  one  bed,  or  at  most  to  two.  In  Mississippi  but 
one  bed  is  found  as  the  rejiresentative  of  the  three  of  Xew  Jersey ;  nor 
docs  this  single  bed  exceed  in  thickness  a  single  bed  of  the  Xew  Jersey' 
deiK)sit. 


REPORT    OF    THE    CHEMIST.  6\ 

So  much  has  been  already  ^.n^itteu  about  the  gTeensa-nd  beds  of  ]S"e\^ 
Jersey  that  but  little  is  ueeded  to  be  inserted  here,  lieiug  the  iirsi 
deposits  of  this  character  used  as  a  fertilizer  for  the  soil,  and  the  demand 
increasing-  more  than  the  yield,  it  has  for  some  years  b;ick  beeu  an  arti- 
cle of  marketable  tr<>usport  ou  railways,  aud  is  acknowledged  to  be  sec- 
ond to  uo  other  mineral  fertilizer  when  it  is  considered  how  long  is 
dressing  of  it  is  felt  upon  the  land.  In  that  State  the  greensaud  is  ir. 
places,  as  in  Biu'lington  Couuty,  mixed  with  a  dark  chocolate-colored 
clay;  iu  jlonmouth  County  generally  with  a  lighter  clay  and  some  shells. 
In  'beds  more  to  the  south  the  sand  increases  in  amount,  v^-hile  in  a  few 
beds  here  and  there  the  marl  appears  to  have  undergone  but  little  mix- 
ture with  clay  or  sand,  but  is  almost  wholly  coiui)osed  of  the  green 
grains  which  have  given  the  name  of  greeusaud  to  the  whole  formation. 
Until  lately  the  great  value  of  this  fertiliz-er  was  attributed  to  its  con- 
stituent potash ;  "but  it  is  now  admitted  that  its  value  is  not  due  to  thi.-. 
source  alone,  and  that  it  must  be  shared  with  phosphoric  acid  and  other 
constituents.  As  the  piuT  gi-eensand  grains  (glauconite)  are  valuable 
portions  of  this  manure,  efforts  have  been  made,  both  in  this  laboratory 
and  elsev.  here,  to  ascertain  then-  exact  chemical  composition.  The  vari- 
able results  are  not  owing  to  any  intrinsic  difficulty  in  analysis,  but  to 
the  extreme  difficulty  of  procuring  samples  sufficiently  clean  and  free 
from  foreign  matters  for  operating  upon.  By  washing  aud  sifting,  even 
though  performed  many  times,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  obtain  the 
green  grains  perfectly  free  fi'om  admixture  with  sand  and  sulphate  and 
also  phosphate  of  lime.  This  difficulty  is  mentioned  in  the  final  report 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  ]Srew  Jersey,  (1SG8.)  in  which  appear  several 
examples  ofaualysis  oi'  these  marls,  apparently  performed  with  care, 
industry,  and  chemical  skill.  On  page  1*81  of  that  report  the  foliovriug 
occurs  as  one  of  the  averages  of  the  composition  of  glauconite : 

Silica 50.923 

Peroxide  of  iron 19.353 

Alumina -' -  -       7.503 

Protoxide  of  iron 3.909 

Magnesia 2.916 

Potash 7.505 

Water  lost  at  212^              )  -  ^^ 

Water  lost  at  above  212o  | ''"^-^ 

100.000 


The  potash  in  other  analyses  \  aried,  running  from  7.2o2  to  9.087  per 
cent.  The  analyses  excludes  all  the  lime,  salts,  and  the  silica  in  the  marl 
from  the  constitution  of  tlie  glauconite,  the  chief  agTicultural  value  oi' 
vrhich  had  been  estimated  to  lie  in  its  potash  constituent.  The  iron 
exists  in  both  states  of  oxidation  as  protoxide  aud  peroxide,  llie 
amount  of  greensaiid  gi-ains  present  in  the  various  marls  of  Xew  Jersey 
ranged  from  IG  per  cent,  to  90 — fi'om  25  to  33  per  cent,  being  the  avei-- 
age  of  many.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  hov^'  small  an  amount  of  glau- 
conite gives  a  blue  tint  to  clay  or  sandy  chiy — less  th:in  4  per  cent,  giving 
a  very  decided  shade  of  blue. 

The  foregoing,  however,  does  not  represent  the  true  composition  or 
the  actual  value  of  the  gi'eensand  of  Xew  Jersey  as  it  is  used,  in  the 
second  annual  report  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  that  Stiite,  1850,  pp. 
85-91,  several  analyses  of  the  greensand  marls  are  given,  in  all  of 
which  tv»o  ingredieuts,  additional  to  those  described  as  entering  into 


62  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

glancouite,  me  set  dowu — sulphuric  and  also  phosphoric  acid — the  latter 
of  which  exists  in  notable  proportion. 

Squaukum  marl  yields  of  phosphoric  acid 4.54  per  cent. 

Pembcrton,  (Xo.  1) 1.6S  '•  " 

Pemberton,  (Xo.  2) U.30  "  " 

Clenicntou 2.64  "  " 

Freehold 1.03  "  " 

Xev.-Egrypt 1.5S  "  " 

Black  woodtoAvu • 3.66  "  " 

Woodstowu 2.65  "  " 

Marlborough 1.14  "  « 

SheUtown 0.17  "  " 

The  last  named  is  from  the  cla\-  vs-hich  underlies  the  marl,  and  vrhich, 
though  green  in  color,  contains  but  lew  green  gTains.  This  phosphoric 
acid  in  some  specimens  exists  as  phosphate  of  lime :  in  others,  as  j^hoa- 
phate  of  ii-on.  The  latter  probably  was  its  original  combination.  The 
presence  of  pyrites  and  vegetable  matter  results  in  the  formation  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  which,  acting  in  the  iron  phosphate  and  on  the  lime  car- 
bonate of  the  shelly  portion,  liberates  the  phosphoric  acid  of  the  first 
and  unites  witli  the  lime  of  the  second ;  the  free  phosphoric  acid  then 
acts  on  some  lime  carbonate  to  form  ^jhosphate  of  lime.  Thus  both  sul- 
Tjhate  and  phosphate  of  lime  are  introduced  into  the  marl.  But  whence 
is  the  origin  of  the  phosphate  of  ii'on  ?  The  glauconite  does  not  appear 
to  furnish  sufficient  to  account  for  the  amount  given  above ;  indeed,  the 
usual  analyses  of  pure  glauconite  do  not  mention  phosjjhoric  acid  as  a 
constituent.  It  is  assumed  by  Professor  Cook  that  the  phosphate  of 
lime  of  these  sands  is  a  foreign  ingredient,  and  no  necessary  part  of 
glauconite.  "  In  fact,''  he  states,  "•  the  phosphate  of  lime  can  easily  be 
distingTiished  by  the  eye  from  the  greensand  grains  with  which  it  is 
mixed.  It  does  not  form  any  necessary  part  of  the  mineral,  and  may  be 
rejected  ti-om  the  analysis." 

The  fact  of  the  universal  presence  of  phosphate  of  lime  in  the  green 
sand  is  certainly  no  proof  of  its  origin  in  the  glauconite:  but  that  the 
phosphate  of  lime  may  be  detected  by  the  eye  in  the  mass  of  the  marl 
as  distinct  from  the  green  sand  has  not  been  verified  in  the  examination 
of  marls  in  this  laboratory.  Indeed,  the  reverse  has  generally  been 
demonstrated.  From  a  carefully  conducted  chemical  analysis,  made  in 
this  laboratorj-  by  the  assistant  chemist,  Dr.  Tilden,  upon  a  sample  of 
greensand  marl  from  Upper  Marlborough,  ^Maryland,  which  contained 
on  an  avi/rage  50  per  cent,  of  fine  angular  quartz  sand  as  its  only  visible 
admixture,  there  vrere  found  in  one  hnntU^ed  i)arts  1.53  parts  of  anhy- 
drous phosi)horic  acid,  equivalent  to  7.44  i)er  cent,  of  the  probable  feV- 
roso-ferric  phosphate.  The  phosphoric  acid  had  not  been  united  with 
lime  in  the  marl,  and  must  have  existed  as  a  phosphate  of  iron  :  and,  if 
not  a  constituent  of  the  glauccmite,  was  present  ns  a  ])hosphatie  earth 
commonly  found  in  this  geological  formation,  and  is  the  parent  of  the 
vi\ianite  occasionally  found  in  the  stratum. 

In  the  State  of  Delaware  the  greensand  beds  are  found  crossing  its 
northern  border  in  their  course  from  New  Jersey  into  Maryland.  Kepe- 
titions  of  the  beds  occur  in  the  ravines  of  St.  Geor:  ,''s  Creek,  where  the 
chemical  composition  is  carbonate  of  lime,  greensiud,  and  white  silici- 
ous  sand.  Along  the  line  of  the  canal  west  of  St.  George's  the  bed  has 
yellow  clay  and  micaceous  clay  mixed  with  the  gieensand,  gi%ing  dif- 
ferent shades  of  color  to  the  bed.  The  southern  liuiit  is  near  Cantwell's 
Bridge,  where  the  marl  is  found  to  be  mixed  wi:.:  yellow  clay,  and  is 


EEPORT   OF   THE    CHEMIST. 


63 


much  more  ferrnginous  than  elsevfhere.  In  St.  George's  Hundred  a  bed 
of  Wuish  green  sand  is  met  with,  which  is  described  by  Professor  Booth, 
who  is  the  authority  here  quoted,  as  being  nearly  piure  glauconite,  and 
yielding,  on  an  analysis : 

Silica ^-^-TT 

Potassa 9.00 

Lime  and  magnesia --30 

Protoxide  of  iron - "^i"  *  *^ 

Alumina 3.12 

Water 8.50 


100.39 


The  presence  of  the  lime  and  magnesia  shows  that  calcareous  detritus 
has  crept  into  this  specimen.  The  bright  green  sandy  marl  of  Draw- 
yer's  Creek  furnishes,  on  analysis,  a  nearer  approach  to  the  giauconite 
composition : 

Sihca 56.35 

Potassa 8.113 

Protoxide  of  iron 22.25 

Alumina 6.00 

Water "-11 


100.12S 


Classing  the  Delaware  greensand  in  two  deposits,  the  calcareous  and 
the  glauconitic,  which  are  separated  by  a  bed  of  yellow  sand  or  sandy 
clay,  it  is  found  that  these  beds  occasionally  merge  together  and  sepa- 
rate again.  This  has  been  observed  in  sections  of  the  canal  in  Dela- 
ware. The  same  occurrence  is  met  with  in  river  cuts  in  Xorth  Carolina. 
The  chemical  composition  of  the  beds  of  com'se  varies  in  7)roportiou  as 
either  the  calcareous  or  glauconitic  element  jireponderates.  This  is  well 
seen  in  the  analyses  of  the  ui)per  and  the  lower  gTcensand  deposit  of 
Delaware,  made  by  Professor  Booth,  in  which  the  lime  may  be  taken  as 
the  varying  substance. 


Greensand  of  Ddaicare.- 

-(■Booth.  J 

Dpper  Bedi. 

1 

!  Xo.  1. 

1 

Xo.  2. 

No.  3. 

Xo.  4. 

18.6 

24.7 

35.0 

31.0 

9.0 

20.13 
3S.U0 
3-'.  00 

laoa 

58.60 

3:3.0 
33.0 
14.0 

100.6 

6.00 

35.40 

Clay 

99.0 

100. 13 

ICO.  00 

Lower  Beda. 

Xo.  3. 

No.  6.* 

Xo.  7. 

2.30 
21.70 

9.00 
55.77 

3.12 

8.50 

22.21 
8.50 

56.70 
5.00 
9.30 

27.02 

5.37 

58.60 

7.70 

7.40 

10a39 

101.00 

100.  C9 

Ccntained  shark's  teeth. 


64  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

The  average  thickness  in  Dehiware  is  about  twenty-one  feet,  increas- 
ing in  the  soutli  to  twenty-live  leet.  The  highest  aaiouut  of  carl)onate 
of  lime  which  has  been  Ibund  in  the  calcareous  greensand  of  this  State 
is  twenty-tive  per  cent.  These  beds  enter  Maryland  irom  Delaware  at 
the  head"  of  Ai)poquiuomink  Creek,  or  near  the  head  of  the  Sassafras  in 
Kent  County,  v.hence  it  crosses  the  Cliesa])eake  into  Aiiue  Arundel 
County  and  Prince  George's.  In  the  latter  it  ap])roaches  the  line  ot 
the  District  of  Columbia,  occurring  at  IMarlborough  in  beds  ten  to  twelve 
feet  thick  ;  thence  it  passes  south  through  Charles  Couufy  below  Chico- 
mosen  Creek,  and  enters  Virginia  at  Aquia  Creek,  in  Stafford  County. 
The  marls  in  Maryhmd  and  Virginia  may  ])roperly  be  considered  in  this 
place,  as,  although  not  presenting  the  characters  of  the  true  greensaud 
beds,  yet  they  bear  a  close  relation  to  those  found  in  New  Jersey  and  Dela- 
v/are.  From  the  samples  of  all  of  these  marls  forwarded  from  these  two 
Statics  to  the  department  for  examination,  it  would  appear  that,  excepting 
the  beds  near  upper  Marlborough,  the  strata  belong  to  the  lovrer  eocene, 
•AH  is  shown  by  the  fossils  occurring  through  them.  They  resemble  the 
Delaware  maris  in  the  large  amomitof  carbonate  of  lime  which  they  con- 
tain, clearly  showing  their  geological  ])ositiou  to  be  in  the  cretaceous  or 
chalk  formation.  This  carbonate  of  lime  it  not  always  evident  as  whole 
shells  or  fragmentary  portions;  but,  even  when  not  distinct  to  the 
naked  eye,  constitutes  a  portion  of  the  mass  as  a  linely  coherent  pow- 
der, so  that  every  stratum  of  these  groensands  may  be  roughly  stated 
as  made  up  of — 

1.  Chalk  powder. 

2.  (Ireensand  grains,  or  glaucoiiltc. 

3.  Whitish  quartzose  sand. 

Of  these  the  latter  element  is  the  most  constant ;  for  though  it  may 
be  found  that  the  bed  of  one  locality  differs  from  the  same  bed  in 
another  in  containing  less  glancouite,  yet  there  is  not  therefore  present 
more  chalk  or  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  then  usually  found  to  be  more 
sandy,  vrhile  sometimes,  instead  of  the  whitish  quartz  grains  increasing,  a 
gi-eenish  or  bluish  micaceous  sand  takes  its  place.  The  amount  of  the 
glauconite  varies,  but  rarely  ever  approaches  one-third  of  the  whole. 
More  frequently  it  is  less  than  ten  i^cr  cent.,  and  in  most  of  those  in 
Prince  George's  Connty  and  Charles's  it  seldom  exceeds  three  per  cent., 
as  shown  by  elutriation.  When  this  mineral  is  in  so  small  amount,  of 
course  the  marl  does  not  pay  for  its  distant  transportation;  but  it  is 
still  a  benefit  to  the  neighborhood,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the 
State  of  Maryland  and  also  of  Virginia  do  not  awake  to  the  value  ot 
these  sources  of  wealth,  thus  profusely  scattered  in  the  very  positions 
where  they  can  be  made  so  highly  beneficial.  In  the  localities  of  the 
miocene  and  the  upper  tertiary  beds,  and  the  strata  of  drift,  gravel, 
and  sands,  and  the  quaternary  layers  which  skirt  the  borders  of  the 
ocean — the  banks  of  the  large  embouchm^es  or  bays,  as  the  Delavrare 
and  the  Chesapeake,  the  Potomac  and  other  rivers,  where  a  sandy  clay 
constitutes  the  chief  surface  soil,  and  where  fertility  is  to  be  assured 
only  by  the  utmost  and  continued  eftbrts  of  labor  and  by  manures,  the 
latter  being  often  unattainable  or  of  high  price — the  marls  described 
would  prove  very  valuable,  converting  sandy  and  pine  deserts  into 
regions  of  agricultural  wealth  rivaling  any  market  garden  on  alluvial 
clay.  Where  exposures  are  met  with,  the  "beds  should  be  cleaned  out, 
examined  by  some  competent  person,  and  the  value  chemically  ascer- 
tained.   Private  enterprise  will  never  take  the  initiative  in  this  pro- 


REPORT    OF   THE    CHEMIST.  65 

ceeding.  An  esploration,  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  State 
gOYernments.  would  return  tenfold  the  amount  expended,  not  merely  in 
the  value  of  the  marl  lands,  but  in  the  increased  productions  of  the  land 
enriched  by  them,  in  the  altered  cultivation  which  must  necessarily 
ensue,  and'  in  bringing'  the  shore  counties  of  Maryland  and  Virginia 
into  close  connection  with  the  food  markets  of  Baltimore,  Washing-ton, 
Philadelphia,  and  Xew  York.  A  siu^vey,  under  a  competent  superin- 
tendent and  staif  of  assistants,  could  accomplish  the  work  in  one  sea- 
son, at  a  cost  of  a  few  thousand  dollars — a  sum  almost  every  year 
squandered  in  useless  or  harmfid  legislation. 

The  marls  of  Maryland  and  Yirginia,  as  already  stated,  resemble 
those  of  Delaware ;  and,  viewed  in  their  geological  relations,  are  superim- 
posed on  the  sandy  marl  and  the  clayey  greensand  beds  of  New  Jersey, 
which  are  the  subdivisions  of  the  cretaceous  formation  in  that  State. 
The  lower  divisions  of  the  tertiary  series  contain  the  shell  layers  of  cal- 
careous sand,  so  abundant  in  Stafford  County,  Virginia,  and  elsewhere. 
The  lower  beds  of  the  cretaceous  series  of  New  Jersey  are  met  with  in 
the  following  order,  as  given  in  the  late  survey  by  Professor  G.  H. 
Cook :  top  earth ;  micaceous  clay;  marl  with  clay,  sand,  and  shells ; 
lower  marl  bed;  sand  marl;  laminated  sand.  Above  these  lie  the  beds 
of  greensand  proper,  as  alluded  to,  and  above  these  again  are  the 
eocene  beds  which,  except  that  of  Marlborough,  are  the  only  deposits 
exposed  in  Maryland  and  Virginia.  This  difference  of  geological  position 
is  thus  dwelt  upon  here,  as  there  is  some  confusion  on  the  subject;  and 
there  exists  a  general  belief  that  the  Virginia  beds  are  of  the  true  cre- 
taceous series. 

The  fossils  occasionally  found  in  some  of  the  specimens  of  marl  for- 
warded are  shells  of  Fi/cnodG7ita  {vesmdaris  f  J  and  Terebrattda  plicata, 
v.hich  fact  perhaps  places  them  in  the  lower  group  of  beds.  No  traces 
of  amber  or  vivianite,  (phosi)haie  of  iron,)  which  have  been  met  with 
in  more  or  less  abundance  in  New  Jersey,  have  been  forwarded,  alone  or 
in  samples,  to  this  department.  Many  of  the  marls  forwarded  from  North 
Carolina,  as  well  as  from  Virginia,  appear  to  belong  to  the  tertiary, 
either  eocene  or  mioceno  marls  in  position,  and  neither  pond  marls  nor 
greensand  formations ;  the  basis  being  quartz  sand,  with  a  sprinkling 
of  ferruginous  clay.  The  black  clay  and  marls,  which  are  occasionally 
acid,  contain  free  sulphuric  acid,  with  moderate  amounts  of  organic 
matter,  potash,  phosphate,  sulphate  of  lime,  and  carbonates  of  lime 
and  magnesia.  They  may  be  used  as  top  dressing  from  five  to  twenty 
tons  per  acre,  either  composted  or  alone.  In  the  growth  of  potatoes 
these  marls  are  of  much,  value.  The  following  are  the  results  of  the 
chemical  analysis  of  some  of  the  Potomac  marls : 

21arls  from  Prince  George's  County,  Potomac  shore,   7iear   Oxen  Run, 

cpiwsitc  Alexandria. 


EXAMINED  BY  ELUTIUATION. 


Clay 

Shells  and  carbonate  of  lime.. 
Greensand  grains 

Fine  colorless  angular  quartz. 


No.  1.     No.  2.     No.  3. 


3. 

10.50  I    £'3.  H. 

32.           28.  33. 

57.50  I    49.       j  00. 

100.       t  100.       I  100. 


66  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Marls  from  Prince  George's  County^  Potomac  shore — Coutiiiued. 


EXASn.NED  BY  ANALTSIS. 


Xo.  1.       Ko.  2.     Xo 


MoUtnre 

Silica  aad  in^clnble  silicates. . 
AlDinina  and  pproxide  of  iron 

PbospbaTe  of  iron 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Carhooate  of  magnei-ia 

Soluble  i»aline  uatler 

Pota^h 

Snlpburic  acid 


9. 

73.63 

11.40 

.18 

8. -28 

traces. 

.64 

.18 


£6.43 

10.48 

.15 

21.24 

traces. 

.So 

.16 


57.59 
59. 
.  22 

ig!w 

tract*. 
.31 
.08 
1.30 


!  ica 


100. 


Ko.  1.  Lifht-greepipb  cMor,  and  .^tbouiiding  in  shells. 

Ko.  2.  Light-preenisb  color  more  gheily.  aad  containing  flae  calcareous  powder. 

Ko.  3.  Browi^Jij  color  more  shelly,  aad  containing  calcareous  powder. 

Grreensand  marl  from  Aquia  Creel;  Stafford  County,  Virginia,  one  and 
one-MIf  mile  above  the  landing— from  A.  T.  C.  Dodge's. 

Moisture 4^.00 

Alumina  and  peroxide  of  irou 5.00 

Carbonate  of  lime 42.40 

Carbonate  of  majrnesia 1.00 

Saline  matter  soluble  in  water,  containing  alkaline  sulphates 

and  clilorides 0.50 

Potash 0.10 

Silica  and  insoluble  silicates  of  lime  and  iron 46.80 


100.00 
This  marl  contained  three  to  four  per  cent,  of  glauconite. 

Marl  from  Prince  George's  County,  Maryland— from  L.  F.  Bingham. 

Dark  green  granules  and  fine  sand 45.  79 

Shell  marl,  (lime,  ferruginous  clay,  iS:c.) 54.  21 

10.  000 


The  shell  marl  contained — 

Carbonate  of  lime 45.  OS 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 1. 13 

Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina 2.  3S 

Phosphoric  acid trace 

Organic  matters 3.  80 

Water  and  loss 1-82 


54.21 


Marl  from  St.  Mary's  County,  Maryland— from  Colonel  Wilson. 

Insoluble  silicates  and  fine  sand 58.  50 

Alumina  and  jieroxide  of  iron 0.  20 

Carbonate  of  lime 17. 20 

Magnesia 0. 20 

Soluble  salt5  containing  three-fourths  of  one  per  cent,  of  potash .  3. 00 

Moisture  and  loss 11.  90 

10.  000 


EEPOHT    OF    THE    CHEiHST.  67 

2farlfrom  Pye's  Landing,  Charles  County,  Maryland, 

Insoluble  silicates  and  fine  sand 64.  60 

Alumina  and  peroxide  of  iron,  with  traces  of  pliosplioric  acid 2.  60 

Carbonate  of  lime 23, 00 

Sulphate  of  lime '  1.  41 

Soluble  alkaline  salts 0.  55 

Moisture  and  loss 7.  84 


100.  00 


The  foregoing-,  selected  out  of  many  analyses  made  in  this  laboratory, 
show  the  general  chemical  composition  of  these  marls  as  they  occur  in 
these  two  States.  Of  many  samples  forwai'ded  no  certain  information 
concerning  their  relative  position  as  to  the  accompanying  beds  of  sand 
could  be  obtained  ;  so  that,  fi-om  an  accoimt  of  their  stratification,  it  is 
not  possible  to  state  to  which  bed  they  belong.  Indeed,  it  is  questiona- 
ble whether  the  true  cretaceous  beds  have  yet  been  anywhere  exiiosed  or 
utilized  in  Virginia.  In  making  the  analyses  alluded  to,  the  sti'ictly 
chemical  examination  was  not  always  adhered  to,  the  test  by  washing 
often  sufficed  to  give  the  information  needed.  In  the  case  of  marls, 
which  are  composed  of  mineral  ingTcdients  the  specific  gravity  of  which 
differ,  the  method  of  elutriation,  or  separation  by  water  into  layers, 
may  often  be  adopted,  by  which  a  tolerably  exact  appreciation  of  the 
difterent  proportions  may  be  obtained  ;  thus,  carbonate  of  Lime,  quartz 
sand,  clay,  and  glauconite  being  the  four  constituents,  by  placing  a  pul- 
verized sample  of  marl  in  a  taU  cylindiical  glass  jar  graduated  to  a 
uniform  scale,  filling  the  vessel  up  with  water,  and  agitating  the  whole 
by  a  rapid  rotary  motion  until  thoroughly  mixed,  then  allowing  to  settle, 
it  will  be  found  that  these  four  constituents  separate  to  some  extent, 
and  are  deposited  in  layers  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  in  accordance  with 
their  different  gravities.  The  glauconite,  being  the  heavier,  wiU  settle 
at  the  bottom,  then  the  quartz,  above  that  the  clay,  and  at  the  top  the 
carbonate  of  lime  in  shell  or  fine  powder.  By  a  little  care  and  prepara- 
tion before  hand  this  mode  of  examination  may  be  made  tolerably  ex- 
act. Another  method  of  elutriation  consists  in  stirring  the  marl  in  water, 
pouring  off'  the  muddy  water,  and  leaving  the  washed  gTaius  of  marl 
with  the  sand  and  gTavel.  The  clay  is  thus  separated,  and  may  be  col- 
lected and  di-ied  after  it  has  settled.  The  washed  marl  may  he  then 
dried,  the  gravel  and  sand  picked  out,  and  each  dried  and  weighed. 
This  plan  has  been  used  in  the  geological  survey  of  Xew  Jersey.  Look- 
ing upon  the  glauconite  as  the  chief  source  both  of  the  potash  and  the 
phosphoric  acid,  whether  existing  as  phosj^hate  of  iron  in  the  more  glau- 
conitic  marls,  or  in  the  calcareous  and  the  pyiitiferous  marls,  as  phos- 
phate of  lime,  the  determination  of  the  amoimt  of  glauconite  by  some 
ready  and  easy  method  becomes  a  matter  of  practical  importance.  '  There 
is  no  plan  for  this  object  which  can  be  more  readily  adopted  than  this 
one  of  elutriation.  In  the  dry  specimen  the  eye  may  be  deceived  as  to 
the  amount  of  green  grains ;  but  when  the  whole  has  been  made  to  de- 
posit slowly,  or  has  been  washed  off'  by  moving  water,  the  separation  is 
tolerably  perfect,  and  may  be  completed  by  picking  out  the  green  grains. 
From  this  approximate  estimation  of  glauconite  a  calculation  of  both 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid  may  be  made.  The  greensand  marls  of 
North  CaroLiua  have  the  characters  of  those  tertiary  beds  of  Maryland 
and  Virginia,  already  described,  with  perhaps  larger  admixture  of  worth- 


68 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


less  matters.  They  are  very  sandy,  the  silicious  eleineut  of  fine  quartz 
sand  constituting:  'sometimes  nine-tenths  of  the  whole ;  and  they  con- 
tam  much  k^ss  potash,  and  more  lime  carbonate,  than  those  of  Xctv 
Jersey.  The  exposm-es  of  greensand  are  not  frequent,  although  these 
beds  are  classed  as  true  cretaceous  beds  in  that  State.  The  heavy  cov- 
ering of  detritus  and  sand,  and  the  slight  elevation  of  the  section  of 
country  underlaid  by  these  marls,  have  caused  little  denudation,  so 
that  it  is  only  along  the  larger  rivers  that  exposures  occur,  as  is  in- 
stanced at  the  Cape  Fear  River,  the  Xeuse,  and  the  Tar.  The  beds,  also, 
from  their  slight  elevation,  rarely  appear  above  the  river  bottoms,  and 
cannot  be  followed  to  any  extent  downward.  Professor  Emmons,  in 
his  report  of  the  geological  siu'vey  of  this  State,  says  that  in  no  place  in 
North  Carolina  has  he  ever  found  the  potash  to  equal  what  exists  in 
ZSTew  Jersey.  A  few  analyses  of  the  Xorth  Carolina  marls,  made  by  Pro- 
fessor Emmons,  are  here  appended,  to  illustrate  their  chemical  compo- 
sition. 


Silex  and  sand 

Peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina. 

Carbonate    of  lime 

Phosphate  of  peroxide  of  iron. 

Soluble  Hilica 

Magnesia 

Potash 


No.  1.     Ko.  2.     No.  3.     No.  4.     No.  5. 


37.00 
6.40 

3.3. 40 
1.60 
1.40 

13.60 
1.40 
2.10 


Soda 

Snlphr.ric  acid 

Organic  mattera j      1. 60 

Water I      1-80 


100. 30 


70.43 
9.00 
11.40 


0.20 
0.38 
0.42 


4.80 
3.80 


91.00 
4.70 
1.00 


0.20 
0.70 
0.23 
0.26 


100. 43       99. 39       99. 20 


913.0 
5.80 
0.19 


0.13 
0.15 
0.13 
0.30 


1.20 


79.00 
8.80 
Z75 


0.60 
1.60 
1.73 
0.30 
0.20 
2.00 
2.33 


99.32 


No.  1.  Lowest  stratum  at  Black  Rock,  oa  Cape  Fear  River. 

No.  2.  Upper  bed  r.t  Black  Rock,  on  Cape  Fear  River. 

No.  3.  From  Kingston,  on  the  Neuse  River. 

No.  4.  From  Colonel  Clark'n,  Tarborough. 

No.  5.  From  banks  of  Tar  River,  three  miles  from  Tarborough. 

With  the  exception  of  Xos.  1  and  2,  these  beds  are  almost  destitute 
of  lime,  yet  they  contain  but  little  potash  or  soda.  They  ;\ield  on  an 
average  fi'om  nine  to  .seventeen  per  cent,  of  fertilizing  matters,  and  are 
no  doubt  valuable  applications  on  the  soils  coutigiious  to  the  pits.  In- 
dividual owners  should  always  fertilize  their  lands  with  such  marls. 
Wlien  silica  exi.sts  to  the  amount  sho^A"n  in  Xos.  o,  4,  and  o,  named  above, 
transportation  is  out  of  the  question.  "When  silica  is  more  than  seventy 
per  cent.,  unless  verv  rich  in  potash  and  soda,  it  does  not  pay  to  transport 
marl  beyond  a  few  miles.  The  shell  marls  of  the  eocene  formation,  which 
contain  from  forty  to  seventy  per  cent,  of  lime  carbonate,  do  not  pay 
for  ti'ansportation  more  tlian  two  to  four  miles,  according  to  Professor 
Emmons;  while  the  marl  of  Black  Rock  (No.  1)  will  be  profitable  at 
greater  distances.  The  amount  of  potash  in  this  marl  is  equal  to  thirty- 
one  and  a  half  pounds  per  ton.  The  professor  \'iews  the  phosphate  of 
lime,  which  is  always  present  in  these  marls,  as  one  of  their  very  valu- 
able constituents.  Sulphuric  acid  is  always  present,  sometimes  in  the 
free  state,  but  frequently  as  sulphate  of  lime,  (g\-psum,)  which  is  the 
origin  of  the  fi'ee  acid ;  and  thus  the  gyjisum  in  every  marl  is  prob- 
ably to  be  traced  to  the  pyrites  which,  by  oxidation  of  its  sulphur, 
forms  sulphuric  acid.  The  cretaceous  beds  occupy  about  one-tenth  of 
the  State  of  Mississijjpi,  situated  in  its  northeastern  portion.  Of  this 
region  the  equivalents  of  the  greensand  beds  are  found  only  in  the 
eastern   parts  of  Tippah  County,  Pontotoc,  and  part  of   Chickasaw, 


KEPORT    OF    THE    CHEMIST. 


f)9 


embraciug  a  belt  not  more  than  ten  miles  Tvide.  The  glauconitic  layer 
is  found  mixed  with  disintegrated  shell,  highly  sandy,  and  a  poor  repre- 
sentative of  the  northern  series  as  it  appears  in  JMoumouth  County,  New 
Jersey ;  there  being  but  one  bed  from  one  foot  to  three  feet  thick,  and 
not  averaging  more  than  live  to  seven  parts  of  potash  in  every  thousand 
of  marl.  The  chemical  constitution  of  this  series  in  Mississippi  is  shown 
by  the  following  analysis  from  the  State  Geological  Eeport,  made  hy 
Professor  E.  W.  Hilgard,  State  geologist. 


lusoluble  sand  and  clay 

Potash : 

Soda 


No.  1. 


No.  2. 


73.410 
0.702 


Limo 

Mag'nesia 

Brown  oxide  mangane.se 

Peroxide  of  iron 

Alumiua 

Phosphoric  acid 

Carbonic  acid,  water,  and  Joss 


6.315 
0.886 
0.050 
7.055 
5.888 
0.046 
5.640 


99. 99-2 


62.441 
0.730 
0.272 
7.  952 
1.560 
0.  100 

11.849 
5.865 
0.266 
9.905 


101.000 


No,  1.  Wilhitc's  Taarl,  Tippah  County. 


No.  2.  Marl  from  O.  Davis's  well,  Ripley  County. 


The  glauconite  in  these  marls  does  not  exceed  one  to  two  per  cent., 
and,  sandy  and  poor  as  they  are,  they  yet  have  been  used  with  good 
effect ;  that  of  Eipley  County  has  been  laid  on  clay  lands  at  the  rate  of 
four  hundred  to  six  hundred  bushels  to  an  acre.  It  is  remarkable  that 
the  sand  marls  of  the  rotten  limestone  group  of  this  State,  which  lies 
immediately  below  the  glauconitic  layers,  contain  fully  as  much  potash, 
seven  parts  in  a  thousand,  which  perhaps  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the 
mineral  origin  of  the  sand,  it  being  derived  from  the  debris  of  a  mica- 
ceous rock.  Almost  all  the  marls  of  Mississippi  contain  phosphoric 
acid,  the  average  amount  of  which  varies  from  two  to  three  parts  per 
thousand.  This  accoimts,  in  a  measure,  for  the  value  of  even  the  sandy 
marls  of  the  State. 


ACTION  AND  VALITE   OF   GEEENSAJS^D  ]\IAP.LS. 

The  action  of  these  marls  depends  on  the  influence  of  tiie  predominat- 
ing elements,  which  are  lime  carbonate,  potash,  oxide  of  iron,  and  phos- 
phoric acid.  The  action  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  a  marl  is  too  well  known 
to  need  elucidation  in  a  report  like  this.  Valuable  as  this  form  of  lime 
is  as  a  food  of  plants,  and  a  necessary  constituent  supplying  lime  to  their 
frame-work,  its  importance  as  an  amendment  of  soil  in  a  marl  or  manure 
is  yet  but  secondary.  Those  substances  which  are  constantly  undergoia g 
change  of  condition  by  oxidation  are  those  which  are  the  essential 
constituents  of  a  manure;  under  this  head  the  oxides  of  iron,  and  the 
salts  of  iron  reducible  to  oxides,  must  occupy  the  first  position.  AVe 
cannot  greatly  err  by  estimating  very  highly  the  action  of  the  protoxide 
and  the  peroxide  of  iron.  This  metal  holds  its  oxygen  with  but  a  medium 
lorce,  yielding  it  up  to  other  bodies  which  have  stronger  affinities  for  it, 
and  in  turn  taking  oxygen  from  substances  which  hold  it  but  loosely, 
t'nd  passing  from  the  condition  of  protoxide  to  that  of  peroxide.  Iron 
llius  becomes  a  storehouse  of  oxygen  for  the  soil  and  for  the  use  of 
growing  plants;  and  it  is  this  moving  oxygen  which  is  continually 
entering  into  compounds  and  leaving  themwlnch  contributes  to  build 
up  the  tissues  and  the  juices  of  growing  vegetation.    Although  not 


70  AGRICULTUKAIi   REPORT. 

entering  to  any  notable  extent  into  tlie  actnal  composition  of  plants, 
yet  iron  is  one  of  the  most  important  elements  of  soils  in  aiding  plants 
to  grow.  It  shares  this  function  with  organic  matter.  They  ai-e  both 
stimulants,  inci-easing  the  nuti'itiou  by  the  supply  of  oxygen  which  they 
yield  to  other  proximate  principles  of  vegetation.  The  Ifou  of  a  soil  is 
generally  reported  in  an  analysis  as  existing  in  the  state  of  peroxide: 
but.  strictly  speaking,  no  soil  contains  iron  in  state  of  peroxide  alone. 
Some  of  it  is  in  the  form  of  protoxide,  brought  to  this  condition  by 
organic  matter,  which  has  robbed  the  peroxide  of  some  of  its  oxygen. 
In  this  double  state  it  exists  in  gi-eeusaud.  The  organic  matter  of  a 
sod,  by  contact  with  oxide  of  iron  becoming  oxidized,  is  changed  into 
vegetable  acids  which  are  soluble,  and  unite  with  the  lime  and  magnesia 
to  form  soluble  salts  of  those  earths,  which  then  enter  the  rootlets  of  the 
plant  and  aid  in  forming  tissue  in  the  sap.  Perhaps  the  fertility  of 
basaltic  soils  is  as  much  due  to  their  oxides  of  ii^on  as  to  the  lime  which 
they  contain. 

This  reaction  of  ii'on  oxides  and  organic  matter  upon  each  other 
occurs  only  in  the  presence  of  moisture  and  sunlight,  (heat:)  and  moist- 
ure itself,  with  heat,  is  at  times  a  fertile  cause  of  oxidation,  and  of  the 
nutrition  of  plants.  Away  from  the  influence  of  these  forces  of  nature 
the  action  of  protoxide  of' iron  is  only  injurious  to  vegetation.  Under 
solar  influence  and  contact  of  protoxide  of  ii'on,  water  itself  is  decom- 
posed, its  oxygen  a]ipropriated  by  the  iron  to  peroxidize  it.  and  the  hy- 
di'ogeu  liberated.  Tbe  latter,  coming  into  contact  with  the  nitrogen  of 
the  air,  forms  ammonia,  which  is  seized  by  carbonic  and  other  organic 
acids,  rendered  soluble  ui  water,  and  lit  to  enter  the  plant.  Thus,  iron 
is  the  medium  between  the  water,  the  organic  matter,  and  the  atmos- 
phere. 

These  remarks  are  made  to  illustrate  the  action  of  greensand  marls 
upon  vegetation  as  far  as  their  iron  element  is  concerned.  In  these 
marls  it  exists  chiefly  in  the  state  of  peroxide,  which,  upon  mixture  with 
vegetable  matters,  is  reduced  to  protoxide  by  contact  with  the  moist 
humus;  then,  being  i^stored  to  the  condition  of  peroxide  by  contact 
with  moistuie,  the  consequent  liberation  of  hydrogen  forms  ammonia 
secondarily.  lion  thus  aids  in  forming  soluble  organic  matter,  as  or- 
ganic acids,  and  also  ammonia,  two  important  principles  of  fertility.  We 
shoidd,  therefore,  err  if  we  estimated  the  value  of  a  gieensand  by  taking 
into  account  only  its  lime,  its  ijotash,  or  its  phosphoric  acid.  We  should 
consider  the  oxide  of  iron  as  a  valuable  constituent  in  promoting  fertility. 

The  presence  of  potash  in  these  marls  gives  them  their  distinctive 
character  as  fertilizers,  and  adds  one  of  the  most  important  elements 
necessary  for  plants.  The  large  amount  of  potash  found  in  glaucon- 
ite  renders  it  at  once  the  cheapest  source  for  agiicultui-al  use  from  which 
this  mineral  element  can  be  supplicnl.  The  action  of  potash  is  twofold : 
first,  upon  the  insoluble  organic  matter  of  a  sod,  bringing  it  into  a  sol 
uble  form ;  and,  secondly,  supplying  to  certain  food  plants  the  special 
alkaline  food  which  they  require.  By  the  coustiiut  action  of  alkalies, 
(and  of  this  class  potash  is  the  most  efficient.)  the  insoluble  organic 
matter,  humus  is  converted  into  humic  acid,  and  carbonic  acid  is  also 
produced.  Both  of  these  acids  tdtimately  unite  with  the  potash  and 
form  carbonates  of  that  base,  which  salts,  when  formed,  enter  the 
rootlets  of  the  plants  in  a  Ikuited  degree,  remain  for  a  short  period 
in  the  vegetable  organization,  and  are  then  ejected — i>erhaps  not 
wholly.  Under  this  influence  the  woody  tissues  of  plants  are  formed 
In  the  development  of  leaf  and  tuber  potash  seems  essential.  It  is 
chiefly  aggregated  in  the  leaves  of  most  plants,  as  it  is  in  the  muscidar 


REPORT    OF   THE    CHEMIST,  71 

juices  of  animals,  forming:  not  less  tlian  twenty  and  sometimes  more 
than  fifty  ptT  cent,  of  the  leaf  u  eight — the  latter  amount  being  found  in 
the  roots  and  tubers.  The  straw  and  chatf  of  cereals  also  contain  it 
in  variable  proportion.  Perhaps  nowhere  is  the  selecting  power  of 
plants  for  special  mineral  salts  better  shown  than  in  the  distribution  of 
potassa.  Dr.  Anderson  illustrates  this  by  the  case  of  the  poppy,  which 
contains  only  twelve  per  cent,  of  this  alkali  in  its  seed,  while  the  leaves 
yield  upward  of  thirty-seven  per  cent. 

Sufiicient  has  already  been  written  concerning  the  value  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  phosphate  of  lime  to  render  any  statement  unnecessary  here. 
All  cretaceous  marls  contain  phosphoric  acid,  whether  combined  with 
iron  or  lime  f  and  phosphate  of  lime  is,  perhaps,  more  valuable  than  lime 
as  a  fertilizing  agent.  The  form  in  which  potassa  exists  in  these  marls 
is  as  a  silicate,  and  it  is  slowly  decomposed  under  mere  atmospheric 
exposure.  On  soils  which  contain  lime  or  much  humus,  the  decomposi- 
tion proceeds  at  a  more  rapid  rate,  owing  to  the  evolution  of  carbonic 
acid ;  and  in  this  way  this  alkali  is  slowly  evolved  for  the  benefit  of  veg- 
etation. The  long-continued  beneficial  action  of  gieensand  on  gi'ounds 
may  in  part  be  explained  by  the  gradual  nature  of  this  decomposition. 

In  I^ew  Jersey,  along  the  line  of  the  Earitan  and  Delaware  Bay  rail- 
road, where  it  is  sold  at  eight  cents  a  bushel,  it  is  applied  at  the  rate  of 
one  hundred  bushels  per  acre ;  and  on  these  light  soils  i)roduces  a  better 
effect  than  the  usual  dressing  with  stable  manure,  especially  for  small 
fruits  and  market-garden  vegetables.  In  Delaware,  from  three  hundred 
to  five  huntlied  bushels  have  been  applied  per  acre  for  wheat,  oats,  and 
other  cereals,  with  sometimes  a  fomfold  return.  A  decided  benefit,  but 
not  to  the  same  extent,  is  exi)erienced  on  grass.  Generally,  it  may  be 
said  that  land  has  increased  by  its  use  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  per 
cent,  in  value.  The  value  of  marling  south  of  IS'ew  Jersey  is  the  com- 
bined value  of  the  carbonate  and  the  phosphate  of  lime,  and  of  the  po- 
tassa. When  the  marls  are  more  calcareous,  they  become  amendments 
to  the  soil  rather  than  fertilizers  to  the  crops,  and  much  larger  dress- 
ings are  therefore  necessary ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  more  discrimi- 
nation is  required  as  to  the  land  which  will  be  mainly  benefited  by 
the  apx)lication.  The  lime  being  in  predominant  quantity  in  the  green- 
sand  marls  south  of  Delaware,  the  action  is  chiefly  upon  the  organic 
matter  of  the  soil,  combining  with  it  and  rendering  it  more  soluble. 
Hence,  to  poor  and  light  soils  it  would  be  imnecessary  to  apply  heavy 
dressings ;  for  these,  fifty  to  eighty  bushels  per  acre  might  be  sufficient. 
On  stiff,  clayey  soils,  the  textui-e  of  which  may  be  lightened  advanta- 
geously, ii-om.  one  huutked  to  three  hundied  bushels  per  acre  may  be 
applied.  In  these  clay  soils  there  is  generally  more  insoluble  organic 
matter  to  be  acted  upon,  and  in  such  cases  so  large  a  quantity  as  five 
hundred  bushels  per  acre  acts  beneficially.  In  general  terms,  then,  it 
may  be  stated  that  the  calcareous  gxeensand  marls  act  more  eliectively 
in  proportion  as  there  is  organic  matter  present,  and  in  proportion  as 
the  clay  is  a  heavy  one. 

It  is  not  easy  to  determine  exactly  the  value  of  a  compoimd  manure 
like  this.  The  question  is  a  commercial  one,  and  woidd  not  properly  be 
discussed  here  were  not  the  value  in  a  great  degTce  dependent  upon  the 
chemical  analysis.  Were  the  fertilizer  composed  of  but  one  ingredient, 
it  would  be  easy  to  determine  its  value  by  ascertaining  the  market  price 
of  the  pure  and  commercial  article,  and  then  determining  how  much  of 
such  ingxedient  existed  in  the  manure.  Thus,  if  phosphoric  acid  in  a 
soluble  state  is  worth  commercially  fifteen  cents  per  pound,  and  the 


72  AGSICULTUKAL   EEPOET. 

fertiKzer  coutaiiis  oue  himdred  pounds  in  a  ton.  it  is  evideutly  wortb 
lifteen  dollars  i>er  ton  ^vhen  delivered. 

When  a  manure  has  a  complex  constitution,  the  real  value  becomes  a 
difficult  problem  to  state  exactly,  for  the  a^icultural  and  the  commei- 
ei;il  value  do  not  always  ag:ree.  The  former  is  fixed  and  invariable, 
dependent  on  the  necessities  of  the  plant  and  the  soil :  the  latter  is  liable 
to  fluctuation  from  the  unsteadiness  of  the  supply  and  demand.  The 
following  estimate  is  approximately  correct.  The  value  of  i)hos])horie 
acid  in  the  soluble  form  may  be  set  down  at  fifteen  or  sixteen  cents  per 
pound:  phosphoric  acid  in  insoluble  form,  six  cents  per  pound:  potash  ia 
the  soluble  fonn.  seven  cents  per  pound:  jwtash  in  the  insoluble  form, 
two  cents  per  pound:  sulphuric  acid,  one  cent  per  pound;  carbonate  of 
lime,  half  a  cent  per  pound.  If  we  calculate  the  value  of  one  of  the 
inferior  greensaud  marls  of  Maryland,  as  Xo.  3,  from  Prince  George's 
County,  we  obtain : 

320  pounds  carbonate  of  lime,  at  ^  cent $1  CO 

G  pounds  soda  salts,  at  1  cent 06 

2  pounds  phosphoric  acid,  insoluble,  at  6  cents 12 

1^%  pounds  potash,  soluble,  at  7  cents 11 

20  pounds  sulphuric  acid,  at  1  cent 20 

2  15 


This  estimate  is  .<^mewLat  below  the  real  value  of  the  compound,  since 
it  estimates  each  article  singly,  and  tates  no  account  of  the  effect  of  the 
diSerent  ingredients  of  the  mass  upon  one  another  in  rendering  them 
more  readily  soluble,  more  stimulating  to  and  more  fit  for  appropria- 
tion by  the  plant-  The  general  method  of  calculating  values,  however, 
may  be  of  interest  to  many  who  desire  to  know  how  estimates  should  be 
made. 

What  we  have  just  stated — ^tkat  the  value  of  a  compound  manure  is 
greater  than  the  sum  of  the  values  of  its  separate  constituents — needs 
some  remark:  otherwise,  and  with  justice,  the  farmer  might  say:  "Why 
should  I  dig  and  haul  so  bulky  a  material  as  this  marl,  containing  as  it 
does  not  more  than  five  positively  useful  ingredients,  amounting  to  ten 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  weight,  when  I  can  buy  these  several  salts  from 
the  wholesale  druggist,  and  then  dihite  them  afterward  on  the  ground  f 
Would  it  not  be  actually  cheaper  to  buy  the  chemicals  and  make  my 
own  compost,  rather  than  to  take  the  bulky  form  in  which  nature  sup- 
plies them?"  The  answer  to  these  questions  lies  in  the  following  con- 
siderations: Admitting  that  both  the  a^rtificial  salts  and  the  natural 
marl  have  an  equal  mauiu-ial  value  and  action,  still  the  farmer  should 
rememlxT  that  he  is  often  richer  in  cattle  and  human  labor  than  in  ready 
money;  that  in  idle  seasons  he  can  haul  and  spread  his  native  marl,  (if 
it  is  a  month  or  two  sooner  than  it  is  actually  needed,  it  sufiers  but  little 
from  exposure.)  while,  as  regards  the  purchased  salts,  they  must  Ix^ 
bought  only  when  required,  as  they  waste  and  lose  by  exi)0sure  to  the 
air  and  moisture.  They  can  be  applied  only  at  a  certain  period  for  the 
benefit  of  the  gi-owing  crop,  because  they  readily  dissolve  in  water. 
They  act  readily  on  the  crop,  and  are  eflective  during  the  particular 
season  in  which  they  are  applied ;  but  their  action,  while  immediate,  is 
also  transitory.  It  is  felt  less  the  next  year,  very  much  less  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  subsequently  cannot  l>e  recognized  except,  perhaps,  by  a 
diminished  productiveness  of  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  in  'the  case  of 
natural  marls,  the  elements  are  but  sparingly  soluble,  and  consequently 


REPORT    OF    THE    CHEMIST.  {6 

given  out  only  by  little  at  a  time,  as  the  plant  needs  and  has  ability  to 
appropriate.  'Hence  then-  action,  while  slow,  is  of  a  permanent  charac- 
ter, and  can  be  ascertained  after  many  years.  In  Xew  Jersey  one  of 
the  first  applications  of  gTeensaud,  over  sixty  years  ag:o,  so  enriched 
the  field  that  it  was  recognizable  as  improved  thirty  years  after  the 
application  ;  and  in  Xorth  Carolina  the  allmial  lands  which  have  been 
manured  with  these  marls  have  retained  their  superiority  over  uumarled 
lands  for  over  fifty  years  without  a  second  dressing.  AVhen  this  increased 
and  permanent  fertility  has  been  experienced,  it  is  not  wonderful  that 
the  natural  should  be  pi-eferred  to  the  artificial  compounds,  or  tliat  over 
one  milhon  bushels  of  gTeensaud  marl  should  have  been  dug  and  sold 
in  Xew  Jersey  in  1868. 

NATFTE  PnOSPHATlC  :MAXniES. 

Dimug  the  year,  samples  of  mineral  fi'om  the  newly  discovered  phos- 
phatic  beds  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  were  forwarded  for  analysis. 
These  beds  have  received  great  attention  lately,  owing  to  their  contain- 
ing a  large  amount  of  phosphate  of  lime ;  and  much  has  been  communi- 
cated to  the  public  concerning  them,  by  Drs.  Pratt  and  Holmes,  and 
Professor  C.  U.  Shepard,  jr.,  'M.  D.,  of  Charleston.  Their  geological 
position  as  strata  had  long  been  known  and  described,  but  it  has  been 
only  withm  the  past  few  years  that  their  extreme  richness  in  phosphate 
of  lime  at  once  classed  them  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  mineral  beds 
of  South  Carolina. 

The  strata  containing  phosphate  of  lime  rang-e  in  position,  in  South 
Carolina,  from  the  early  miocene  to  the  middle  bed  of  the  post  pliocene 
formation.  It  was  diu-ing  the  early  tertiary  period  that  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  shore  land  of  the  Carolinas,  and  south  by  Tilobile  Eiver  to  tbe 
western  limits  of  Louisiana,  Avas  formed  by  deposition  and  subsequent 
extensive,  slow,  and  uniform  elevation.  The  Claiborne  marls  and  shell 
sands  of  Alabama  are  the  lowest  beds  of  this  series,  with  the  more  solid 
buhr-stone  and  the  vrhite  limestone  marls  of  the  Santee  Eiver.  Above 
these,  in  the  same  group,  occur  the  gTay  marls  of  the  Ashley  and  the 
Cooper  Elvers,  aboiuiding  in  rhizopods.  These  are  miocene  beds,  and 
ui)on  them  lie,  unconformably,  the  post  pliocene  sands  and  marls,  one 
of  which  embraces  tbe  material  now  so  much  sought  after  for  its  a^i- 
cidtural  value. 

All  of  these  strata  contain  phosphate  of  lime  in  marked  quantity. 
The  marl  beds  of  Charleston  are  of  wide  extent,  embracing,  accorduig 
to  Dr.  Tuomey,  an  area  of  seventy-five  miles  In*  sixty,  from  the  Santee 
Eiver  on  the  east  to  the  Ashepoo  on  the  west,  and  lying-  between  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  south  and  east  and  the  buhr-stone  formation  of 
the  eocene  beds  on  the  north.  They  are  beds  of  white  limestone  marl 
and  greensaud,  dipping-  gently  to  the  south,  and  underlying  the  newer 
beds  of  marl  of  the  Ashley  and  Cooper  Elvers,  the  former  of  which 
constitutes  the  uppermost  sti-atum  of  the  eocene.  The  thickness  of  the 
Santee  beds  is  between  six  hundred  and  seven  hundred  feet,  and  has 
been  recognized  as  underlying  the  whole  neighborhood  of  Charleston. 
Dr.  Smith  and  Professor  Shepard  found  what  was  deemed  an  unusual 
amount  of  phosi)hato  of  lime,  ranging  from  two  to  nine  per  cent,  of  that 
mineral.  This  amount,  while  constituting  a  rich  soil,  did  not  justify  its 
use  or  transportation  as  a  marl,  the  value  of  which  is  to  be  estimated  by 
the  amount  of  lime  phosphate  it  contains.  The  quantity  of  carbonate 
of  lime  is  very  great,  varAlng  from  fifty  to  eighty  per  cent.,  and  the  value 
had  hitherto  been  estimated  according  to  the  amount  of  this  ingredient. 


74 


AGEICULTURAX.   REPORT. 


Tlie  fisli-beds  of  the  Ashley  River  yielded  to  Professor  Shepard  the  fol 
lowinir  ooustitueiits : 


Silica ^-... 

Carbonate  of  lime  and  mngneda  ... 
PhoRpbate  of  lime-  and  oiiie  of  iron 

Alnmina   

Water 


No.  1. 

Ko.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

29.00 

2D.  08 

10.20 

16.00 

58.00 

53.98 

ce.6o 

82.80 

8.80 

7.00 

8.60 

2.80 

.80 

.80 

1.00 

l.(K) 

4.00 

4.00 

4.W) 

2.00 

99.60 


94. 86         92. 40 


No.  1.  from  Mr.  J.  P.  Clements,  west  cf  A.chley  River;  No.  2,  from  Kev.  Dr.  Hankels.  bank  of  Ashley 
River ;  No.  3,  from  Drayton  Hall,  beak  of  Ashley  'River  ;  No.  4,  from  Wilmington,  North  Carolina. 

The  first  three  analyses  give  the  average  coiupo-sition  of  this  stratum 
about  Charleston.  !N^o.  4  gives  the  constitution  further  north,  showing 
that  it  bcLomes  more  pm-ely  calcareous  as  it  passes  northward,  until  it 
finally  thins  out  and  di.sappears  before  it  reaches  New  Jersey. 

Above  this  bed  of  calcareous  marl  is  a  layer  of  blue  sand,  in  which 
are  found  hard  masses  of  p-ayish  or  bluish-white  rock,  which  break 
readily  into  fragments,  and  have  been  called  nodules.  These  constitute 
the  material  now  so  much  sought  after,  and  are  described  by  Dr.  Tuomey, 
in  his  siu-vey  of  South  Carolina,  as  scattered  over  the  surface,  so  as,  in 
some  places,  to  ofier  obstruction  to  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  and  there- 
fore have  been  gathered  in  beaps  from  the  land  of  the  plantations  near 
the  A.shley  River,  in  order  to  render  cultivation  jiossible. 

Professor  Shepard,  jr..  in  an  article  in  the  Massachusetts  Plough- 
man on  these  phosphatic  beds,  describes  their  appearances  as  follows: 
"The  chief  beds  were  discovered  on  the  Ashley  River,  extending  fi'om 
about  seven  miles  above  Charleston  ui)  the  river  for  ten  to  fifteen  miles. 
The  land  is  not  level  but  rolls  in  low  blufls,  generally  twenty  to  forty 
feet  high,  at  right  angles  to  the  course  of  the  river.  Between  these 
bluffs  there  are  swamp  lands,  most  of  which  have  canals  through  them, 
and  were  once  thoroughly  drained  for  the  culture  of  cotton.  In  these 
low  lands  the  rich  top  soil  is  about  four  to  six  inches  in  depth;  there  fol- 
lows a  bght  sandy  stratum  sometimes  eighteen  inches  thick,  generally 
less;  and,  underneath,  the  stratum  of  nodular  pho.><phates,  packed  close 
together  with  hardly  any  soil  between  them."  Professor  Holmes  had,  as 
far  back  as  1S44,  described  the  occurrence  of  a  conglomerate  layer,  con- 
sisting of  nodules  imbedded  in  a  blue  sandy  clay,  about  twelve  inches 
thick,  overlying  the  marl  beds  the  composition  of  which  has  just  been 
given.  They  require  the  use  of  the  pick  to  remove  them,  and  are  locally 
called  marl-stones.  Tlie  remains  of  marine  and  of  terrestrial  animals  are 
foimd  in  this  bed,  and  casts  of  fossils  common  to  the  marl  bed  below, 
(Holmes.)  It  is  remarkable  that  these  nodules  and  fossil  remains  were 
looked  upon  as  pseudomorj^hs  in  which  the  carbonate  of  lime  has  dis- 
appeared, to  be  rei)laced  by  silica ;  the  phosphate  of  lime  having  escaped 
recognition  until  its  real  composition  was  declared  by  Dr.  X.  A.  Pratt, 
from  examination  of  several  of  the  nodules  in  August,  18G7,  which 
revealed  the  fact  of  a  large  i)crcentage  of  ])hosi>hate  of  lime,  instead  cf 
silica,  in  them.  According  to  a  statement  made  in  a  pamphlet  entitled 
"A.shley  River  Phosphates,"  and  i»rinted  in  Philadelphia  at  the  close  of 
1868,  Dr.  P.  found  in  these  nodules  as  much  as  34,  55,  and  60  per 
cent,  respectively;  in  foct  they  were  true  bone  pho.sphates,  in  some 
samples  of  which  the  amount  of  ])hosphate  exceeds  that  found  in  bones 
of  living  mammals.  This  di.scovery  led  to  the  formation  of  a  company, 
residing  in  Philadelphia,  to  raise  and  export  the  material.    The  works 


REPORT    OF   THE    CHEMIST  75 

of  the  company  engaged  in  bringing  this  fertilizer  to  market  are  exten- 
sive, and  located  on  the  Ashley  liiver,  about  ten  miles  above  Gharieston. 
Their  wharf  is  on  a  blufi",  and  is  accessible  to  any  vessel  -which  can  cross 
the  bar  below  the  city.  The  land  approach  is  by  the  Dorchester  road. 
At  the  close  of  the  year  1808  the  export  trade  in  this  substance  was 
extensive,  the  Charleston  papers  announcing  daily  the  loading  of  eight 
to  ten  vessels  on  the  Ashley  Eiver.  These  vessels  are  chartered  either 
for  Baltimore  or  more  eastern  markets,  where  the  crude  material  is 
manipulated,  and  mixed  with  ammonia  salts,  to  form  phospliatic  guano, 
or  else  merely  crushed  to  form  the  gTouud  of  phosphate  of  lime.  The 
domestic  manipulation  of  this  pulverized  phosphate  is  i^racticed,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  by  the  farmers  of  northern  Maryland  and  the  border 
counties  of  Pennsylvania.  Some  mix  the  phosphate  with  farm  manure, 
while  others  buy  crude  ammonia  from  the  druggist,  and  mix  them 
together. 

Dr.  Pratt  describes  this  phosphatic  bed  as  "varying  from  four  to 
eighteen  inches  in  thickness,  sometimes,  though  rarely,  increasing  to 
two  or  three  feet,  and  in  some  places  thinning  out  to  a  few  scattering 
nodules  on  or  near  the  surface.  It  consists  essentially  of  indui-ated, 
iiregularly-rounded  nodules,  buried  in  an  adhesive  and  tenacious  blue 
clay  and  sand;  sometimes,  however,  it  exists  in  continuous  beds,  or 
large  lumps,  or  conglomerates  of  soft  chalky  consistency,  as  if  it  were 
originally  a  soft  pasty  mass  of  phosphatic  mud  that  has  since  become 
semi-consolidated.  Associated  with  these  is  a  most  wonderful  assort- 
ment of  animal  remains,  among  which  bones  of  marine  animals  are  so 
abundant  as  to  have  induced  Professor  L.  Agassiz,  twenty  years  ago,  to 
call  it  the  'fish  bed'  of  the  Charleston  Basin." 

The  nodules  he  describes  as  rough,  irregular  in  form, water- worn,  and 
rounded,  perforated  by  boring  moUusks,  though  generally  only  the 
casts  of  them  remain;  under  the  microscope  they  exhibit  the  unmistak- 
able characters  of  bone,  are  easily  soluble  even  in  dilute  acids,  free  from 
phosphate  of  iron  and  alumina,  with  a  very  low  j)ercentage  of  car- 
lionate  of  lime.  From  one  specimen  of  a  mastodon  bone  Dr.  Pratfstates 
that  he  obtained  85.62  jier  cent,  of  pure  bone  phosphate,  and  the  nodules 
contain  on  an  average  from  57  to  67  per  cent,  of  bone  phosphate. 

Professor  C.  TJ.  Shepard,  jr.,  of  Charleston,  who,  as  far  back  as  1860, 
appreciated  the  value  of  tliis  bed,  and  urged  upon  the  Agricultural  Soci- 
ety of  South  Carolina  the  importance  of  utilizing  it,  describes,  in  the 
paper  above  referred  to,  the  size  of  the  nocluies  as  being  from  that  of  a 
boy's  fist  up  to  a  man's  head,  some  of  a  light  color,  and  easily  crushed  in 
the  fingers,  and  yielding  the  following  residts.  A  soft  nodular  i)hos- 
phate  between  the  Cooper  and  the  Ashley  Eiver : 

Moisture  driven  off  at  212°  E 3. 05 

Water  and  organic  matter 6.  03 

Sand  and  sesquioxide  of  iron 12.  83 

Carbonate  of  lime 8.  06 

Sulphate  of  lime 2. 20 

Phosijhate  of  Ume  and  iron 69. 00 


101. 17 


The  phosphate  of  iron  rarely  exceeded  5  per  cent,  and  was  much  less 
in  the  light-colored  i)hosphates.  Dr.  Shepard  states  that  when  freshly 
dug  and  fractured,  the  fresh  surfaces  give  off  a  very  strong  organic 
odor,  so  characteristic  as  to  be  made  the  means  of  detecting  the  phos- 


76  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

phates  thronohout  the  repon  of  tlie  deposit.  This  odor  is  also  found  in 
the  dry  specimens,  -whether  hard  or  soft;  the  amount  of  nitrogenous 
matter  is  small,  not  exceeding  0.5  per  cent,  of  ammonia.  Under  this 
bed  a  phosphatic  marl  occurs,  reaching  to  the  depth  of  four  hundred 
feet,  as  ascertained  by  boring,  and  containing,  according  to  Professor 
Shepard.  14  i)er  cent.' of  phosphate  of  lime.  The  nodules  lie  so  close 
that  an  acre  of  the  deposit  has  Nielded  thirteen  hundred  tons  of  nodides, 
even  alter  rejecting  small  sampler.  These,  when  clean  and  dry.  have 
brought  occasionally  as  high  as  fifteen  dollars  per  ton.  ]\Iuch  of  the 
land,  between  the  rivers  and  overlying  the  stratum,  is  covered  with 
dense  forest.  The  phosphate  is  obtained  by  digging  a  ti-ench  one  or  two 
feet  wide,  cutting  through  the  phosphatic  stratum,  and  cleaning  out  the 
flitch ;  the  laborer  then  stands  in  the  trench,  and  with  a  shovel  uncovers 
the  surface  clay  and  sand.  la\'ing  bare  the  layer  of  nodules.  Then, 
with  a  few  blows  of  the  pick.'  the  latter  are  loosened,  and  the  nodules 
picked  out  with  the  hand  and  thi'own  into  heaps,  which  are  then  drawn 
on  the  tramway,  in  carts,  to  the  washers,  or  long  troughs  with  horizon- 
tal shafts  inside,  furnished  with  paddles,  and  worked  with  a  strong 
stream  of  water  from  a  force  pump.  When  the  washing  is  completed, 
the  ncdides,  free  from  clay  and  sand,  are  delivered  out  through  a  vent, 
and  sold  on  the  wharf. 

The  following  analyses  of  these  phosphates,  samples  of  which  were 
forwarded  by  L.  Sangston.  esq.,  president  of  the  Maryland  Fertilizing 
and  Manufactiuing  Company  of  Baltimore,  have  been  made  in  this  Lab- 
oratory, !No.  1  representing  the  nodules,  and  Xo.  2  the  fossil  bone : 


No.  1. 


Mobtnre  and  organic  matter 2-50  LPO 

iDsolnUe  fcilicatcs  and  sand ly.  40  !        9.20 

Phosphate  of  iron  and  aloimna I"i20  j        6.W 

Phosphate  of  lime SaOO  64.10 

Carboaate  of  lime S.  (W  17. 4'J 

Ma^esia Trace.  Trace. 

Alkalite  salts,  chlorides,  and  sulphateji 1-  e<-'  1-  I'J 

99. 90    p      99.90 

The  composition  of  ^o.  1  shows  what  alteration  it  has  undergone  by 
the  clayey  admixture  which  has  crept  in,  and  by  the  loss  of  almost  all 
its  organic  matter.  TVe  place  here  lor  comparison  the  composition  of 
recent  bone  of  the  ox  as  given  by  Fremy,  (Watts's  Dictionary  of  Chem- 
istry.) when  deprived  of  its  organic  matter,  which  generally  is  33  per 
cent. : 

Per  cent,  of  a.sh 3. 17 

Phosphate  of  hme G2.  oO 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 2.  70 

Carbonate  of  lime 7.  DO 

This  includes  the  ash  of  the  organic  matter,  or  ostein,  burned  off. 

It  may  be  observed  that,  in  the  fossil  bone,  the  magnesia  salt  has 
disappeared,  and  is  replaced  by  some  alkaline  salt,  introduced  by  per- 
colation; that  the  organic  matter  is  almost  wholly  replaced  by  the  tine 
clay  deposited  in  its  stmctme:  and  that  the  whole  mass  has  been 
cemented  by  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  lime,  contained  in  waters  running 
through  the  beds  under  pressui'e.  As  regards  the  amoimt  of  bone  phos- 
phate, these  fossils  are  as  rich  as  the  recent  bone,  and  much  richer  than 
Swan  Island,  Xavassa,  or  Bolivian  guano.     The  uodidar  bed  i^o.  1 


REPORT    OF    THE    CHEMIST.  77 

resembles,  more  nearly  than  ZSTo.  2,  the  coprolites  of  England,  as  analyzed 
by  Herepath,  but  gives  much  less  lime  carbonate.  An  analysis  of  tossil 
bone,  from  the  greensand  beds  of  Virginia,  is  here  apjiended: 

r.Ioistiire  and  organic  matter 1, 50 

Insoluble  silicates  and  sand 17.  -iO 

Phosphate  of  iron  and  alumina 10.  94 

Phosphate  of  lime ^55. 20 

Cai'bonate  of  lime 12.  GO 

Magnesia trace 

Soluble  salts,  chiefly  chlorides 2.  30 

09.  04 


The  bones  ^vere  found  in  the  Potomac  Eiver  when  raking  oysters 
belo^v  Aqtiia  Creek.  By  soaking  in  brackish  ^vater,  and  by  deposit,  they 
have  undergone  some  alteration,  even  from  those  found  in  the  gTeen- 
sand  beds. 

It  is  still  interesting  to  observe  hoTv  large  an  amount  of  lime  phos- 
phate is  preserved  after  so  long-continued  solvent  action  of  the  vreak 
saHne  Tvater  of  the  Potomac  Pdver  at  that  point. 

TH031AS  A^^LISELL,  .If.  D. 

Hon.  HoEACE  Capson.  Commissioner. 


THE  FOOD  AND  HABITS  OF  BEETLES. 


The  foUowinjr  suggjestioiis  are  submtted,  partly  from  personal  obser- 
vation, and  partly  from  tlie  best  authentic  soui-ees,  both  American  and 
foreign,  for  the  use  of  young  entcmolopsts,  or  persons  who  ^sh  to  study 
and  identify  the  vimous  beetles  injurious  or  beneficial  to  vegetable  anil 
to  animal  substances. 

The  first  part  will  contain  the  latest  scientific  name,  as  also  the  com- 
mon or  vidgar  appellation  by  which  the  insect  is  generally  known, 
wherever  it  is  jiossible  to  give  it,  T\-itli  reference  to  some  of  the  various 
authors  who  have  described  the  insect,  and  a  very  brief  history  of  its 
habits  tu  the  larva,  pupa,  or  perfect  state,  together  with  the  various 
vegetable  cr  animal  substances  upon  which  it  is  found  or  feeds.  Each 
iusect,  specially  named,  will  be  distinguished  by  a  number  in  brackets, 
so  as  to  be  reaclily  referred  to  by  persons  seekiug  information. 

The  second  part  Avill  contain  an  alphabetical  list  of  the  plants  and  other 
substances  upon  which  certain  species  of  beetles  feed,  with  the  number 
in  brackets  before  alluded  to  attached  to  it,  as  referring  to  the  first  part 
where  the  insects  themselves  are  mentioned.  The  American  works  re- 
ferred to  in  this  sketch  are  those  of  Dr.  Lecoute,  of  Say,  Harris,  Fitch, 
the  ''American  Entomologist,"'  &:c.  The  descriptions  of  the  habits  of  the 
various  families  are  taken  chiefly  from  Dr.  Leconte,  or  AVestwood,  an 
English  entomologist,  who,  ia  his  valuable  work  on  the  "  Classification 
of  Insects,''  gives  the  most  lucid  and  brief  descriptions,  which  will  apply 
to  the  insects  of  the  United  States  as  well  as  to  those  of  England,  and 
in  many  cases  throw  much  light  ujion  the  food  and  habits  of  many  spe- 
cies Lu  Vuis  country  which  have  hitherto  been  unknown.  The  German 
work  of  Leunis  also  gives  some  very  interesting  details  about  the  food 
and  habits  of  several  European  insects,  which  also  will  be  quoted.  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  many  of  our  young  entomologists  merely  col- 
lect, classify,  and  aiTange  insects  in  their  cabinets  for  exhibition,  without 
ever  troubling  themselves  to  asceitain  anything  about  their  previous 
existence  as  larva  or  pupa,  or  the  plants  upon  which  they  feed  when  in 
the  larva  state,  or  the  various  ti'ansformations  they  undergo  before  they 
appear  as  perfect  beetles.  Were  this  subject  made  a  more  especial  study, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  farmers  would  learn  much,  and  be  better  pre- 
pared to  suggest  methods  of  destroying  them,  than  is  the  case  at 
present. 

PART  I. 

The  first  family  of  coleoptera  (beetles'),  Cicindelidw,  contains  many  spe- 
cies. These  insects  are  generally  of  medium  size,  of  swift  motions,  and 
frequently  of  bright  metallic  green,  bronze,  or  brown  colors,  ha\-ing  their 
wing  cases  ornamented  with  cream-colored  spots  or  stripes,  from  which, 
and  their  great  voracity,  they  have  derived  the  common  name  of  tiger 
beetles.  The  larvae  are  fleshy,  curved  grubs,  of  a  yellowish  white  color, 
with  large  and  powerful  jaws,  and  hooks  or  spines  on  their  backs.  They 
biuTOw  cylindrical  holes  in  the  ground,  in  which  they  lie  in  wait  for  any 
passing  iusect.  They  lie  at  the  mouth  of  this  burrow,  having  their  head 
and  thorax  closing  the  opening,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  seize  any  other  in- 


FOOD  AND  HABITS  OF  BEETLES. 


79 


sect,  wbicli,  when  caught,  is  immediately  dragged  to  the  bottom  of  their 
burrow,  and  devoured  at  leisiu-e.  The  pupa  is  also  formed  in  the  same 
hole,  and  the  perfect  tiger  beetle  may  be  seen,  any  line  day  in  summer 
or  autumn,  flying  on  hot,  sandy  roads  in  the  sunshine,  but  generally 
alighting  again  at  a  short,  distance,  with  its  head  turned  toward  the 
intruder,  so  as  to  be  able  to  make  another  flight  if  necessary.  As  these 
tiger  beetles,  in  both  the  larva  and  the  perfect  state,  destroy  all  other 
insects  they  can  overcome,  they  may  be  considered  beneficial,  and  will  be 
classed  under  the  head  of  "  Predaceous"  in  the  list  of  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal substances  destroyed  by  beetles.  Cicindela  vulgaris  (1.) 
(Say,  2,  pp.  422  and  522)  is  a  very  common  species,  and 
is  of  a  bronze  color,  with  cream-colored  marks  on  the 
wing  cases. 

The  second  family,  Carabidce^  or  ground  beetles,  vary 
very  much  in  size,  form,  and  color;  their  bodies  are  of  a 
firm  consistence,  whereby  they  are  enabled  to  creep  under 
stones,  bark,  &c.  Most  of  the  species  are  eminently  in- 
sectivorous, prowling  about  on  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
under  stones,  or  beneath  the  bark  of  trees  or  moss,  in 
search  of  their  prey,  which  consists  of  other  insects.  Some  of  the  Eu- 
ropean species,  however,  are  said  to  attack  grain,  and  the  larva  of  our 
^>=-^^-^  native  Omophron  Jahiatum^  (2)  (Say,  2,  p.  495),  a  small  beetle  of  a 
^>SC  black  color,  margined  or  bordered  with  a  brownish  yellow,  is 
y^^r\  said  to  be  very  destructive  to  young  maize  in  the  southern  States. 
2-  ■  One  of  our  finest  beetles  of  thisfamilyis  Calosomacalidum^  (3)Fafc. 
(Say,  2,  pp.  491  and  527).  This  insect  is  very 
common  in  Maryland  and  Virginia,  and  the 
larva  was  taken  in  the  act  of  devouring  cater- 
pillars of  the  common  army  worm  (Leiicania 
extranea,  GiienJ,  in  an  oat  field,  near  Wash- 
ington. Great  numbers  of  the  larvre  of  the 
beetle  were  observed  running  about  in  the 
midst  of  the  army  worms,  seizing  and  destroy- 
ing all  that  crossed  their  path ;  some  of  them 
were  indeed  so  voracious  as  to  become  bloated 
with  food,  and  almost  unable  to  move.  When 
this  was  the  case,  the  full-fed  and  inactive  3. 

giuttous  almost  invariably  became  the  prey  of  their  more  meager  and 
nimble  brethren.  The  perfect  beetle  is  of  a  dark  coppery  color,  beauti- 
fully dotted  with  several  rovrs  of  metallic  golden  spots  on  the  wing  cases. 
Calosoma  scrutator  (4)  Fab.  (Say,  2,  p.  491)  is  much  larger  in  size,  and  of  a 
most  beautiful  metallic  golden- green  color;  in  the  perfect  state  it  also 
feeds  upon  caterpillars  and  insects,  even  ascending  trees  to  obtain  its 
favorite  food.  One  of  thefamilj,  BracJiinus  ftimans,  (5)  (Say,  2, 
p.  439),  is  rather  common  under  stones,  and  is  mentioned  here 
as  having  the  singular  habit,  when  either  alarmed  or  irritated, 
of  discharging  from  the  posterior  extremity  of  its  body  a  caus- 
tic fluid;  this  discharge  is  remarkable  for  an  audible  detona- 
tion with  its  accompanying  cloud  of  smoke  as  in  the  discharge 
of  a  gun ;  hence  its  common  name  of  Bombardier  beetle.  West- 
wood  states  that  the  vapor,  which  is  of  a  very  pungent  odor, 
is  also  emitted  when  chased  by  other  insects,  in  order  to  enable  it  to 
escape  from  its  enemies.  The  wing-cases  of  this  beetle  are  of  a  dark 
color,  whilst  the  head,  thorax,  and  legs  are  of  a  yeUow  brown. 


80 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT 


The  Lehicc  constitute  a  siib-gi'onp,  aud  are  small,  active  bee- 
tles, Korae  of  tbeiii  vers'  beautifully  marked.  ]Maiiy  of  this  spe- 
cies are  found  ou  flowers.  [Numbers  of  the  Lcbia  fjyandis,  (6)  a 
small  beetle  with  wing  covers  aud  also  thorax  blackish,  legs  and 
head  of  a  yellowish  or  ochi-e  color,  were  takeu  feeding  on  the 
6-  larvjE  of  the  ten-lined  spearman  f  Donjphora  10-UneataJ,  so  inju- 
rious to  the  potato  in  the  western  States,  in  the  mouth  of  July.  Some 
of  the  tribe  Pterostichini  are  stated,  by  European  authors,  to  injure 
grain.  Calath  us  Jatiis,  (7)  ("Westwood,  1,  p  G3),  a  European  insect,  is  said  to 
injure  young  wheat.  The  larva  of  ZahnisgihbKS.  (8)  also  European,  is  said 
by  Leunis  to. feed  on  the  roots  and  shoots  of  grain,  while  the  perfect 
beetle  itself  consumes  the  grain  or  seed  of  barley,  wheat,  and  rye  in 
Germany.  Westwood,  1.  p.  01,  also  mentions  a  similar  fact;  it  would 
therefore  be  well  for  some  of  our  entomologists  to  determine  whether 
we  have  not  some  allied  species  in  tliis  country,  injuring  our  gTiiin  crops. 
Some  of  the  species  of  xlmara  (0)  are  also  said  to  destroy  grain  in 
Europe. 

Kaqyalus  fPangusJ  Caligi)iotj}AS{lij)  (Say,  2,  p.  -io-l)  is  a  me- 
dium sized  beetle,  of  a  brov»iiish  black  color,  which 
If-^  dLffuses  a  very  pungent  odor,  like  that  of  vinegar,  when 
disturbed ;  it  has  been  taken  in  great  numbers  in  Mary- 
land, under  Avheat  stacks,  and  is  commonly  sui)posed  by 
the  faiTiiers  to  feed  upon  the  grain  of  wheat;  it  is  proba- 
ble, however,  that  these  insects  have  collected  together 
in  such  situations  for  shelter,  or  to  feed  upon  other  insects 
usually  found  in  such  situations.  It  must,  however,  be 
confessed  that  this  beetle  has  been  taken  under  very  sus- 
picious circumstances  in  an  open  field  on  timothy  grass  stalks,  appa- 
rently feeding  on  the  seeds,  when  no  other  insect  was  visible  to  the  naked 
eye,  which  might  have  been  selected  as  its  food. 

Of  the  third  family,  A7nj}kizoidce,  Dr.  Leconte  states  that  nothing  is 
known  about  their  habits. 

The  fourth  family,  J)ijtiscid(r,  have  the  autenuie  long  aud  slender; 
their  form  is  oval,  elliptic,  or  rounded ;  and  their  hind  legs  are  formed 
for  swimming.  These  insects  inhabit  stagnant  water,  aud  are  very 
voracious,  feeding  not  only  upon  other  aquatic  insects,  but  also  devour- 
ing fish-spawn  or  very  small  fish.  Some  of  them  occasionally  fly  by 
night  from  pond  to  pond,  and  are  said  to  be  attracted  by  a  light. 

One  of  the  largest  species,  (11)  Dyti-sciis  hibri 
.^dus,  (Lee),  was  captured  on  the  fiat  roof  of  a  building 
'  in  Maryland,  at  least  four  stories  in  height,  where  it 
had  doubtless  fallen  during  its  noctuinal  flight,  and 
was  unable  to  rise  again.  During  the  winter  season 
the  Jji/tiscidcc  remain  in  the  water,  or  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud,  where  some  of  them  remain  in  a 
torjjid  state,  v.hile  others  retain  their  vitalitj-  and 
acti\ity  even  under  the  ice. 

The  fifth  family,  Gyrinida\  comprises  those  oval 
water-beetles  usually  knovrn  by  the  name  of  ''whirli- 
gigs" or  apple-bugs;  the  former  local  name  being 
derived  from  theii'  habit  of  swimming  in  large  num- 
bers in  ch'cles,  or  labyrinthine  curves,  on  the  surface  of  the  water ;  and 
the  latter  name  from  the  pecuUar  api)le  or  calycanthus-like  odor  which 
they  emit  when  taken  in  the  hand.  The  European  species  deposits  her 
small,  cyhndrical  eggs,  which  are  placed  end  to  end  in  ptirallel  rows^ 
upon  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants ;  the  larvag  are  said  to  hatch  out  in 


FOOD    AND    HABITS    OF    BEETLES.  81 

about  eigiit  days,  aud  to  bear  some  reseiublauce  to  a  Toimg  centipede. 
Wlieu  they  liave  attained  their  full  size,  they  creep  out  of  the  water,  up 
the  stems  of  rushes  or  other  aquatic  plants,  \rhere  they  inclose  them- 
selves in  oval  cocoons,  composed  of  a  substance  spun  out  of  their  own 
bodies.  (Westwood,  1,  p.  109).  The  perfect  insect,  if  closely  examined, 
presents  the  cimous  appearance  of  possessing  four  eyes,  the  organs  of 
sight  beiug-  di\-ided  by  the  side  of  the  head.  These  insects  are  pre- 
daceous,  and  feed  upon  insects  on  the  siu'face  of  the  ^vater.  One  of  our 
most  common  species,  Dincutes  (Gyrinus)  Amcricaniis,  (12) 
(Say,  2,  p.  ol9),  may  be  seen  at  all  times,  excepting  in  -winter, 
circling  around  on  the  still  pools  of  water,  feeding  on  living  or 
dead  insects  which  float  upon  the  surface. 

The  perfect  beetles  of  the  sixth  family,  Rydro^yliiJidcc,  (13)  live 
upon  decomposing  vegetable  matter,  although  their  larvoe  are 
j)redaceous  and  quite  voracious.  The  majority  of  them  are 
aquatic,  and  are  distingiiished  from  other  Vater-beetles  by  their  club- 
formed  antennte;  their  bodies  are  usually  of  an  oval  form,  and  the 
hinder  legs  are  ciliated  or  fi-inged  with  bristles,  aud  formed  for  swim- 
ming, or  rather  for  paddling,  in  the  majority.  These  insects  do  not  swim 
with  the  agility  of  the  Dytiscidcr,  already  mentioned ;  they  generally 
keep  in  the  water  by  day,  but  during  the  evening  sometimes  come 
abroad  and  take  wing.  The  European  species,  IlydropJiilus  piceus,  (13) 
feeds  chiefly  upon  aquatic  plants,  although  they  also  devour  with  avidity 
dead  larvae  and  aquatic  molluscie.  The  female  spins  a  g-mnmy  envelope 
for  her  eggs,  which  amount  to  about  titYy  or  sixty  in  number,  and  are 
disposed  symmetrically  in  an  upright  position  in  their  receptacle,  which 
has  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a  smaU  tiu'uip.  being  nearly  an  inch 
broad,  aud  which  is  attached  to  some  plant  until  the  larvse  are  hatched, 
when  it  floats  upon  the  siuface  of  the  water.  The  larvse  escape  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  cocoon,  which  is  merely  closed  by  a  few  threads.  As 
larvie  they  undergo  three  moultings,  and  feed  upon  aquatic  mollusks 
and  insects  inhabiting  the  water. 

EydropMlus  triangularis  (11)  (Say,  2.  p.  12S)  is  a  rather 
common  species,  and  is  foimd  in"^  ponds  and  ditches ; 
the  insect  is  of  a  shining  black  color.  The  fifth  ti'ibe, 
Sp1ia:ridiida:,  (15)  are  terrestrial  in  their  habits,  of  small 
size,  and  feed  upon  putrescent  vegetable  matter  which 
has  passed  through  the  bodies  of  herbivorous  animals, 
(excrement). 

The  seventh  family,  Silpliideu,  (16)  feed  on  carrion,  dead 
fish,  snails,  &c.,  &:c.,  and  are  in  some  degTee  beneficial, 
inasmuch  as  they  remove  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  = 
animal  matter  in  a  state  of  putridity,  which  would 
otherwise  taint  the  air  aud  become  injurious  to  health. 
They  are  constantly  found  in  carrion  and  the  carcasses 
of  animals.  Some  of  the  European  species  frequent 
trees,  where  they  probably  devour  caterpillars.  Both  larva  and  pupa 
of  Siljiha  hcvigata  (IC)  of  Eiu-ope  feed  voraciously  on  live  snails.  Some 
of  the  larger  species  are  commonly  called  sexton  or  burning  beetles, 
from  then-  habit  of  bm-ying  the  carcasses  of  small  animals,  birds,  •S:c., 
for  the  purpose  of  depositing  their  eggs  in  the  bimed  body,  where  the 
larvoe,  when  hatched,  find  a  sufficiency  "of  food  until  they  become  pupte. 
These  insects  eflect  their  purpose  of  burying  small  aiiimals  by  iinder- 
minmg  the  carcass,  imtil  it  gradually  descends  into  the  grotmd,  and  then 
covering  it  Avith  earth.  One  of  our  best  known  species  is  the  (17) 
Xccrophoru.i  inargiiiafus,  (Fab.),  which  may  be  found  at  any  time  during 
6 


82 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


tlie  sumraer  or  autumn,  in  carrion.  The  inseet  is  of  a 
black  color,  barred  with  chestnut  or  reddish  brown. 
Necrophoras  Amerkanus  (18)  (Leo.)  is  a  much  larger 
species,  also  feedin*:^  on  carrion,  but  is  especially 
found  in  dead  snakes.  The  Necrophori  are-  usually 
U^rge,  stout  beetles,  of  a  black  color,  barred  with 
light  brown  on  the  wing  cases.  They  exhale  a  very 
disagreeable  carrion-like  odor,  and  are  frequently  in- 
fested with  a  species  of  Gamasus,  or  mite. 

Necrophilapeltafa{l9)  (Lee.)  Americana, 
Melsheimer's  catalogue,  is  a  large,  flat- 
tened beetle,  with  rugose,  black  wing 
cases,  and  thorax  of  a  yellowish  brown  color,  having  a 
black  mark  in  the  middle ;  this  insect  feeds  also  on  car- 
rion. (20)  Adelops  hirtus,  (Lee),  a  very  small 
brown  beetle  without  eyes,  belongs  also  to 
this  ftimily,  and  is  merely  incidentally  men- 
tioned as  being  found  on  bones,  accidentally 
left  in  the  mammoth  cave,  in  Kentucky.  The 
eighth  family,  Scydmacnida;,  (21)  consists  of  very  small  insects, 
some  of  which  are  taken  in  ants'  nests,  but  contain  no  spe- 
cies of  interest  to  the  farmer.  This  may  also  be  said  of  the 
-0-  ninth  family,  PselapMdce,  (22)  which  consists  of  very  small 
insects,  many  of  Avhich  fly  during  the  twilight;  their  habits  are  various, 
some  being  found  in  ants'  nests,  while  others  occur  under  bark  and  stones. 
Leunis  states  that  the  European  species,  Clarifjer  foreolatus,  (23)  is  found 
in  the  nests  of  the  yellow  ant,  which  treat  them  with  great  care,  occa- 
sionally taking  them  up  in  its  jaws,  when  the^^  would  escape.  Westwood 
considers  it  not  improbable  that  the  Claviger  secretes  a  fluid  analogous 
to  that  of  the  Aphides,  or  plant  lice,  from  the  sets^  or  bristles  at  the 
extremity  of  the  abdomen.  IMiiller  also  adds  the  curious  fact  that  the 
ants  in  return  feed  the  Claviger s  from  their  own  mouth.  Many  speci- 
mens of  (42)  Bryaxis  were  beaten  off  of  swamp  gTass,  in 
May,  near  a  pond,  by  I\Ir.  J.  W.  Wilson,  of  New  York. 
The  tenth  family,  StaphyHnidcc,  or  rove  beetles,  contains  a 
/TiR\  great  number  of  species,  almost  all  of  them,  however,  more  or 
r  i^^^s^  less  distinguished  by  their  long,  narrow,  depressed  form,  and 
by  their  very  short  elytra,  or  wing  cases,  which  cover  only  a 
,  small  portion  of  their  abdomen,  thus  leaving  many  of  the  seg- 
ments visible. 

Many  of  the  larger  species  emit  a  very  unx^leasant  odor  when  handled. 
They  run  and  fly  with  equal  agility,  the  wings,  when  unemployed  in 
flight,  being  closely  packed  under  the  short  wing  covers.  These  insects 
are  very  voracious,  and  prey  upon  decaying  animal  and  also  vegetable 
substances,  esjjccially  fimgi.  Several  of  the  smaller  species  are  very 
numerous  on  flowers,  or  under  bark  and  moss.  Westwood  (1,  p.  167) 
^v-^  states  that  a  small  larva,  (25)  probably  of  this  species,  in  Europe 
^  is  said  to  hij are  wheat  by  eating  the  young  plant  about  an 
inch  below  the  surface,  and  devoimng  the  central  part,  thus 
occasioning  much  damage.  The  eggs  of  the  Staphylinidcv  are 
'of  large  size,  and  the  larviie  bear  considerable  resemblance  to 
the  perfect  insect  in  structure  and  habits.  A  very  common 
native  species,  CreophiJus  villosus  (20)  (Lee),  was  taken  in 
great  numbers,  in  October,  Irom  the  body  of  a  dead  horse. 
This  family,  however,  not  being  particularly  injurious  to  the  farmer,  will 
be  passed  over. 


FOOD  AND  HABITS  OP  BEETLES. 


83 


The  eleventh  family,  Sisteridw,  (27)  consists  of  insects  of  small  size, 
square  or  oblong  quadrate  form,  and  of  a  shining  black  color.  These  insects 
possess  the  power  of  contracting  their  limbs  and  counterfeiting  death ; 
hence  .their  common  name  of  mimic  beetles.  The  word  "hister"  is  evi- 
dently derived  from  the  Latin  Mistrio,  a  stage  mimic.  They  feed  upon 
both  decaying  vegetable  and  animal  substances,  and  are  found  in  abund- 
ance, in  spring,  upon  the  excrements  of  horses  and  cows.  Other  species, 
with  flattened  bodies,  reside  under  the  bark  of  trees,  and  some  of  the 
minute  species  are  stated  by  TTestwood  to  reside  in  the  nests  of  ants. 
One  of  the  sub-family,  Murmidiidce,  (28)  is  stated  by  European  writers  to 
live  in  old  rice. 

Family  twelfth,  Scapliidiidce.,  thirteenth,  Trklioiiterygidw,  and  four- 
teenth, PhaJacridw,  are  ijassed  over,  as  being  of  no  importance  to  the 
agi'iculturist. 

The  fifteenth  family,  Mtidulidw,  (29)  are  usually  small  beetles  of  an  oval, 
depressed,  or  slightly  convex  form ;  sometimes,  however,  they  are  almost 
globular  or  elongate;  they  live  on  decomposing  substances, "both  animal 
and  vegetable.  The  second  tribe  of  this  family,  Carpophilini,  are  usu- 
ually  flattened  in  form,  and  have  the  last  two  or  three  dorsal  segments 
of  the  abdomen  uncovered  by  the  somewhat  short  wing  cases, 
resembling  in  this  respect  the  Staph  yllnidce.  Colastus  semitectus,  (30) 
a  small  brown  beetle,  is  found  abundantly  in  the  flowers,  or  decay- 
ing bolls  of  the  cotton,  and  the  decayed  ears  of  maize  in  the  field 
where  they  probably  feed  upon  minute  fungi.  Car- 
popMlus  liemipterns^  (31)  a  very  small  brownish-black  beetle 
having  four  light  spots  on  its  short  wing  covers,  is  also 
found  in  similar  situations.  Tribe  3,  Kitidiilini,  (32)  consists 
mostly  of   small  insects,  with  boclies  oval  sub-depressed, 

thorax  margined,  and  their  bodies  covered  by  the  ^ 
wing  cases;  some  of  them  live  on  flowers,  under  ' 
bark,  in  fungi,  or  on  dried  animal  matter.  The 
larviE  of  one  of  the  species,  Stelidota  geminata,  (33) 
(Lee),  is  stated  by  Dr.  Walsh  (1st  liep.  lUin., 
1868,  p.  18),  to  feed  upon  decaying  vegetable  and 
also  animal  substances,  and  to  breed  in  the  holes  31. 

made  in  grapes  by  CosUodes  inceqiiaUs,  a  species  of  curculio. 
Ips  qiiadrisignatus  (31)  (Say,  2,  p.  611),  a  small  black  beetle  with  four  ^:^ 
yellow  spots  or  marks.on  the  wing  covers,  is  stated  in  the  Practical  -"^^ 
Entomologist,  volume  2,  page  56,  to  burrow  into  sweet  corn ;  most    ^ 
of  the  other  species  are  found  under  the  bark  of  trees. 

The  sixteenth  family,  Monotomidce,  contains  no  insects  at  present  known 
to  be  of  any  interest  to  the  farmer. 

The  seventeenth  family,  Trogositidcc,  consists  of  insects  having  the 
body  more  or  less  depressed,  with  short  club-shaped  antennfe;  some  of 
the  species  live  under  bark,  while  others  injure  grain.  The  larva  of  Tro- 
gosita  {carahoides  Fab.)  (35)  Mauritanica  (Oliv.),  a  beetle  of  a  brown  color, 
is  termed  by  the  French  Cadelle,  and  is  very  destructive  to  grain  in  gran- 
aries; it  also  destroys  bread,  and  is  found  under  the  bark  of  trees. 
Trogosita  dubia,  (36)  (Lee),  a  very  nearly  allied  beetle,  was  found  in  beech 
nuts ;  it  also  destroys  wheat,  maize,  and  other  grains,  in  Mary- 
land. 

The  eighteenth  family,  Colydiidw,  (37)  consists  of  small  insects, 
usually  of  an  elongate  or  cylindrical  form,  living  under  the  bark  ^,. 
of  trees,  in  fungi,  or  in  the   earth.      A^doniian  fColydiumJ  / 
paraleUwipediim  (38)  (Say,  2,  p.  321)  was  foimd  in  great  numbers 
on  pine  trees,  apparently  eating  passages  under  the  bark. 


84 


AGRICULTURAL   EEPORT. 


40. 


The  ninetecntli  family,  Ehjssodidoe,  is  of  no  general  interest  to  tlie 
agTicultiirist,  and  will,  therefore,  be  passed  over. 

The  twentieth  family,  Cucvjidw,  consists  of  small  insects, 
almost  always  of  a  depressed,  and  usually  of  an  elongate, 
form.  Sylvanus  Surinamcnsis,  (39)  a  very  minute  beetle  of  a 
chestnut-brown  color,  and  having  several  teeth  or  spines  on 
the  outer  edges  of  the  thorax,  is  found  in  wheat  and  maize; 
and  several  were  taken  out  of  passages  or  tunnels  eaten  in 
dried  leaf  tobacco.  These  insects  may  also  be  found 
dead  in  sugar,  or  floating  in  tea  and  coffee.  Syl- 
ranus  bidentatus,  (4:0)  so-called  from  the  two  project- 
ing teeth  or  spines  on  the  front  part  of  the  outer  edge  of  the 
thorax,  is  rather  larger  than  the  <S'.  Siirinamensis,  and  is  also 
of  a  chestnut-brown  color.  Its  larvae  are  found  under  chestnut 
bark,  where  they  probably  feed  upon  the  substance.  Sylvanus 
qiiadricoUis  (41)  resembles  the  others  in  gen- 
eral appearance,  but  has  a  quadrate  or  square  thorax. 
The  egg  is  deposited  in  maize,  near  the  germ ;  the  larva 
feeds  upon  the  substance  of  the  grain ;  it  also 
has  been  found  in  rotted  cotton  bolls,  and  in  this 
situation  feeds  upon  the  exposed  seeds,  in  the 
month  of  August  and  of  September.  NauniMus 
A  A  f^y^^^'^^'^^^J  dentatus  (42)  (Say,  2,  p.  325)  is  also 
/vL/\  found  under  bark  and  in  sugar.  Lccmopliloeus 
(Cucujus)  modestus  (43)  (Say,  2,  p.  327),  a  very  min- 
ute chestnut-brown  beetle  belonging  to  the  same 
family,  was  taken  in  hemp-seed,  the  interior  of  which  had  been  entirely 
eaten  out,  and  only  the  husk  left. 

Family  twenty-one,  Cryptophagidce  (44);  twenty- two,  Berodoniidce ; 
twenty-three,  Lathridiido) ;  twenty-four,  Othiildcc;  and  twenty-five,  ilfi/ce- 
topJiagidce,  will  be  passed  over,  as  they  contain  no  insects  at  present  known 
to  be  injurious  to  the  crops,  living  principally  on  fungi,  under  bark,  or 
in  rotting  vegetable  substances. 

The  twenty-sixth  family,  Bermestidcv,  (45)  consists  of  small  oval  insects, 
some  of  which  are  found  in  dried  animal  remains,  others  on  plants  only, 
and  many  of  them  are  A'ery  destructive  to  objects  of  natiu'al  history, 
skins,  bones,  fur,  feathers,  books,  &c.  Leunis  states  that  the  European 
species,  Byturus  tomentosm,  (4G)  is  in  the  habit  of  frequenting  flowers,  and 
that  the  larva  feeds,  in  June  or  July,  on  the  fruit  of  the  raspberry,  and, 
from  its  habits,  is  called  in  Germany  Himbeer-made,  or  the  raspberrj- 
maggot.  Kirby  and  Spence  state  that  the  perfect  insect  eats  through 
the  footstalk  of  the  blossom  of  the  raspberry,  so  as  sometimes 
to  i:)rove  fatal  to  the  whole  crop.  Blackberries  are  also  attacked 
in  a  similar  manner.  Byturus  unicolor  (47)  (Say,  2,  p.  12G), 
of  this  country,  is  a  small  insect  of  a  light  brown  color, 
fomid  frequently  in  flowers.  Benncstcs  Tul])inus,  (48)  a 
small  beetle  of  a  blackish-brown  color,  is  found  in  almost 
■47.'  every  country,  and  at  one  time  was  so  injurious  to  the  large 
skin  warehouses  in  London  that  a  reward  of  £20,000  was  ofl'ered  for  an 
available  remedy,  without,  however,  any  beiug  discovered.  This  insect 
is  also  injurious  to  cork,  and  sometimes  very  destructive  in  collections 
of  natural  history,  entomology,  &c.  Bcrmcstes  lardarius  (49)  is  of  a 
yellow  and  bluish-black  color,  and  destroys  furs,  meats,  &c.,  and 
also  is  very  injurious  to  collections  of  natural  history.  The  larva 
sheds  its  skin  several  times,  and  is  covered  with  bristly  hairs;  it 
usually  creeps  on  the  surface  of  the  meat,  preferring  the  fat  parts, 


FOOD  AND  HABITS  OF  BEETLES. 


85 


and  does  not  burv  itself  in  its  food  until  about  the  time  of  assuming  the 
pupa  state,  in  wliicli  state  it  remains  from  tliree  or  four  days  to  a  week, 
according  to  the  warmth  of  the  locality  (Horn).  Anthrcmis 
f  destructor,  (50)  Mels.)  varius  (Fab.)  is  a  very  pretty  insect 
when  examined  with  a  magnifying- glass,  being  beautifully 
marbled  or  variegated  with  black  and  gray.  The  beetle 
frequents  flowers ;  a  gTcat  number  were  taken,  May  23,  on 
the  flowers  of  a  spii-rea;  and  they  are  veyr  common  on 
umbelliferous  plants.  Westwood  states  that  they  are  nearly 
a  year  in  attaining  their  full  size ;  but  Dr.  Horn  says  that, 
the  egg  being  deposited  in  any  fissure,  the  larva  state  requires  only  about 
two  weeks  and  the  pupa  only  four  or  five  days.  They  shed  their  skins 
as  larvse  several  times,  and  it  is  during  the  warm  weather  that  their  rav- 
ages are  most  extreme.  The  larva,  when  changed  into  a  pupa,  retains  the 
last  skin  of  the  larva,  which  serves  as  a  cocoon,  a  slit  having  first  been 
made  down  the  back,  out  of  which  the  perfect  beetle  makes  its  escape. 
Westwood  recommends  that,  when  collections  of  insects  are  attacked, 
these  pests  may  be  destroyed  by  putting  them  in  tin  cases,  which  may 
then  be  immersed  in  boiling  water,  whereby  both  the  larvoe  and  eggs  are 
at  once  destroyed.  He  also  states  that  they  appear  to  be  insensible  to 
the  effects  of  cami)hor,  and  he  actually  found  them  harbored  under  lumps 
of  that  material  in  his  drawers.  These  insects,  also,  are  very  destructive 
to  dried  skins,  and  collections  of  natural  history  in  general. 

The  twenty-seventh  family,  Byrrhidce,  consists  of  small  insects,  having 
their  body  short,  oval,  or  rounded,  very  convex.  These  small  beetles, 
at  the  slightest  appearance  of  danger,  fold  up  their  antennae  and  legs,  so 
that  these  members  are  entirely  concealed,  and  cause  the  insect  to 
appear  like  an  oval  seed  or  pill,  at  the  same  time  counterfeiting  death, 
as  a  means  of  defense ;  hence  their  common  name  in  England  of  pill- 
beetles.    They  are  not  known,  however,  to  do  any  injury  to  our  crops. 

Family  twenty-eight,  Georyssidce  ;  twenty-nine,  Parnidcc  ;  and  thirty, 
Heteroceridce,  generally  live  in  or  near  water,  and  are  of  no  consequence 
to  the  farmer. 

The  thirty-fii'st  family,  Liicanidcc,  comprises  several  very  large  beetles, 
the  males  of  some  of  wliich  are  distinguished  by  the  great  size  of  their 
mandibles  or  jaws,  which  have  the  appearance  of  a  stag;  hence  their 
common  name  of  stag-beetles.  The  jaws  of  the  female  are  much  smaller. 
The  eggs  are  oval,  and  the  larvse  are  large  fleshy  grubs,  having  the 
extremity  of  the  body  curved  towards  the  breast,  so 
as  not  to  allow  the  insect  to  creep  on  a  level  sur-  \ 
face,  but  compelling  it  to  lie  on  its  side.  Their  legs 
are  six  in  number,  and  very  weak ;  the  larva  feeds 
on  wood;  and,  on  arriving  at  its  full  size,  it  forms  a 
cocoon  of  the  chips  or  dust  it  has  gnawed ;  and  in 
this  cocoon  the  pupa  is  formed,  the  male  having  the 
large  jaws  folded  on  the  breast  and  belly,  protecting 
the  antenna}  and  legs ;  it  is  supposed  that  this  in- 
sect remains  several  years  in  the  larva  state,  one  of 
the  European  species,  according  to  Eozel,  not  ap- 
pearing as  a  perfect  stag-beetle  until  a  lai^se  of  six 
years.  The  larva  of  our  native  species,  Lucanns 
dama,  (51)  commonly  known  as  the  horn-bug,  or  stag- 
beetle,  (Harris,  p.  44,  Fitch,  3d  Eep.,  185G,  p.  329, 
and  5th  Eep.,  p.  794),  is  foimd  in  old  decaying  trunks  and  roots  of  trees, 
where  it  feeds  upon  the  wood ;  the  pupa  is  formed  in  large  pods  of 
cocoons  made  of  the  loose  dust  and  dirt  of  the  tree,  and  the  perfect 


86 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


f 


beetle  appears  from  June  to  Aii^st,  aud  feeds  upon  tbe  street 
sap  of  trees.  <S:c.;  it  is  also  said  sometimes  to  be  predaceous, 
and  to  destroy  soft-bodied  insects  for  the  sake  of  their  juices. 
The  trees  principally  attacked  by  the  larva  are  the  apple, 
cherry,  oak,  and  willow.  Flatycerus  quercus  (52)  is  a  much  smaller 

insect  of  the  same  family,  of  a  blackish  color,  and  is 
fotmd  in  the  rotten  wood  of  oak.    Passalus  cornutus, 
(Lee). (53)  is  a  large  black  beetle,  and  is  very  common  in 
Maryland ;  in  old  oak  stumps  and  logs,  in  the  spring. 
The  thiity-second  family,  Scaraha-idw,  contains  in- 
sects, the  hind  legs  of  which  are  placed  so  near  the 
extremity  of  the  body  as  to  give  the  beetle  a  most 
extraordinaiy  appearance  when  walking;  this  pecu- 
liar formation  is  ueveitheless  particularly  ser\iceable 
in  rolling  the  balls  of  excrementitious  matter  in  which 
they  inclose  their  eggs.    These  bails  are  at  first  iiTeg- 
ular  aud  soft;  but,  by  degrees,  and  during  the  process 
of  rolling  along,  become  round  and  harder:  they  are  propelled  by  means 
of  the  hind  legs,  the  insects  occasionally  mounting  to  the  top  when  they 
find  a  diffictilty  in  urging  them  along,  probably  to  de- 
stroy their  equilibrium  :  sometimes  in  rolling  these  balls 
the  beetles  stand  almost  on  their  hea  ;ls  with  their  heads 
turned  from  the  ball.    These  maneuvers  have  for  their 
object  the  burying  of  the  balls  in  holes,  which  the  insects 
have  previously  dug  in  the  earth  for  their  reception,  and 
\  it  is  upon  the  dung,  of  which  the  balls  are  composed  and 
thus  deposited,  that  the  larvie  feed  when  hatched  out ;  the 
^  males  as  well  as  the  females  assist  in  rolling  these  balls. 
^-  The  tyjie  of  this  family  is  the  Scarabaus,  or  sacred  beetle 

of  the  Egyptians,  Ateudais  ^gyptiorum  of  Latreille.  The  best  known 
and  most  common  beetle  of  this  family  in  this  cotmtry  is  the  Can- 
ton l(Evis,  (54)  usually  termed  the  tumble-bug.  These 
insects  may  be  seen  almost  any  fine  summer  day  on  the 
public  roads  in  the  country,  employed  in  rolling  balls  of 
manure,  formed  from  the  excrements  of  horses  and  cattle 
in  the  highway.  Another  well-known  insect  in  the 
middle  or  more  southern  State  is  the  Phanccus  carni- 
fex  [oo)  (Lee):  this  beetle  is  of  the  most  beautiful  metal- 
lic green,  purjile,  and  gold  colors,  but  of  a  very  disgust- 
ing odor  when  handled.  The  males  of  this  species  are 
furnished  with  a  long,  recurved  horn  on  the  head,  the  use  of 
which  is  unknown.  This  insect  feeds  also  on  mantire  and  excre- 
ments in  the  larva  state.  The  Aphodiini  [oQ)  are  small  beetles  of 
an  oblong  or  oval  form,  of  obscure  black  and  brown  colors,  and  may 
\  be  found  swarming,  during  the  spring  months,  in  or  about  the  dung 
of  herbivorous  animals  or  about  manure.  Aphodius  fimetarius  (50) 
is  a  well-known  beetle  of  this  tribe,  which  Doctor  Lecoute  says  '•  has  been 
J  introduced  from  Europe,  but  now  is  perfectly  naturalized, 
'J  especially  in  the  northern  parts  of  this  countiy.-'  The  tribe 
Geotrupini  are  beetles  of  a  rounded  form,  li^ing  in  excre- 
ments and  manure.  Our  native  insect,  Geot rapes  splen- 
fV  'lidus.  (57),  is  a  beetle  of  moderately  large  size,  and  is 

,.  V ,"r.^5  remarkable  for  its  beautiful  green  and  golden  metallic 

\\        J]  colors  ;  it  is  found  also  in  manure  aud  excrements. ' 

I  \  The    ti'ibe   Trogini  (5S)   consists   of  oblong,  convex 

57.         insects,  frequently  with  very  rough  or  rugose  wing- 


FOOD  AND  HABITS  OF  BEETLES. 


87 


cases ;  tliey  live  in  dried  decomposing*  animal  matter,  and  when  dis- 
turbed have  the  faculty  of  counterfeiting  death :  they  are  able  also  to 
produce  a  creaking  noise  by  alternately  rubbing  the  front  part 
of  the  mesothorax  against  the  prothoracic  cavity,  or  more  pro- 
bably the  extremity  of  the  body  against  the  elytra  or  wing-  K 
cases.  Trox  terrestris,  {oS)  (Say,  2,  p.  295)  is  an  exami^le  of  this 
tribe.  The  insect  is  of  a  blackish  color.  The  sub-family  Melolon-  { 
iliidce  feed  exclusively  on  vegetable  matter.  Hoplia  debiUs^ 
(59)  (Lee.  Jour.  Acad.  2d,  p.  285),  a  small  dark-colored  beetle,  was 
found  very  abundant  on  the  foliage,  and  especially  on  the  flowers  of  the 
pear  in  Maryland,  in  the  spring.  Westwood  states  that  the 
European  Hoplia^  when  disturbed,  counterfeit  death  by  extend- 
ing their  legs  in  a  stiffened  manner,  and  in  different  directions. 
JOichelonycha  {hexapona)  elongatula  (GO)  (Lee.),' or  elongated, 
fork  claw,  (Fitch,  3d  Rep.,  1856,  p.  474),  is  a  small,  hairy  beetle 
of  a  somewhat  elongate  square  form,  and  of  a  brown  metallic 
color ;  and  is  said  to  feed  upon  the  foliage  of  the  hazel.  Two  other 
species,  D.  subviftata  (Fitch,  3d  Rep.,  185G,  p.  475)  and  D.  linearis 
(Fitch,  3d  Rep.,  185G,  p.  475),  or  "  linear  fork-claw,"  are  said  also 
to  destroy  the  foliage  of  the  hazel;  while  D.  albicoUis,  (Gl)  or 
white  necked  pine  beetle,  (Fitch,  4th  Rep.,  1857,  ]>.  747),  is  said  to 
feed  upon  the  foliage  of  the  white  pine.  Comptorluna  OmaJopUa)^ 
vespertina  (G2)  (Harris,  p.  33)  feeds  on  the  foliage  of  the  sweet  briar 
and  rose.  Serica  {Omalaplia)  sericea^  (G3)  (Harris,  p.  33;  Say,  2, 
p.  144),  a  small  chestnut-brown  beetle,  feeds  also  during  the  evening  in 
summer  on  the  foliage  of  the  sweet  briar  and  rose ;  while  Serica  iricolor 
(G4)  (Say,  2,  p.  145)  destroys  the  foliage  of  the  pear  and  apple.  Say  states 
that  this  species  abounds  in  hilly  and  mountainous  situations  in  the  month 
of  May,  and  may  be  seen  flying  about  among  whortleberry  bushes  in 
such  profusion  that,  in  a  very  short  time,  any  number  desired  may  be 
collected ;  he  also  says  that  whenever  a  female  alights  on  the  ground 
she  is  immediately  siu-rounded  by  a  number  of  males. 

The  much-dreaded  rose-bug,  Macrodactyhis  siibspi}iostis  (05) 
(Harris,  p.  37 ;  Fitch,  1st  Rep.,  p.  245,  &c.),  belongs  to  the 
same  sub-family.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs,  to  the  number 
of  about  thirty,  in  the  groimd  in  June  or  July ;  the  larvie  feed 
upon  tender  roots,  and  attain  their  full  growth  in  autumn ; , 
they  then  descend  to  pass  the  winter  in  a  semi-torpid  state, 
below  the  reach  of  frost.  The  pupa  is  formed  in  IMay,  in  a  cell 
of  an  oval  shape,  imder  gromid.  The  perfect  beetle  appears  in  65. 
May  and  June,  assembling  in  great  nimibers  on  roses  and  the  flowers  ot 
elder,  ox-eye  daisy,  &c.,  and  feeds  upon  the  foliage  and  flowers  of  fi'uit 
and  forest  trees.  The  apple,  grape,  cherry,  plimi,  peach,  oak,  and 
rose,  vegetables,  maize,  grass,  &c.,  do  not  escape  their  attacks ;  and, 
indeed,  these  beetles  are  almost  omnivorous.  In  Maryland  they  are 
especially  destructive  to  roses  and  grape-vines.  Their  whole  transforma- 
tion, from  the  egg  to  the  perfect  beetle,  is  completed  within  the  space  of 
one  year. 

DiplGtaxis  (meJolontlia)  sordida  {66)  (Say,  2,  p.  299),  a  small, 
stoutly  built  beetle  of  an  oblong,  slightly  convex  form,  and  of 
a  color  from  pale  chestnut  to  dark  brown,  is  found  in  consider- 
able numbers  in  spring,  in  Maryland,  on  the  flowers  of  the 
pear.  The  beetles  generally  known  as  May-beetles,  June- ' 
bugs,  &c.,  which  are  so  abundant  in  certain  localities,  and  do 
so  much  injury  to  the  leaves  of  forest  and  of  fruit  trees, 
belong  to  this  sub-family.    These  beetles  are  of  a  medium  size,  and  gener- 


88 


AGKICULTUEAJL    REPORT. 


ally  of  a  browu  color ;  there  are  several  species  differing  but  slightly  from 
one  another  in  size,  form,  or  color. 

Lachnosternafusca  (Lee).  (C7)  (Phyllopliaga  quercinaj  (Har- 
ris, p.  30;  Fitch.  3(1  Ecp.,lS5(3,p.3G8)  is  one  of  our  most  com- 
mon species.  The  larvae  are  fat,  fleshy  grubs,  and  feed 
upon  roots  of  grass,  &c.,  under  the  earth,  and  are  fre- 
quently very  destructive  to  meadows  and  pastures.  The 
pupa3  are  formed  in  a  smooth  cell  or  cavity  under  gi'ound. 
The  insects  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  appearing  in  May 
and  June,  and  feed  upon  the  foliage  of  the  apple,  elm, 
maple,  oak,  cheny,  i^lum,  and  fruit  and  forest  trees  in 
general.  The  principal  species  are  Laclinosternn  (PhyUo- 
^~-  lyhagaj  micans.  {OS)  L.hirticida  (G9)  (Harris,  p.  33),  Ho/o^ree/j  fa 

crenulaia  (70)  (Harris, p.  32), and Trichestes (pilosicolUs) tristis{ll) (Harris, 
p.  33.)  These  beetles  are  all  of  the  same  habits,  and  feed  upon 
the  foliage  of  all  the  fruit  and  the  forest  trees  mentioned  above. 
Leunis  gives  the  history  of  a  somewhat  allied  Em'opean  beetle, 
Mololo7itha  vidr/aris,  or  cock-chafler,  which  may  throw  some 
light  on  our  native  species.  He  states  that  the  female,  about 
24  hours  after  pairing,  creeps  into  the  earth  to  deposit  her  eggs, 
from  which,  after  aperiod  of  fourto  six  weeks,  the  young  larvae 
hatch,  and  feed  upon  roots  under  ground.  These  larva;  in  four 
years  attain  their  full  size,  so  that  every  four  years  (consequently  every 
fifth  summer)  they  appear  in  the  greatest  numbers.  Eatzeburg  considers 
it  four  years,  but  the  Swiss  and  the  Rhine  people,  on  the  contrary,  think 
it  only  a  three-years'  generation,  considering  the  fourth  year  an  excep- 
tion (Leunis,  p.  457).  KoUar,  however,  states  that  the  female  lays  80 
to  90  eggs  in  a  heap  about  six  inches  under  ground ;  the  larxse  appear 
in  about  14  days,  and  the  complete  transformation  occupies  a  space  of 
five  years ;  or,  if  its  transformation  is  retarded  by  food  or  weather,  some- 
times even  six  years  elapse. 

Poh/phylla  fMeloJonthaJ  variolosa,  (72)  or  the  scarred 
melolontiia  (Harris,  p.  33),  a  large  chestnut-colored 
beetle  with  lighter  marks  or  scars  on  the  wing  cases, 
is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  feeds  on  the  foliage  of 
elm,  maple,  oak,  apple,  cherry,  plum,  and  other  forest 
trees,  and  fruit  trees  in  general.  An  insect  of  the 
first  gToup,  Anomalcr,  which  consists  of  beetles  of 
small  size,  is  rather  common  in  Maryland.  This 
beetle,  Ano7nala  varians  (73)  (Harris,  p.  34),  appears 
during  the  summer  months,  and  feeds  upon  the  foliage 
of  sumach,  and  both  wild  and  cultivated  grape  vines. 
Thirty  specimens  of  this  species  were  taken  from  the 
"2-  stomach  of  a  king  biixl.  or  t\Tant  fly-catcher  (Tijraiuixis 

CaroUnensisJ,  which  had  been  shot  by  a  Maryland  farmer  under  the  mis- 
taken idea  that  the  bird  was  catching  his  bees.  Another  species,  Spilota 
{Anomala)  lucicola  (74)  (Fitch,  1857,  p.  403).  a  small  chesnut-brown 
beetle,  also  feeds  upon  the  foliage  of  the  grape,  while  a  variety  of 
the  sameinsect,J..jj)i;a'co/«  (75)  (Fitch, 1857,  p.747),issaidtodestroy 
the  foliage  of  the  southern  pine.  Group  2,  Hutelcc,  contains 
the  spotted  pelidnota,  Pelidnota  imnctata  (70)  (Harris,  p.  25; 
Fitch,  1850,  1).  403).  This  insect  is  a  large,  livid,  chesnut- 
yellow  beetle,  with  three  black  spots  on  each  wing  cover,  and  two 
upon  the  thorax;  it  is  diurnal  in  habits,  and  feeds  upon  the  foliage  of 
both  wild  and  cultivated  gi\ipes ;  it  is  also  accused  by  some  grape- 
growers  of  cutting  ofi"  the  bunches,  thus  injuring  the  smaller  side 


FOOD  AXD  HABITS  OF  BEETLES. 


89 


bunches,  and  causing  the  clusters  to  ripen,  unequally.    The  larva  is 
found  in  rotten  wood. 

CotaJpa  (Areoda)  lanigera, {17) the  "woolly  areoda,"  or 
goldsmith's  beetle,  is  a  large  insect  of  a  beautiful  golden 
or  metallic  luster,  which,  during  the  day-time,  hides  under 
the  foliage  of  trees,  and  liills  to  tlie  ground  when  disturbed. 
At  twilight,  however, it  feeds  upon  the  tbliage  of  the  elm, 
hickory,  poplar,  oak,  willow,  and  other    forest   trees,    o 
The  larva  probably  lives  in  the  earth,  and  feeds  upon  M  '■ 
roots  of  plants.    The  second  tribe,  Bynastini,  immhevsi  j 
among  its  foreign  members  many  very  large  beetles ;  some 
of  the  genera  arc  remarkable  for  the  size  and  form  of  the 
horns  on  the  thorax  and  head  of  the  males.    The  larva? 
generally  are  found  in  rich  vegetable  mold,  or  decaying  " 

wood.    Our  native  species  Xylonjctessatyrus  (Lee),  (78)  a  large  beetle  of  a 
black  color,  was  taken  at  the  root  of  an  ash  tree,  and 

also  of  a  sweet  gnm. 
Stratcgus  antccus  (79) 
(Lee.)  burrows  in  sandy 
fields  (Xew  Jersey),  de- 
scending to  a  depth  of 
from  one  inch  to  a  foot, 
the  females  always  goingf  ■ 
deeper  than  the  males. 
By  searching  for  them 
early  in  the  morning, 
they    can    be   captured  "^• 

with  greater  ease,  as  the  earth  around  the 
holes  is  fresh  (Cresson).  The  beetle  is 
of  a  brown  color.  The  sub-tribe,  Dynas- 
tidce^  contains  one  of  our  largest  and 
finest  beetles,  Dynasfes  tityriis{SO)  (Say,  1,  p. 
9;  Fitch,  185(5.  p. 
307),  the  males 
of  which  are  disting-uished  by  singiilar  pro- 
tuberances or  horns  rising  from  the  head  and 
thorax ;  they  are  of  a  dirty,  gTcenish  cream 
color,  having  the  wing  cases  mottled  or 
spotted  with  irregidar  black  blotches.  Two 
perfect  males  were  taken  in  Washington  in 
a  yard  containing  an  old,  decaying  cheny 
tree.  They  were  also  found  by  Say  in  an  old 
cherry  tree  accidentally  blown  down  near 
Philadelphia.  Mr.  Peale  states  he  has  also 
found  them  in  old  willows,  and  3Ir.  Eidings 
took  many  of  them  from  the  hmbs  of  an  ash 
in  Yii'ginia.  The  larva,  doubtless,  feeds 
upon  decaying  wood.  Tribe  3,  Cctoniini, 
consists  principally  of  insects  of  an  oblong, 
oval,  or  depressed  form,  with  the  wing  cases 
not  reaching  to  the  extremity  of  the  abdo- 
men. In  regard  to  this  tribe,  IMr.  Walsh 
remarks  that  in  coleoptera  (beetles),  the  ely- 
tra or  wing  cases  are  not,  as  far  as  is  known, 
used  at  all  in  fiight,  and  some  of  them,  e.  (/., 
Cetonia  and  its'allies,  do  not  even  lift  them  off  their  backs  when  thej 


90 


AGRICULTUEAL   EEPOET. 


fly.  (Walsli,  Proi-eea.  Eut.  Soc.  Pbil.,  vol.  G,  p.  121).  Westwood  states 
that  tlie  beetles  frequent  Bowers,  on  :lie  juice  of  wbicli  they  subsist,  the 
stnicture  of  their  maxillary  lobes  enabling  them  to  lap  up  the  sweets. 
Other  siieoies  are  found  on  trunks  of  trees,  particularly  such  as  are 
\\oiuided,  and  from  which  the  sap  Hows.  A  Eui'opeau  species,  Cctonia 
hirta,  (81 )  is  accused  of  doiug  much  damage  to  the  tlowers  of  the  apricot,  by 
eating  oti  the  nectary.  One  of  our  most  common  species  in  ]\Iarylaud  is 
AUorhina  (L'otinis)  nitida  (82)  (Lee.)  This  insect  is  a  large 
beetle,  of  a  velvety  green  color,  with  a  light  cream -colore<^l 
border  or  edge.  Great  numbers  of  it  were  taken  in  Wash- 
ington from  the  trunk  of  a  maple  which  had  been  wounded 
accidentally,  and  fi'om  which  the  sweet  juices  were  tlow- 
ing ;  the  beetles  clustering  around  the  cut  like  bees,  and 
[all  busily  engaged  in  lapping  up  the  sap.  They  also  are 
said  to  injiu^e  the  ripe  fniit  of  the  beech,  by  eating  holes 
in  the  nuts,  and  in  some  of  the  southern  States  are  so 
very  destructive  to  ripe  figs  as  to  have  acquired  the  local 
name  of  tig-eaters.  Euryomux  ( Euphoria  J  melanchoUca  (83) 
IS  a  much  smaller  beetle,  which  feeds  upon  the  sap  from  diseased  or 
injured  cotton  bolls;  it  is  also  found  in  the  tlowers.  Euryomia  (Erir- 
4  1i ii)isJIiida,{S4:){Sa\.  2,  p.  141 ;  and  Harris,  p.  40)  is  a  very  com- 
^  mon  beetle  of  a  brown  color,  checkered  or  mottled  with  a 
darker  tint :  this  insect  also  feeds  upon  the  sap  of  trees,  &:c. 
The  first  brood  appears  in  April  and  May ;  and,  as  they 
fly  slowly  and  with  a  loud  humming  noise  near  the  ground, 
"may  at  the  hrst  glance  be  readily  mistaken  for  large  hum- 
ble bees.  A  second  brood  appears  in  the  airtumu,  and  pro- 
bably passes  the  winter  in  a  torpid  state.  The  larvie  pro- 
bably feed  upon  the  roots  of  herbaceous  plants.  The 
insects  themselves  fiequent  the  flowers  of  the  golden-rod,  {^Solidar/o),  and 
feed  upon  the  sap  of  cotton  bolls,  maize,  locust,  &c.;  and  m  the  autumn 
sometimes  do  considerable  damage  to  the  ripe  peaches,  pumpldns,  and 
figs.  Osmodcnna  scahra,  (85)  or  lough  Osmoderma, 
(Harris,  p.  43 ;  Fitch,  1850,  p.  329),  is  a  large,  some- 
what flattened,  black  beetle,  the  larv®  of  which 
feed  upon  wood  in  old  and  decaying  trees;  the  pupa 
is  formed  in  a  cell  made  of  the  fragments  of  wood 
cemented  together ;  and  the  perfect  beetle  appears 
in  summer,  ajid  is  found  on  the  foliage  of  apple,  oak, 
and  other  fruits,  and  also  forest  trees.  These 
Insects  when  handled  emit  an  odor  like  that  of 
Eussia  leather,  hence  their  name  Osmodermo,  from 
the  Greek  words  signifying  scent  or  odor,  and  leather. 
Osmoderma  eremicoki,  (8G)  or  smooth  Us'iV.oderma, 
^^-  (Harris,  p.  41 :  Fitch,  185G,  p.  329),  is  very  similar 

ro  xho  foregoing  in  form  and  color,  but  may  readily  be  recognized  by  its 
smoother  appearance.  The  beetle  feeds  upon  the  sap  of  trees,  apple, 
cherry,  &c. 

Trkhius ( TrlgmiopeltastesJ  delta  (SI)  (Fab.)  isa  much  smaller 
beetle,  having  a  very  distinct  triangular  mark  of  yellow  on 
its  black  thorax,  like  the  Greek  letter  delta ;  the  wing-cases 
are  brown,  marked  with  black  spots.  This  insect  was  found 
in  August  and  September,  feeding  on  the  sweet  litjuid  w  ^ 
at  the  base  of  the  flowers,  or  on  the  extravasiited  sap  -^ 
from  injured  bolls  of  cotton.  Valgus  (seticolUs)  squami-^ 
ger,  (88)  (Lee. ;  Fitch,  1857,  p.  095),  a  small  beetle  of  a    as. 


FOOD  AND  HABITS  OF  BEETLES. 


91 


blackish  color,  was  found  in  great  numbers  in  tlie  montb  of  January, 
in  JMaryland,  under  the  bark  and  in  the  rotten  wood  of  an  old  pine 
stuui])  f  the  larvoe  are  fleshy  grubs  resembling  somewhat  those  of  the 
IMay-beetle. 

The  thirty-third  famOy,  Buprestidcc,  contains  several  species,  many  of 
them  decorated  with  the  most  brilliant  metallic  tints,  and  sometimes 
present  the  beautiful  contrast  of  yellow  spots  on  a  highly  polished  blue 
and  green  ground ;  these  beetles  are  in  general  of  elongate  form.  The 
larviie  usually  are  fleshy  grubs,  having  the  head  and  first  segments  of  the 
body  very  m\ich  enlarged  or  flattened  out :  they  perforate  the  stems  of 
living  plants  and  trees.  The  perfect  beetles  creep  but  slowly,  but  are 
very  active  when  on  the  wing.  They  are  found  partly  in  flowers  or  on 
trees  and  logs,  where  they  appear  to  be  sunning  themselves  during  the 
hotter  seasons  of  the  year ;  when  disturbed  they  fold  up  their  legs  and 
antenna?,  and  fall  to  the  ground.  The  female  has  a  retractile,  horny  plate 
at  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  which  she  uses  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  her 
eggs  in  the  chinks  of  the  bark  of  trees,  within  which  the  larva?  reside. 
Chalcophora  fvirginicaj  Yirginiensis  (89)  ( Harris,  p.  48 ; 
Fitch,  1857,  p.  090),  is  a  rather  common  species  in  Mary- 
land ;  the  larvte  burrow  in  the  wood  of  the  pine.  Eatze- 
burg  states,  of  an  allied  European  species,  that  the  larva- 
state  lasts  two  years  ;  Perris,  on  the  contrary,  says  only 
one.  This  insect  is  one  of  the  largest  species ;  it  is  of  a 
dark  brassy  bronze  color,  with  a  bright  galden  metallic 
luster;  the  wing-covers  and  thorax  are  beautifidly  sculp- 
tured or  indented  with  deep  furrows  or  lines.  A  very 
similar  beetle,  Chalcophora  Uberta  (90)  (Fitch,  1852,  p.  192,) 
is  also  injurious  to  the  wood  of  pine  trees,  and  may  be  found  on  the  trunk 
of  pines  in  summer  and  autumn.  The  second  group,  Buprestes^  contains 
species  of  moderate  size,  and  usually  of  elongate  form.  Diccrca  in  gen- 
eral is  of  a  didl  bronze  color,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  tips  of  the  elytra, 
or  wing-covers,  being  more  or  less  prolonged,  forming  a  kind  of  tail. 
Dicerca  divaricata  (91)  (Harris,  p.  49 ;  Fitch,  1856,  p.  330,  «S:c.), 
is  found  from  June  to  August  on  the  trunks  and  limbs  of  trees 
of  apple,  beech,  cherry,  and  peach,  where  the  larvge  reside,  and 
mine  into  and  destroy  the  sap-wood  under  the  bark.  Dicerca 
liirida  (92)  (Harris,  p.  49;  Fitch,  185G,  p.  441),  injures  the 
hickory  in  a  similar  manner,  while  the  larva  of  Bicerca pmictu- 
lata  (Fitch,  1857,  p.  706)  feeds  principally  on  the  wood  of  the 
pitch-i)ine.  A  beetle  answering  to  Buprestis  (Ancylochira) 
lineata,  or  orange-lined  Buprestis  of  Fitch  (4th  Eep.  1857,  p.  105),  was 
found  very  plentiful  in  Washington  early  in  spring.  The  insect  is  of  a 
dark  bronze  color,  with  three  distinct  lines  of  an  orange  color  on  each 
wing-case ;  in  the  perfect,  or  imago  state,  it  feeds  upon  the  tender  shoots. 
Ancylochira  striata,  (95)  (Fitch,  1857,  p.  703),  a  beetle  of  a  most 
beautiful  golden  metallic  lustre,  with  longitudinally  striped 
wing-covers,  is  found  in  summer  on  the  spruce  and  pine ; 
the  larva  appears  to  prefer  the  dead  wood  of  stumps  and 
logs,  and  the  i)erfect  insect  probably  feeds  on  the  tender 
leaves  and  buds.  The  insects  in  group  3,  Anthaxicc,  are  gen- 
erally of  small  size,  and  usually  flattened,  rarely  of  linear  form. 
MclanophUu  f  Chrij.whoihrisjfulvognttata  (96)  (Lee.)  and  Harris,  p.  51),  Tra- 
chyptcris  (Fitch,  1857,  p.  706),  in  the  larva  state  probably  feeds  on  the 
wood  of  the  white  pine.  Group  4,  Chrysohothris,  contains  species 
of  rather  broad  and  flattened  form,  having  on  their  wing-cases^  im- 
pressed bands  or  spots,  and  are  sometimes  of  brilliant  metallic  colors. 


91. 


w 


92  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Chrysohothris  femorata,  (97)  or  thick-legged  Buiwestis  (Harris,  50 ; 
Fitch,  1st  Eep.,  p.  25,  &c.),  in  the  larva  state  bores  into  the 
"solid  wood  of  the  apple,  peach,  and  oak ;  and  the  perfect  beetle 
appears  from  May  to  July,  on  the  trunks  and  limbs  of  the  trees, 
'■i'.  in  the  sunshine.  Fitch  states  that  its  original  food  consisted  of  the 
oak.  The  larvoe  are  subject  to  be  destroyed  by  the  larva3  of  some  hymen- 
opterous  fly.  The  larvte  of  Chrysohothris  Harrissii  (98)  (Fitch,  1857, 
p.  703)  bores  into  the  small  limbs  and  saplings  of  the  white  pine.  Gliry- 
sohothris  calcarata  (99)  (Harris,  50),  in  the  larva  state  is  said  to  bore  holes 
in  the  trunks  of  white  oak  and  peach.  Chrysohothris  dentipes  (100)  (Hanis, 
p.  49;  Fitch,  1858,  p.  793),  or  ''tooth-legged  Buprestis,"  in  the  larvte  state 
feed  also  on  wood,  boring  holes  in  the  trunk  of  the  oak,  or  form  long, 
slender,  winding  passages  or  serpent-like  tracks  between  the  bark  and 
wood  of  felled  timber.  The  perfect  beetle  makes  its  appearance  from 
May  to  August.  Tiibe  5,  Agrilini,  are  usually  slender  beetles,  but  some- 
times the  body  is  very  broad  and  flat ;  in  both  these  cases,  however,  it 
narrowed  behind.  Agrilus  ruficollis  (101)  (Say,  2,  p.  595)  is  a  small 
beetle  of  a  narrow  form,  and  in  the  larva  state  is  said  to  feed  on  the 
l)ith  of  the  raspberry.  Leunis  states  that  the  larva?  of  some  of  the 
101.  European  species  (102)  are  injurious  to  the  beech  and  oak.  The 
larvai  begin  their  galleries  in  the  one  to  two  inch  thick  beeches,  under  the 
bark,  and  feed  from  two  to  three  years ;  the  tree  thus  attacked  withers 
and  dries  up.  A  European  species  is  also  mentioned  by  Westwood  as 
burrowing  in  the  wood  of  the  i)ear.  One  of  our  native  species 
Agrilus  egenus  (103)  (Lee.)  was  found  in  great  numbers  in  Virginia, 
feeding  upon  the  foliage  of  the  locust,  (Eohiniapseudacacia)^  the 
|h  "  leaves  attacked  being  literally  riddled  with  the  holes  made  by 
1  i\  these  beetles.  The  insect  is  very  small  in  size,  narrow  in  form, 
V      and  of  a  metallic  or  bronzed,  dark  greenish  color.    The  second 

1 1    group,  Braches,  Dr.  Leconte  states  are  almost  identical  with  the 

103.      European  Traches,  and  have  the  body  rarely  elongated,  but 
usually  broad  and  ovate.   Our  native  species,  jBrac/i?/s  termin- 
ans,  (104)  (Lee),  is  merely  mentioned,  as  its  food  is  not  known, 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  a  European  species.     Trachys  mimita    ^. 
(105)  is  said  by  Westwood  to  be  found  on  the  hazel,  upon  the  ^^ 
leaves  of  which  it  is  said  to  feed.    Some  of  our  native  species 
may  most  probably  be  found  in  similar  situations. 

The  tliirty-fourth  family,  Throscida',  contains  only  a  few 
small  species ;  they  are  found  in  flowers,  and  have  been  classed         io4. 
with  the  Bucnemidcc  by  some  recent  authors,  but  do  not  possess  the 
power  of  leapiug  like  most  species  of  the  next  family,  (Lee).    Westwood 
states  that  a  European  species  inhabits  the  wood  of  the  oak. 

The  thirty-fifth  family,  Elateridm,  is  very  extensive;  a  few  of  the  first 
sub-family,  Eiicnemidcc,  and  the  majority  of  the  third  sub-family,  Elate- 
ridcc,  possess  the  singular  power  of  springing  into  the  air  when  placed 
on  their  backs.  All  are  vegetable  feeders ;  the  larva?  of  some  live  in 
the  earth,  others  in  rotten  wood,  while  others  prey  on  living  plants. 
The  first  sub-family,  Eucnemidw,  is  generally  comi)osed  of  small  slender 
■  beetles,  having  their  autenufe  inserted  in  grooves.  Eucnemis 
amccnicornis  (100)  (Say,  2,  p.  G28)  is  found  on  leaves  or  under 
bark;  the  perfect  insects  possess  a  slight  leaping  power. 
Some  of  this  sub-family  in  Europe  are  found  in  decaying 
oak  trees.  Dr.  Horn  found  Fornax  in  old  oak  stumps  in  a 
state  of  decay.  Sub-family  3,  Elaterida',  have  their  antennte 
luG.'  widely  separated,  and  when  placed  upon  their  backs  possess 
the  power  of  recovering  their  natural  position  by  leaping  into  the  air. 


A 


FOOD    AND    HABITS    OF   BEETLES. 


93 


Dr.  Leconte  states  that,  after  folding  their  legs  and  antennce  closely 
together,  they  extend  the  prothorax  so  as  to  bring  the  prosternal  spine, 
on  the  under  part  of  the  body,  to  the  anterior  part  of  the  mesosternal 
cavity,  then  suddenly  relaxing  the  muscles,  so  that  the  spine  suddenly 
descends  violently  into  the  canity,  the  force  given  by  this  sudden  move- 
ment causes  the  base  of  the  elytra  or  wing-covers  to  strike  the  support- 
ing surface,  and  by  their  elasticity  the  whole  body  is  propelled  upwards. 
This  movement,  however,  can  be  better  observed  than  described,  by  any 
person  procimng  a  large  living  Elater  and  placing  it  on  its  back  on  any 
flat  surface.  From  this  habit  of  suddenly  springing  into  the  air,  these 
insects  are  known  in  Europe  by  the  common  name  of  "skip-jacks,"  or 
"spring  beetles,"  and  in  America  as  "snapping  beetles,"  and  erroneously 
"snapping  bugs."  Alans  occidatus,  (107)  or  big-eyed 
snapping  beetle  (Harris,  p.  54;  Fitch,  1856,  p.  329,  and  ///] 
1858,  p.  791:),  is  so  named  from  two  large  eye-like  spots  / 
on  the  thorax.  This  insect  is  very  common  in  Mary-  ^ 
land.  The  larvai  feed  on  old  and  decaying  wood  of  .^ 
oak  and  apple,  and  in  Maryland  have  been  taken  in  old  li|i| 
pine  stimips.  Alans  myops,  (108)  or  purblind  snappingi^iD 
beetles  (Fitch,  1856,  p.  330),  has  the  eye-like  spots  on 
the  thorax  much  smaller  and  indistinct,  and  is  found 
also  in  oak,  apple,  and  pine  wood.  Mr.  E  vett,  in  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Philadelphia, 
vol.  1,  p.  227,  states  that  he  took  this  species  in  the 
larva  state  and  reared  the  perfect  beetle.  In  the 
month  of  March  he  collected  several  larvre  of  this 
species  near  Philadelphia,  in  an  old  pine  stiunp ;  the 
pupa  was  formed  about  the  25th  of  July,  and  the  per- 
fect insect  came  out  7th  of  August,  thus  remaining  in  iot. 
the  pupa  state  only  about  thirteen  or  fourteen  days.  The  well-known  fire- 
fly of  the  West  Indies  belongs  to  this  family;  it  is  an'ElateY  Pyrojiliorus  noc- 
tihicus  (109.)  Westwood  states  that  this  species  is  upwards  of  an  inch  in 
length,  of  an  obscure  brown  color,  with  an  oval  spot  of  a  dull  yellow  near 
each  posterior  angle  of  the  thorax;  these  spots  emit  so  strong  a  light  dur- 
ing the  night  that  it  is  easy  to  read  the  smallest  writing  by  placing  several 
of  the  insects  under  a  glass,  or  by  moving  a  single  beetle  along  the  Lines. 
They  are  termed,  by  the  natives,  Cucuyos  or  Cucujos,  and  are  said  to  be 
attracted  by  lights.  According  to  Spex,  their  light  proceeds  from  a 
phosphorescent  substance  contained  in  a  small  bag  in  the  thorax,  filled 
with  an  unctuous  substance  like  phosphorus,  over  which  the  trachece  are 
spread.  According  to  Humboldt  and  Bonpland,  they  feed  upon  the  roots 
of  the  sugar  cane  and  destroy  the  plants.  Mr.  Guilding,  however,  thinks 
that  the  damage  done  to  the  plants  is  in  a  gTeat  measure  owing  to  other 
insects.  This  beetle  must  not  be  confounded  v.ith  the  fire-fly  of  Madam 
Meriam,  which  inhabits  Surinam  and  other  parts  of  South 
America,  as  the  latter  belongs  to  an  entirely  diflerent 
order.  Our  common  fire-flies,  vulgarly  termed  Ughtning- 
bugs,  belong  also  to  another  family  of  beetles,  which 
will  be  spoken  of  hereafter  under  the  Lampyrida:.  The 
larva  of  jE later  ohscurus  (110)  is  one  of  the  much-dreaded 
wire-worms  of  Eiu'ope.  Westwood  states  that  it  is  five 
years  in  attaining  its  perfect  state,  and  attacks  almost  all 
vegetables  and  roots.  It  is  readily  taken  by  laying  as  a 
bait  slices  of  lettuce  or  potato  wherever  the  wire-worms 
are  especially  troublesome;  they  burrow  into  these  during 
the  night,  and  in  the  morning  may  be  collected  and  destroyed.    The  pupa 


94 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


of  OrfJiosfefluts  iiifuscatm  (111)  (Lee),  a  native  species,  of  large  size,  and 
cliestunt-browu  color,  Tvas  taken  fi-om  a  decaying  chestnut  log  by  Dr. 
Horn,  so  that  vre  may  infer  that  the  larva?  fed  upon  wood.  The  group 
Agriotcs  are  insects  of  moderate  or  small  size.  Agrioics  mancJiKS  (112) 
(Lee),  A.  ohesus  (Harris,  p.  50),  fnincatHS  (Melsheimer  and  Fitch, 
18G0,  p.  527,)  resembles  the  ■wire-vrorm  of  Eiuope,  and  the  larvoe 
feed  upon  grass  and  herbaceous  roots.  Leunis  states  that  another 
m.^  European  species,  Agriotes  segetis,  (113)  is  very  plentiful  in  fields 
and  meadows,  especially  in  spring,  where,  under  the  name  of  wire-worm, 
it  does  much  damage  to  fields  of  grain  by  gniawing  the  roots  of  the  plants, 
causing  them  to  turn  yellow,  and  the  stem  to  die.  The  wire-worms  of 
this  species  also  feed  upon  and  destroy  the  roots  of  almost  all  garden 
vegetables. 

The  larva  of  our  native  MeJanotus  fCratonycJiusJ  communis, 
(114)  (Harris,  p.  55),  was  found  in  Maryland,  in  rotten  wood ; 
but  Dr.  Fitch  states  that  it  feeds  upou  the  roots  of  almost  any 
vegetable,  grain,  or  flower.    The  perfect  insect  was  also  taken 
in  Maryland  in  winter,  hybernating  under  the  bark  of  trees. 
The  thirty-sixth  family.  Cehrionidce.    The  difiereuce  between 
"4.       this  family  and  the  UlaferidcCj  above  mentioned,  consists  in 
the  greater  number  (six)  of  vcnti'al  joints,  &c.    The  insects  are  found  fly- 
ing about  at  night,  and  the  females  at  the  entrance  of  holes 
which  they  construct  in   the  gi'ound.     Ccbrio  bicolor   (115) 
(Lee.)  inhabits  the  southern  States,  and  is  of  a  brown  color. 
Westwood  states  that  the  European  Cebrio  gigas  is  found  in 
abundance  after  showers  of  rain. 

The   insects  of  the   thirty- seventh  famOy,    Ehipicerida;, 
are  found  on  plants;  they  fly  and  walk  slowly.     The  Enro- 
lls,      pean  species,  Ehqncera  marginata,  appear,  dui-iug  and  toward 
the  end  of  the  rainy  season,  and  is  found  upon  low  plants,  gnawing  the 
under-stems,  but  never  upon  flowers.    M.  Laporte  considers  that  it 
undergoes  its  transformation  in  decaying  trees.    The  larvae  of  one  of 
roui'  native  species.  Zenoa  fSandalusJjJicca  (IIG)  (Say,2,p.  631), 
is  foiuid  under  the  bark  of  trees,  and  iSandalus 
niger  (117)  (Knoch)  is  one  of  the  species  best  known 
to  collectors.    Dr.  Lecoute  states,  in  his  classifica- 
tion,  that    Sandalus,  especially,   aflects  various 
cedars. 
116.  The  thirty-eighth  family,  ScJt izojwd id(v,  eontains 

but  a  single  species,  found  in  Arizona,  and  will  therefore  be 
passed  over. 
The  thirty-ninth  family,  DoficyUidcv,  consists  of  insects  liv-        in. 

ing  on  plants  usually  near  water.  Our  native  species,  Odontonyx 
(Ba'sytes)  trivittis,  (118)  is  merely  mentioned,  as  the  larvfe  of  a 
European  species  o{Dasytes{lV.))  are  spoken  of  by  Leunis  as  eating 
out  the  bottom  under  the  l)enies  of  the  ras]>berry.  The  larvse, 
jiupa,  and  perfect  insect  of  Ptilodactyla  clateriiia,  at, 
(120)  a  small  brown  insect,  with  long  beautifully  pecti- 
nated anteniup,  were  taken  by  Dr.  Horn  from  a  log,  prob- 
rably  of  oak,  and  the  pupa  were  concealed  by  a 
thin  layer  of  wood  on  the  side  adjacent  to  the 
earth. '  Mr.  "Walsh,  of  Illinois,  found  the  lar- 
vae of  Prmiocyphon  (  Cyphon )  dhcoidem  (121) 
(Say,  2,  p.  272)  of  various  sizes,  about  the  end  ^-^• 

of  May,  in  the  hollow  of  an  oak  stump  containing  a  gallon  oi 
two  of  water  j  some  were  in  the  decayed  wood,  which  formed 


FOOD  AND  HABITS  OF  BEETLES.  95 

the  lining  of  the  hollow,  but  most  of  them  were  attached  to  loose 
[pieces  of  wood  and  bark  which  lay  at  the  bottom.  The  insect  is  of  a 
})ale  brownish  yellow  color,  with  a  large  black  mark  in  the  center  of 
each  wing-cover.  The  European  species,  Cyphon  ])aUldiis^  was  found  in 
mid-winter,  secreted  in  the  stems  of  reeds.  Lennis  states  that  the 
larvai  of  Gyplion  have  long  four-jointed  antenna?,  and  that  the  perfect 
insects  live  in  flowers. 

The  fortieth  family,  Lampyridcc,  consists  of  insects  of  a  moderate  or 
small  size,  of  elongate  form,  and  of  soft  consistence.  Many  of  the  S'pecies 
of  the  second  tribe  of  the  first  sub-family  possess  the  remarkable  power 
of  emitting  light,  and  are  here  known  as  fire-flies,  or,  more  vulgarly, 
lightning-bugs.  Our  native  Lycns  cruentus  (122)  (Lee.)  is  of  a  red-- 
dish  orange  color,  with  the  ends  of  the  wing-covers  tipped  v>ith 
black.  These  insects  in  Europe  frequent  flowers,  particularly 
those  of  the  Umbelliferje,  and  also  inhabit  decayed  trunks  of  trees. 
Dictyoptera  perfaceta  (123)  (Lee.)  is  an  insect  of  much  the  same 
form  as  the  preceding,  but  is  of  a  black  color,  having  the  thorax  ^~~- 
margined  with  red.  The  larva  of  the  European  species,  Dictyoptera  san- 
guineus, (121)  was  taken  under  the  bark  of  oak.  Ellichnia  fPho- 
tinusj  comtscus,  (125)  a  very  common  species  of  fire-fly  in  Mary- 
land, of  a  l)lack  color,  having  the  thorax  margined  with  red, 
was  found  abundant  hybernatiug  under  the  loose  bark  of  trees' 
in  winter.  The  larva  of  some  species  is  mentioned  in  the 
"Practical  Entomologist,"  vol.  2,  p.  6G,  as  being  predaceous, 
and  feeding  on  various  species  of  borers.  In  the  same  work,  vol.  1,  p. 
10,  it  is  stated  that  the  larva  of  ElUpolampis  (Photinus)  pyndis, 
(120)  an  insect  having  a  red  thorax  with  a  black  mark  in  the- 
center,  aud  black  wing  covers,  margined  with  a  yellowish  color, 
lives  in  the  earth,  and  probably  feeds  upon  earth  worms.  The 
pupa  is  said  to  be  slightly  luminous,  and  is  formed  in  an  oval 
cavity  in  the  ground.  Westwood  states  that  the  body  of  a  Euro- 
pean Lampyris,  (127)  the  female  of  which  is  commonly  known  as  the  glow- 
worm, and  is  not  furnished  with  wings,  is  long,  flat,  and  soft,  the  head  small 
and  concealed  by  the  thorax;  the  legs  and  antennae  are  short ;  the  per- 
fect female  jiresents  much  the  appearance  of  a  larva,  from  which,  how- 
ever, it  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  greater  number  of  anteunal  and 
tarsal  joints.  The  light  is  emitted  by  this  insect  from  the  under  side  of 
the  abdomen,  several  of  the  terminal  segments  of  which  are  of  a  pale  color, 
indicating  the  extent  of  the  luminous  property.  The  males  as  well  as 
the  pupa?,  and  even  the  eggs,  are  slightly  luminous.  The  glow-worm 
possesses  the  singular  property  of  causing  its  light  to  cease  at  will.  Of 
the  family  Lamjyyridcv,  Westwood  also  states  that  the  female  deposits 
her  eggs,  which  are  of  large  size  and  j'ellowish  color,  in  the  earth  or 
upon  moss  and  plants,  to  which  they  are  attached  by  a  viscid  substance. 
It  feeds,  as  does  the  perfect  insect,  upon  small  moUuseous  animals, 
especially  those  of  the  Zonitis  (Zone  snail,)  and  not  upon  leaves  or  grass. 
The  larva  is  stated  by  De  Geer  to  attain  its  full  size  in 
April,  when  it  prepares  to  assume  the  perfect  state,  from ' 
the  commencement  of  which  iieriod  until  it  becomes  a 
perfect  insect  fifteen  days  only  are  consumed,  eight  of 
which  are  passed  in  the  pupa  state.  Phengodes  plumosa 
(128)  (Say,  2,  p.G31)  is  a  very  singular  looking  insect,  of  a 
brownish  color,  and  having  the  wing-cases"  exceetlingly 
short  and  imperfect,  these  organs  being  only  about  one- 
third  of  the  length  of  the  abdomen.  The  antennoe  are  ex-  i28. 
ceedingly  beautiful  and  graceful,  and  present  a  very  feathery  appear- 


96  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

ance,  o\\ing  to  the  third  and  the  following  joints  all  emitting 
very  long  and  flexible  branches  from  near  the  base.  The  specimen 
figiired  vras  taken  in  Maryland  at  night,  having  been  attracted  by  a 
light  in  the  room.  Sub-family  2,  TelejjhGrida;  consists  of  insects 
of  a  soft  consistence,  and  of  a  long  narrow  form.  ChauUognalhKs 
PennsyJraniciis,  (129)  (Lee.)  is  very  common  in  the  flow- 
ers of  the  cotton,  where  it  probably  feeds  upon  the  pollen 
or  nectar,  and  is  stated  not  to  be  predaceons.  "When  feeding, 
it  protrudes  its  maxillary  setne  (rwice  the  length  of  the  max- 
illa^) in  the  same  manner  as  the  tongue  of  Lcpidopiera.  The 
insect  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  with  a  black  patch  on  the 
thorax ;  the  wing-cases  having  a  larger  or  smaller  black 
i2!>.  mark  at  theii'  extremity.  These  beetles  appear  later  in  the 
season  than  the  Ckaidiognathus  marciinatus,  (Heutz),  which  resembles  it 
very  much,  and  is  likewise  found  in  cotton  flowers.  Hentz  says  this 
insect  is  also  not  predaceons,  and  when  about  to  die  generally  clasps 
the  petals  of  a  flower  with  its  mandibles,  in  which  position  it  may  often 
be  found  dead  and  dry.  This  beetle  appears  earlier  in  the  season  than 
its  relative  above  mentioned.  Tcleplwrus  hUlneaius  (130)  (Say,  2,p. 
IIS)  is  said  to  be  predaceons.  and  to  feed  upon  other  insects;  one 
.  of  them  was  taken  in  Maryland  in  the  very  act  of  feeding  on  the 
body  of  a  still  living  chrysalis  of  a  butterfly  which  had  only  just 
130.  changed  from  the  caterpillar,  and  the  skin  of  which  was  yet  soft, 
and  not  hardened  by  exposme  to  the  air.  Westwood  states  that  the  Euro- 
peon  species  are  found  ui)Ou  flowers  in  spring,  but  are  very  voracious  or 
predaceons,  feeding  ui)on  other  insects,  and  even  devouring  such  of  their 
own  species  as  they  can  overcome,  the  females  not  even  sparing  theii 
own  mates.  The  larv?e  reside  in  moist  earth,  and  are  also  carnivorous, 
feeding  upon  their  o^vn  species  as  well  as  on  earth-worms.  They  pass 
the  winter  in  the  larva  state,  and  change  to  pupte  in  April  or  May,  the 
perfect  insect  appearing  in  two  or  three  weeks.  AVestwood  also  says  that 
the  snow  in  Sweden  and  the  mountainous  regions  of  France  has  been 
observed  to  be  covered,  to  a  considerable  extent,  with  an  immense  num- 
ber of  Tileplioridcc,  together  with  a  midtitude  of  other  insects,  which 
were  supposed  to  have  fallen  with  the  snow,  or  to  have  been  deposited 
in  such  situations  by  gusts  of  wind,  after  violent  tempests  have  defo- 
liated the  firs  and  pine  trees.  Mr.  E.  Blancliard,  however,  suggests  that 
the  insects  had  previously  resided  in  the  ground  covered  at  the  time  by 
the  snow,  through  which  they  had  crept  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a 
fresh  supi')ly  of  ah'. 

The  forty-first  family,  MalacJiidcc,  contains  insects  ha%'ing  the  body 
soft,  oblong  or  ovate,  and  but  slightly  convex.  They  are  generally  of 
small  size  and  very  active,  being  found  n}>on  flowers  for  the  sake  of  the 
insects  there,  upon  which  they  feed,  the  females  not  even  sparing  their 
mates  when  confined  together.  Some  of  the  European  Maladiiu-s  have 
the  anterior  angles  of  the  thorax  and  the  base  of  the  abdomen  furnished 
with  several  red,  bladder-like  appendages,  which  the  insect  is  able  to 
contract  or  dilate  at  will.  Mr.  Curtis  thinks  these  append- 
ages may  enable  the  insect  to  increase  or  decrease  its  gravity 
during  flight.  Kirby  and  Spence  regard  them  as  being 
employed  for  the  purpose  of  alarming  their  enemies,  but 
^Vestwood  considers  them  as  a  portion  of  an  apparatus  for 
emitting  an  oftensive  effluvia  to  be  used  for  a  simiUir  purpose. 
CoUojys  quadri77iandGtiis  (131)  (Lee.)  is  a  common  species  in 
im.  Maryland,  found  on  flowers.  The  insect  is  of  a  small  size,  and 
of  a  bright  red  color,  with  four  black  marks  on  its  wing  covers.    The 


FOOD    AND    ILVBITS    OF    BEETLES.  97 

forty-second  faiuiiy,  Cleridte,  contains  insects  seldom  exceeding  one 
incli  in  length ;  they  are  generally  handsomely  variegated  in  their 
colors ;  some  of  them  fi-equent  flowers ;  others  are  found  npon  or  imder 
the  bark  of  old  trees,  stumps,  dry  wood,  &c.,  where  they  have  passed  the 
larva3  state,  dnring  which  time  as  larva*  they  are  predaceons,  and  feed 
upon  the  larvae  of  wood-eating  insects.  The  first  group,  TiUi, 
are  generally  of  very  long  and  slender  form.  Oiu-  native  spe- 
cies, Cymatoclera  fTillusJ  undidata  (133)  (Say,  2,  pp.  282,038,)  is 
of  a  black  color,  with  the  thorax  margiued  with  red,  «S:c.;  it  is 
said  to  have  the  habits  of  a  notoxus,  and  was  foimd  hyber- 
nating  in  late  winter  under  bark.  The  larva  of  the  Em-opean  species, 
TiUus  ajnbidans  (131)  is  found  in  oak.  The  sub-group  2,  Cleri,  (135,)  con- 
tains insects  generally  with  more  or  less  bright  red  colors,  barred  with 
black  or  yellow.  They  frequent  Howers,  the  honey  of  which  they  extract 
by  means  of  their  beautifully  ciliated  maxUl??.  T\'estwood  states  that 
in  the  larvre  state  they  are  of  a  red  color,  and  are  very  destructive 
to  bees  and  wasps,  in  the  nests  of  which  the  females  deposit  their 
eggs  during  the  absence  of  those  insects,  and  upon  the  grubs  ot 
which  the  larva?  feed ;  when  first  hatched,  the  larva  devoiu's  the  grub 
of  the  bee  in  the  cell  in  wliich  it  was  born,  and  then  proceeds  from 
cell  to  cell,  preying  upon  the  inhabitants  of  each,  until  it  arrives  at 
maturity.  It  then  makes  a  small  cocoon,  in  which  the  pupa  is  formed, 
and  the  perfect  insect,  when  fully  developed,  escapes  fi\im  the  nest,  the 
hardness  of  its  coveriug  sufiiciently  protecting  it  Irom  the  stings  of  the 
bees.  The  European  species  (13(3),  Ckrus  cqiiarius,  selects  the  hive  bee,wliile 
Clems  (dvearius  (137)  chooses  the  mason  bee  as  food  for  its  yoimg;  while 
Clerus  f  Ihanasimiis)  forniicarius,  (138.)  also  European,  according  to  Leu- 
nis,  is  found  upon  rotten  or  newly  felled  timber,  especially  of  fir,  under  the 
bark  of  which  the  larvte  reside,  devoiu-ing  and  destroying  wood-boring 
insects.  In  the  Practical  Entomologist,  vol.  2,  p.  17,  the  larva  of  our  native 
Thanasimus  (Pseudoclerus)  nigripes  (139)  (Say,  2,  p.  122)  is  said 
to  prey  upon  the  larva  of  Sylesinus  acideatus,  a  wood-boring  beetle ; 
and  the  insect  itself  has  been  taken  under  the  bark  of  trees  in 
ilaryland  in  winter.  The  beetle  has  the  thorax  and  upper  part  of  ^ 
the  wing-covers  of  a  red  color,  while  the  lower  part  of  the  elytra  '  139 

,  is  black,  barred  with  a  creamy  yellow.     Om-  native  Faeudocierus 


•■colors  of  this  insect  are  also  red,  black,  and  yellow,  but  differ- 
^^'^-  ently  marked fi'omT.  nigripes,  above  mentioned,  and  is  also  some- 
what larger  in  size.  Group  3,  Rydnoceri,  contains  smaU  insects  having 
somewhat  the  form  of  Cicindela,  and  are  foiuid  on  the  leaves  of  trees ;  they 
are  very  active,  and  take  Y\'ing  easily.  Hydnocera  (  ClcriisJ  h  umer- 
alis  (111)  (Say,  2,  p.  122)  is  not  imcommon  in  Maryland;  it  is  a 
very  small  insect  of  a  black  color,  with  two  red  patches  on  the 
upper  and  outer  edge  of  the  wing-covers.  Ortlwplcura 
dam icornis  (112) (Lee, ),EnopUH)ii  ilioradcum  (Say, 2, p.  120, ' 
&c.,)  is  a  small  beetle  of  a  black  color,  with  red  head  and 
thorax;  the  antennie  have  three  projecting  i)rocesses, 
somewhat  resembling  the  horns  of  a  stag,  hence  its  name.  1  ^  t- 
It  was  foimd  in  Maryland,  on  logs  cut  for  fire-wood  in  the  spring.  Ot 
the  gToup  2,  Corynetes,  Dr.  Leconte  says  that  our  species  of  Xecrohia 
have  been  introduced  from  Eiu-ope ;  they  feed  on  animal  material  in 
houses,  and  on  carrion  in  the  open  aii\  Corynetes  fXecrobiaJ  rujipes  (113) 
(Fab.)  is  a  very  small  beetle  of  a  metallic  gxeenish  color  and  brownish 


98 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


legs,  and  rras  found  in  cheese  in  Maryland ;  while  Necrohia 
rwlaccus{'[4:-i)  is  taken  on  dried  meat  and  carrion ;  it  also  frequents 
iiowcrs.  Leunis  states  that  this  beetle  is  a  cosmopolite,  and  in 
both  larva  and  perfect  state  it  ispredaceous  and  destroys  other 
insects. 

The  forty-third,  fam'y  Liimexi/Uflce,  contains  the  much-dreaded 
'insect  Li/mexyhm  navale  (li.j)  ofEiu-ojie,  which  is  so  destructive 
^^^-  to  ship  timber  in  Northern  Europe.  Tlie  third  joint  of  the  maxil- 
lary palpi  of  the  male  of  this  species  emits  numerous  long  and  pilose 
branches,  like  a  piece  of  coral.  The  use  of  these  appendages  is  as  yet 
unknown.  The  larvfe  feed  on  wood,  and  are  very  common  in  oak  forests 
in  Northern  Europe,  the  timber  of  which  it  perforates  and  greatly  injiu-es ; 
it  was,  indeed,  so  abundant  in  the  dock-yards  of  France  and  Sweden 
as  to  occasion  much  damage.  In  order  to  guard  against  their  attacks, 
it  has  been  suggested  to  sink  the  timber  under  water  at  the  time  of  the 
ajipearance  of  the  insect  in  its  perfect  or  beetle  state.  No  danger,  how- 
'ever,  is  to  be  apprehended  from  our  native  sjiecies.  Lymexylon 
sericeiim,  (140)  or  silky  timber  beetle  (Harris,  p.  58;  Fitch,  1857,  p. 
702),  which  also  feedson  wood,  and  makes  long  cylindrical  burrows 
in  oak  and  other  forest  trees.  This  insect  is  of  a  brown  color,  with  a 
silky  appearance.  The  larvte  of  Hyloccetus  Americanus  ■ 
1  (147)  (Harris,  p.  59 ;  Fitch,  1858,  j).  702)  also  feed  upon  the 
1^6-    oak  and  other  forest  trees. 

Some  of  the  forty-fourth  family,  Cupesirkv,  also   probably 
feed  on  wood,  as  our  native  species,  Ciqjcs  concolor  (Lee.)  (148)  G. 
cinerea  (Say,  2,  p.  G43),  is  found  under  bark  of  decaying  trees, 
and  is  conmion  about  old  frame  houses.    The  color  of  the  insect  is  yel 
lowish  brown,  variegated  -with  blackish. 

The  forty-fifth  family.  Ft  in  ida\  (140)  contains  insects  of  small  size,  of  oval 
or  sub-cylindrical  shape,  generally  short  and  obtuse  at  each  end ;  their 
colors  are  usually  obsciu-e ;  when  touched,  they  counterfeit  death ;  their 
movements  are  slow,  and  it  is  not  often  that  they  make  use  of  their 
wings.  These  insects  are  found  iu  wood  of  old  houses,  furniture,  rotten 
palings,  stumps  of  trees,  &c.,  which  they  and  their  larvie  perforate  with 
round  holes  in  every  direction ;  these  holes  are  tilled  with  a  very  fine 
powder  formed  from  the  gnawed  wood  and  with  their  excrements.  The 
larvie  of  some  also  destroy  grain,  skins,  and  collections  of  natural 
history.  Dr.  Leconte  states  that  these  insects  have  been  transported 
by  commerce  over  the  whole  globe.  The  larvae  of 
Ft  inns  fur  [ioi))  (Linn.),  humeral  is  (Say,  2,  p.  041 ),  are  very 
destructive  to  woolen  cloths,  grains,  collections  of  dried 
plants,  insects,  stufied  animals,  as  birds,  «S:c.;  ana  also, 
according  to  Andouin,  in  provisions  of  tlour  and  meal. 
This  insect  is  sluggish  during  the  day,  but  at  night 
commits  its  depredations,  and  may  be  attracted  by 
moistened  plant  stems  or  pieces  of  linen  at  night,  then 
shaken  out  and  killed  in  the  morning.  The  beetle  is 
very  small,  with  long  antemuie,  and  of  a  light  chest- 
nut-brown color,  with  whitish  markings  on  its  wing- 
covers.  Cccnocara  oculata  (Lee),  (151)  Borcatoma 
similis  (Say,  2,  p.  042),  was  found  by  Mr.  Jacob 
Staufi'er  in  pull-balls  (fungi).  The  larvtie  of  Siiodrepa 
{Anohimw)  2)anicea  (152)"are  of  a  whitish  color  and 
curved  form ;  when  full  grown  they  construct  for 
themselves  a  cocoon  of  soft  silky' matter,  mixed 
with  the  substances  on  -which  they  have  fed ;  before 


FOOD  AND  HABITS  OF  BEETLES.  99 

changing  into  tlie  pupa  state  it  appears  that  the  larva  has  the  instinct 
to  continue  the  boring  of  its  burrow  until  it  has  nearly  reached  the 
surface,  so  that  only  a  small  barrier  remains,  which  the  beetle  can  pierce 
without  difiiculty.    The  perfect  insects  generally  appear  during  the 
hottest  part  of  summer.    Dr.  Horn  states  that  the  pupa  state  only  lasts 
four  or  live  days.  Both  larvae  and  perfect  insects  feed  upon  stale  bread, 
oatmeal,  ship-biscuit,  specimens  of  natural  history,  ginger,  rhubarb,  red 
or  Cayenne  pepper,  and  even  cantharides  or  the.  blister  flies  of  the 
druggists.    In  Maryland  they  have  been  found  in  gi-eat  numbers  in 
stored  wheat.    The  insects  Anobium  tesselatum  and  striatum,  in  Europe, 
have  acquired  the  common  name  of  "  death-watches,"  from  the  noise 
which  they  make  during  the  pairing  season  by  striking  their  jaws  on 
the  object  upon  which  they  are  stationed,  by  vray  of  signal  to  their 
mat€S,  which  is  answered  in  the  same  manner  by  the  other  sex.    The 
noise  thus  produced  somewhat  resembles  the  ticking  of  a  watch,  and  is 
regarded  by  the  common  people  as  a  superstitious  omen.   Our 
native  insect  Ptilinus  rujicornis  (153)  (Say,  2,  p.  119)  is  merely 
mentioned  here ;  as  a  European  species,  PtiUmis  pectenicornis, 
according  to  Leunis,  is  called  by  the  Germans  "  book-worm," 
from  the  destruction  it  effects  in  books.    The  larvse  also  bur- 
row into  wood,  piercing  it  in  every  direction  with  cylindrical 
bui-rows ;    it  attacks  oak,  beech,  maple,   and   hazel.     The 
antennae  of  our  native  P.  rujicornis  appear  beautifully  pectin-        ^^'^^• 
ated  at  the  ends  when  examined  with  a  magnifying'  glass ;  the  insect 
is  of  a  dark  brown  color,  with  rufous  legs  and  antennte.     Sub-family  3, 
Bostrichidcey  consists  of  insects  elongate  in  form,  with  their  heads 
usually  deflexed  and  protected  by  the  thorax,  which  forms  a  kind  of 
hood.    In  the  tribe  Psoini,  however,  the  head  is  prominent,  and  not 
covered.    The  first  tribe,  £ndecatoniini,  have  the  thorax  with    ,^ 
a  distinct  lateral  margin;    our  native  species  Endecatomiis  \^i 
rugosus  (154)  (Lee.)  is  found  in  fungi,  and  has  been  also  taken 
under  the  bark  of  tulip  poplars.    The  insect  is  of  a  dark  or  ^1), 
brownish   black   color,  and   has   the  wing-covers   rugose  or   m 
rough.    The  second  tribe,  BostricMni,  consists  of  insects  small 
or  moderate  in  size,  of  a  cylindrical  form,  with  head  deflexed, 
and  covered  by  the  hood-like  projection  of  the  pro-thorax^       ^^^• 
Synoxylon  (Ajiate)  basilare  (155)  (Say, 2, p.  180),  or  the  red-shoiddered  apate 
(Fitch,  1856,  p.  441),  bores  in  hickory  wood  to  a  considerable 
depth,  preferring  the  hard  central  wood.    The  pupa  state  is  \  )=^/,,-' 
assumed  without  any  special  preparation,  and  the  perfect  insect    y^^^ 
when  fully  formed  turns  at  almost  a  right  angle  and  emerges  /i 'p^ 
through  a  hole  in  the  bark;  the  transformations  from  the  larva  '  JJJ- 
to  the  pupa  state  are  made  in  a  very  short  space  of  time  (Dr.  f\L/\ 

Horn).    Dr.  Fitch  states  that  this  insect  bores  small  holes    i i  * 

toward  the  heart  of  the  ti'unk,  and  the  pupa  is  formed  at  the      ^^^• 
end  of  this  burrow;  the  beetle  attacks  the  shag-back  hickory,  and  has 
also  been  taken  in  Maryland  fi^om  the  elm.    The  color  of  the  beetle  is 
black,  with  a  red  patch  on  the  upper  part  or  shoulder  of 
each  wing-case.    The  larvte  of  Amphicerus  {Apate)  Ucauda- 
tiis  (156)  (Say,  2,  pp.  ISO  and  622),  or  apple-twig  borer  of 
Dr.  Fitch,  1850,  p.  330,  perforate  the  tA\igs  at  the  buds,  \ 
making  holes  some  inches  in  length  ui  the  heart- wood,  /' 
thus  causing  the  twigs  to  wither  and  die.   The  insect  is  of  a  dark     ^ 
color.  Rhi.zopertJiapiisilla(Lec.),  (157)  a  very  small  brown  beetle,      157. 
is  said  by  Dr.  Leconte  to  be  found  in  wheat.    Tribe  3,  Fsoim,  consists  of 
insects  of  large  or  moderate  size,  having  the  head  prominent.    The 


100 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


specimen  fip^ured,  Fohjcaon  Stoutii,  (158)  was  sent  to  Mr. 
/    Ulke,  from  Fort  Tejou ;  of  its  habits,  however,  nothiiig  is 
known. 

As  the  first  part  of  Dr.  Ijeconte's  vahiahle  classification 


l)art  1st,  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  takin.q\ 
however,  only  such  beetles  as  may  be  interesting-  to  the 
young  entomologist,  from  either  their  habits  or  their  food. 
The  i'ixmily ' Tcnebrio7iidcv  consists  of  insects  generally  of  an  oblong 
or  ovate  form,  depressed  or  but  slightly  elevated,  having-  the  thorax; 
square  or  trapeziform,  and  as  broad  behind  as  the  base  of  the  wing- 
cases  (Westwood).  Some  of  these  insects  are  found  in  wheat,  others  in 
decaying  vegetable  substances,  in  Inngi  (Boleti),  and  under  bark  ot 
V  "  trees.  The  larva  of  our  native  Centrouopus  calcaratns  (159)(Lec.) 
^  '  inhabits  black-oak  stumps ;  the  pupa  state  lasts  only  about 
two  weeks  (Horn).  The  color  ofthe  beetle  is  black.  The 
larva  of  XyloirinMS  saperdoides  (100)  (Lee.)  also  inhabits  ^iv 
black-oak  stiunps;  and  the  beetle,  which  is  of  a  dark 
brown  color,  has  been  taken  from  under  the  bark  of  ^[j 
trees  in  midv.inter  in  Maryland.  The  well-known  A 
meal-worm  is  merely  the  larva  state  of  a  black  beetle,  Tenehrio  -* 

7«o/?7or,(i61)  which  frequents  bake-houses,  corn-mills,  ^""' 
and  granaries,  v^^here  it  does  much  injirry  by  devouring  meal, 
Hour,  bran,  &c.;  it  is  also  very  destructive  to  ship-biscuits 
packed  in  casks,  which  when  opened  are  found  to  be  eaten 
through  by  these  larvne  and  beetles.  The  larvae  change  oi 
shed  their  skins  several  times,  and  are  about  an  inch  in 
length,  of  a  cylindrical  and  linear  form,  very  smooth  and 
glossy,  and  of  a  yellowish  orange  color.  The  pupa  is  formed 
without  the  larva  previously  making  any  cocoon,  and  the  perfect  insect 
comes  forth  in  about  six  weeks,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  heat  oi 
the  weather.  These  meal  worms  are  bred  by  bird  fanciers  in  Eiu'ope  in 
close  earthen  or  metallic  vessels  containing  stale  bread,  Hour,  &c.,  &c., 
for  the  purpose  of  feeding  nightingales,  &c.,  and  in  this  country  woidd 
be  an  excellent  change  of  tliet  for  caged  mocking-birds.  Mr.  Curtis  states 
that  an  allied  species,  Tmehrio  obsmrus  (1013)  (Lee),  probably  does  more 
■  -^^  damage  than  the  above-mentioned  insect,  as  the  Tenehrio 
molitor  prefers  damp  and  damaged  tlour ;  whereas  T.  ohscurus 
'./^  prefers  that  which  is  dry  and  sound.  This  insect  is  found  in 
'  j"^  all  three  stages  of  larva,  pupa,  and  perfect  insect  at  the  same 
time.  The  European  beetle,  Uloma  cornnta,  is  said  also  to  be 
164.  grain-feeding  in  its  habits,  and  to  be  found  in  bake-houses 
in  London.  Our  native  species,  Uloma  ciiUnaris  (103)  and  imjrressa, 
...^^^  were  taken  under  the  bark  of  trees  in  Maryland,  in  spring ; 
—  ■  both  of  these  beetles  are  of  a;  brovtii  color.  Boletothenis  [Boleto- 
phagufi)  conuitus  (104)  (Lee.)  was  found  in  fungi  in 
Maryland,  llopolcqyhula  hicornis  (105)  (Lee),  so 
called  from  tiie  two  horn-like  processes  on  the  head 
of  the  male,  is  a  very  small,  metallic  green-colored  /] 
beetle,  very  common  in  Maryland,  under  bark  of 
trees  or  in  Boleti,  in  the  spring.  Bijpophlccus  paral- 
ellus  (100)  (Lee),  a  very  small  brown  beetle,  was  ^^ 
found  in  ])assages  and  holes,  gnawed  under  the 
bark  of  pine,  in  Maryland.   Helops  mlcans,  (107),  a  medium  size,  or  rather 


fOOD  AND  HABITS  OF  BEETLES. 


101 


nta        n^ 


large  beetle',  of  a  beantiful  metallic  §:reen  and  bronze  color,  was  taken 
from  nnder  the  bark,  or  in  decayed  cavities  of  oak  trees, 
in  spring-.  These  beetles  Tvere  ireqneutly  found  collected 
together,  to  the  number  of  eighteen  or  twenty,  in  one  hole. 
Many  of  the  family,  Cistehdfc,  are  found  upon  flowers  or 
leaves,  or  in  hedge  rows :  their  larva?  are  said  to  reside  in 
rotten  wood.  The  larva  of  ihe  European  species,  Cistela 
ceramboides,  was  found  in  oak,  in  the  month  of 
March.  Our  common  species,  Cistela  sericea  (lOS) 
(Say,  2,  p.  159),  is  very  common  in  Maryland,  on  flowers  in  late 
summer  and  autumn.  The  insect  is  of  a  brownish  or  clay  color. 
'The  Lagriidcc  have  the  head  and  thorax  considerably  narrower 
than  the  wing-cases,  which  are  of  a  soft  and  flexible  consist- 
ence. The  insects  are  found  in  Europe  in  woods  and  hedges, 
i*^--  or  upon  various  plants.  Like  the  cantharidae,  their  bodies 
are  soft,  and  their  motions,  when  on  the  wing,  are  active,  although 
they  creep  but  awkwardly:  when  disturbed  they  are  said  to  possess  the 
jiower  of  counterfeiting  death.  Lyonnet  states  that  the  larvae  of  the 
European  species,  Layrla  hirta,  is  found  under  dead  oak\^  /, 
leaves,  on  which  it  feeds.  Our  native  species,  Anthomacra  aenea  ^\^r 
(1G9)  (Lee),  was  taken  on  flowers.  The  larva?  of  the  fami" 
Pyrochroidcv  are  generally  found  under  the  bark  of  trees  or 
rotten  wood.  The  Euiopean  species,  P.  cocci lUiea,  (170),  is  found 
under  the  l)ark  of  birch  and  in  the  trunks  of  decaying  oaks.  i^a. 
The  imago  of  our  native  species,  PiirochroaJiaheUata  ( ilO)  (Lee),  was  taken 
in  flowers.  The  wing-covers  of  this  beetle  are  of  a  black  color,  while  the 
thorax,  head,  and  feet  are  reddish.  TTestwood  states  that  our  species 
Fyrocliroa  dendroiden  (West.),  Dendroides  canadensis  (171)  (Lee), 
V  ^  is  extremely  rare  in  Xorth  America,  and  was  found  by  Messrs. 
ii^  11.  and  C.  Lewis  in  May,  beneath  the  bark  of  maple'  trees,  of 
which  the  cross-ways  of  the  great  Huron  road  are  made.  The 
males  are  distmgui.shed  by  their  beautifidly  plumose  antennae. 
One  01  ihe  f-dmi\y,  An{hicid(c,Xotoxusmonodon  {11 2)  (Lee),  ^r 
is  a  small  beetle  of  very  remarkable  ibrm,  having  the  front  • 
part  of  the  thorax  projecting  somewhat  like  a  blunted  horn  over 
the  head;  this  i)eculiarity  is  not  confined,  as  in  some 
of  the  LameUicorn  beetles,  to  the  male  alone.  This  in- 
sect is  of  a  blackish  color,  with  red  thorax,  and  was 
taken  plentifully  on  the  flowers  of  cotton.  The  Melan- 
dryini  reside  chiefly  under  the  bark  of  trees;  the  larvae 
of  ^ynchroa punctata  (Lee.)  (173),  Mclandrya  umhyina  (Mels.),live 
in  rotten  oak  stimips.  and  the  pupa  state  lasts  about  a  week 
(Horn).    The  lieetle  is  of  a  brown  color. 

Insects  of  tlie  family  2IordeUid(c  have  the  body  elevated,  and 
arched  with  their  heads  inserted  very  low ;  in  habits  they  are 
active,  fly  with  rapidity,  and  leaj)  well.  The  larvte  of  the  Euro- 
pean species,  Jiordella  2}usiila,  (171),  is  found  in  the  stems  of  the 
Marriihiitm  rulgare,  or  horehound,  feeding  upon  the  medullary 
substance ;  the  pupa  is  formed  in  June,  and  the  imago  in  Jidy . 
Our  native  species.  Mordella  octopunctata,  (171),  is  taken  on  flowers 
in  Maryland,  and  is  a  small  beetle  of  a  black  color,  beautifully, 
variegated  and  marked  with  yellow. 

The  family  lildpiphorido)  are  probably  X'i^rasitic  in  their  habits,  as  the 
European  species.  Rhipipliorm  paradoxus  is  said  to  inhabit  the  nests  of 
the  common  wasp ;  hence  LatrieUe  observes  it  has  been  inferred  that  it 
subsists  in  that  situation  in  the  larva  state,  and  is  probably  nourished 


171. 


174. 


102 


AGRICUT.TURAL    REPORT. 


by  the  wasps  as  their  own  offspring.  Westwood  also  states  that  the 
larger  specimens,  which  are  much  more  rare  than  the  smaller 
ones,  are  uniformly  found  only  in  the  cells  of  the  female  wasps. 
The  larvfB  of  another  European  speci(\«,  B.  himaculatus,  (173) 
reside  in  the  roots  of  the  ^Q\AQiyago(Eryngunncampestre)^\sh\<A 
is  perfon;tc'd  in  the  center;  it  is  not,  however,  imi)0.ssible  that 
these  lar\-je  may  be  ])ara.sitic  ou  some  larva,  residing  iu  such 
situations.  When  full  grown  it  works  its  way  out  of  the  root, 
and  forms  a  pedunculated  cocoon  the  size  of  a  nut,  attached 
to  the  stem  of  the  plant.  Our  native  species.  Rhipi- 
phorus  Sayi  (175)  (Lee),  bicolor  (Say,  2,  p.  163),  is 
rather  common  on  flowers. 

The  family  Stylopido'.  (176)  contains  only  very  small 
insects,  which,  at  the  first  glance,  do  not  appear  to 
belong  to  the  Coleoptera,  or  beetles,  at  all.  These 
insects  are  of  a  dark  or  black  color,  and  are  para- 
sitic on  bees  and  wasps,  between  the  rings  of  the 
abdomen  of  which  their  larv?e,  according  to  Leunis, 
run  about  or  sirring  like  Podura  (spring  tails).  The  i^erfect  insect  has, 
however,  been  observed  to  work  its  way  out  of  the  body  of  the  bee,  on 
or  in  which  it  had  formerly  resided. 

The  family  Meloidce  is  distinguished  by  the  head  being  dilated 
behind  the  eyes,  and  then  sitddenly  narrowed  into  a  small  neck,  and  by 
the  claws  of  the  tarsi  which  are  bifid  (cloven  iu  two).  These  insects 
are  much  variegated  in  their  colors,  and  generally  of  moderate  size; 
some,  however,  are  quite  large ;  in  the  larva  state  they  subsist  upon 
vegetable  substances :  a  few,  however,  are  parasitic  upon  other  insects 
in  the  larva  state.  A  portion  of  them  counterfeit  death  when  alarmed, 
while  many  emit  a  thick  yellowish  fluid  from  the  articulations  of  the 
legs,  &c.,  of  an  unpleasant  scent.  Many  of  these  beetles  possess  strong 
vesicatory  powers,  and  are  emjiloyed  externally  for  the 
puri^ose  of  raising  blisters.  Our  native  species,  Mcloe 
angusticoUis  (177)  (Say, 2, p.  166),  or  '•  narrow-  necked  oil  bee- 
tle.'' (Harris,  p.  140)  is  of  a  steel  blue  color,  and  found  on 
butter-cui)s  iu  the  autumn;  it  has  likewise  been  taken 
ion  the  leaves  of  the  common  potato.  Westwood  states 
that  the  females  of  an  European  Ileloe  biurow  into  the 
earth,  and  there  deposit  a  large  mass  of  yellow  eggs, 
agglutinated  together.  The  larvae  when  hatched  are 
177.  exceedingly  active  in  their  movements,  and  attach  them- 
selves to  flies,  bees,  &c.,  which,  it  is  said,  they  suck.  Latrielle  suggests 
that  these  larvie  mount  upon  the  bodies  of  bees,  &c.,  in  order  to  be  car- 
ried by  them  into  their  nests  underground,  where  they  feed  upon  the 
food  lai(i  up  as  a  store  for  the  young  bees ;  this  opinion  has  also  been 
adopted  by  Erichsou  and  Brandt,  but  Westwood  thinks  that  all  these 
authors  neglect  the  fact  that  the  larvaj  are  also  found  upon  SyrphidcB 
and  MmcidcB  (two- winged  flies)  as  well  as  upon  bees.  Leunis  states 
that  the  female,  in  the  spring,  lays  at  intervals  of  two  to  three  weeks 
her  numerous  eggs  in  a  hole  in  the  ground,  which  she  excavates  in  sunny 
places ;  after  four  or  five  weeks  the  young  are  hatched,  of  a  yellow  color, 
and  strikingly  resemble  fleas.  They  then  creep  to  the  flowering  plants 
which  are  visited  by  fossorial  or  digging  wasps  and  bees,  also  by  two- 
winged  flies,  that  are  themselves  also  parasitic  in  the  nests  of  Eymenop- 
terous  insects,  and  fasten  themselves  to  these  insects.  The  perfect  bee- 
tles crawl  slowly  on  the  ground  or  among  the  herbage.  Tigraii  ia  (Horia) 
'anguinipennis  (178)   (Say,  2,  p.  166)  is  somewhat  rare  in  Maryland. 


FOOD  AXD  HABITS  OF  BEETLES. 


lOe 


r< 


M 


Westwood  states  that  the  larva  of  a  South  American  species, 
Horia  maculata,  destroys  the  hirva  of  a  vrild  bee  (Xvlocopa), 
whicli  makes  its  cells  and  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  trunks  of  trees. 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  larva  of  the  Horia  feeds 
upon  the  stores  of  food  hiid  ui)  for  the  larva  of  the  Xijlocopa, 
173.  and  which  is  consequently  starved  to  death., 
Macrohasis  Fahricn  (179)  (Lee),  Epicaiita  or  Cantharis  cinerea 
(Harris,  p.  13S),  is  exceedingly  common,  and  feeds  on  the 
fohage  of  honey  and  common  locust,  wild  indigo,  potato, 
English  bean,  &c.,  &c.  It  also  has  been  accused  of  injuring 
the  young  fruit  of  the  apple.  The  perfect  insect  is  of  a  ^  ~^~  \ 
grayish  ash  color.  The  egg  is  deposited  in  the  gi'omid  by  i^. 
the  female,  and  hatches  in  about  a  month;  the  lai-vip  live  under 
ground  on  roots,  &q.,  vhile  the  perfect  beetles,  during  the  summer  at 
night  or  in  cloudy  weather,  devom*  the  fohage ;  dm-ing  the  day-time  they 
bury  themselves  in  the  gi'ound  or  hide  under  leaves,  moss,'gTass,  &cl. 
.  >    eating  mostly,  in  the  mornings  and  evenings.     This  species 

-Vi:W^  of  beetle  is  said  to  be  exceedingly  destructive  iu  Massachu- 
y^      setts. 

The  black  Cantharis,  or  Blister-fly,  Epicauta  jyenii- 
^sylva:iica  (Lee),  (180)  Cantharis  atrafa  (Harris,  p.  139), devours 
the  foliage  of  the  potato  and  various  flowers,  such 
leo.  as  the  China-aster,  and  is  very  abundant  in 
the  flowers  of  the  golden-rod  (Solidago).  Epicauta  cinerea 
(Lee),  (181)  Cantharis  marginata  (Harris,  p.  liT),  or  the 
"  margined  cantharis,''  so  called  from  the  light  ash-colored 
margin  around  the  wing  covers,  devoiu's  the  foliage  of  the 
clematis  and  butter-cup,  mostly  near  the  gTOund.  Ejjicauta 
(Cantharis)  vittata  (18i')  (Harris,  p.  137),  or  stiiped  Can-  /" 
tharis,  is  of  a  yellow  orange  color,  having  two  black.  Ion-  ^s- 

gitudinal  stripes  on  each  wing  cover :  it  destroys  the  foliage 
of  the  potato  and  other  vegetables  :  it  also  is  very  destruc- 
tive to  various  flowers.     Epicauta  strigosa  (Lee.)  (183)  was 
found  in  South  Carolina,  eating  holes  in  the  flowers  of  cotton. 
Fomphopca  CLyttaJ  Aenea  (184)  is  of  a  dark  color  Trith  some- 
thing of  a  metallic  lustre,  and  was  taken  iu  Mary- 
land in  May,  as  it  was  just  emerging  from  the  earth.  ^      ^ 
The  larva  of  tlie  European  species  of  Zonitis  (185)  "^t^J 
>y./^  is  said  by  Latri^dle  to  inhabit  the   nests  of  certain     ^v^_ 
bees  in  the  spring.    Our  nvdiye  Zonitis  Xemogna- 
j .  .  i  \    tha)  atripennis  (183)  was  taken  on  flowers  iu  Mary-, 
A-'  h^  l^nt^-    The  wing  cases  of  this  insect  are  of  a  dark 
/  '^  \    or  blackish  color,  while  the  head,  thorax,  and  part  of  /  > 

1S5.      the  legs  are  red.  '^^■ 

Of  the  habits  of  the  family  Ceplialoidce  little  is  known.     Om-  native 
Cephaloon  lepturides  (180)  (Lee.)  was  taken  on  flowers; 
the  insect  is  of  a  duty  brown  color.  Vj-'^f^ 

The  ianiily,  Oedemeridw,  (187)  often  have  the  body    \^^ 
long  and  narrow,  with  the  wing  cases  broader  than  /fj^ 
,  the  head  and  thorax.    They  frequent  flowers,  cspe- 7^  Ks 
cially  those  of  the  umbellifen-e.  They  fly  with  agility,    /  \)J  V" 
but,  when  walking,  theii"  motions  are  rather  slow.  /   _    » 
Oiu-  native  species,  Xacerdes  melanura  (Lee),  (187)      '^• 
Oedemera  apicalis  (Say,  i',  p.  GOl),  is  of  a  red  color  with  the  ends  of  the 
V,  ing  cases  black.     The  ptrtect  beetle  was  taken  on  flowers. 


104  AGEIGULTCEAL   REPORT. 

The  Jii/c/erid<rwillbe passed  over,  astbeirhabitsarenotyet  known;  the 
l>erfect  insects,  however,  have  been  taken  on  the  leaves  of  shrubs  and 
trees.  Little  has  hitherto  been  known  also  of  the  habits  of  the  Pythincc. 
The  European  species,  Pytlio  depressiis,  (1S8)  is  found  under  the 
bark  of  pines  in  Sweden.  Our  native  species,  Pi/iho  americamis, 
(160).  was  found  in  Maryland,  under  the  bark  of  pine  tiees,  in  the 
,  month  of  March,  in  the  nests  or  oval  cocoons  of  the  Ehagium  line- 
aium,  where  the  larva  or  pupa  of  the  Jihagium  had  evidently  been 
N  devoured,  most  probably  by  either  the  larva  or  the  perfect 
169.  beetle  of  the  Pyiho.  The.se  last-named  insects  were  perfectly 
fresh,  as  if  only  jn.st  emerged  from  the  pupa  state ;  at  least  twenty  speci- 
mens were  taken  trom  one  pine  log  at  the  same  time  ;  and,  although  all 
the  other  logs  in  the  newly  cleared  field  were  carefully  examined,  and 
almost  all  had  the  cocoon  of  the  Ehagium  under  the  loose  bark,  not 
another  Pytho  could  be  discovered.  As  the  first  part  of  Dr.  Leconte's 
list  of  the  coleoptera  of  the  United  States  ends  with  the  Pythidae,  and 
the  second  part  will  probably  be  published  .shortly,  in  which  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  families,  names,  &c.,  &c.,  of  many  insects  ^ill  doubtless  be 
changed,  it  has  been  thought  advisable  to  defer  finishing  this  paper 
until  the  publication  of  that  work  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

PART   II. 

The  following  is  an  aljihabetical  li.st  of  some  of  the  princii)al  vegetable 
and  al.so  animal  .substances,  either  frequented  or  injured  by  beetles,  {Co- 
leoptera.) with  the  names  of  the  beetles  frequenting  them  : 

As  it  would  occui>y  too  much  space,  in  this  necessarily  brief  list,  to 
enumerate  all  the  vegetable  and  the  animal  substances  injured  by  the 
beetles  already  mentioned,  it  may  be  neces.sary  to  state  that  such  only 
are  named  in  this  list  as  have  been  already  spoken  of  in  Part  I,  and  are 
either  the  result  of  personal  observation,  or  are  quoted  from  the  best  and 
most  reliable  authorities. 

A^fTS'  ^ESTS : 

Insect,  Scydmo'nidcc.  partly,  (-1,)*  found  in. 

Insect,  Pisdarjliulce.  i>artly,  (22,)  found  in. 

Insect.  Clariger  foceolatus,  Europe,  (23,)  found  in. 

Insect,  Eisthni,  minute  species,  Europe,  (27,)  found  in. 

Apple,  (Ptkus  ^VIalus  :) 

Larva,  Lucamis  dama,  (.51,)  wood. 
Insect,  Se7-ica  iricotor.  ((hi.)  foliage. 
Insect,  Macrodaciyhis  suspinosus,  (03,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Lachnosterna  quercina,  (07.)  foliage. 
Insect,  Lack iioslerna  mimiis.  (OS,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Laclinoaterna  Jnrticula,  (GO.)  foliage. 
Insect,  Holotrkhia  cremdata.  (70,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Triclic^UJi  tristis,  (71.)  foliage. 
Insect,  Pobjphylla  rariolosa,  (12.)  foliage. 
Insect,  Oamoderma  scahra,  (So,)  foliage.? 
Insect,  Osmoderma  cremicola,  (80.)  foliage.? 
Larva,  Bicerca  diraricata  (01.)  eats  wood.. 
Larva,  Chrymhothrhfcmorata,  (07.)  eats  wood. 
Larva,  Alam  oculatiis,  (107.)  eats  v.ood. 
Larva,  Alaws  myops,  (108,)  eats  wood. 


•  The  numl>era  in  parcatheses  refer  to  Part  I,  of  this  paper. 


FOOD    AND    HABITS    OF    BEETLES.  105 

Larva,  Amphycerus  hieaiidatus.  (156.)  oats  wood. 
Insect,  JIacrobasis  fabricii,  (179,)  injures  young  fi-nit. 

Apeicot:) 

Insect,  Cctonia  hirtaj  Europe,  (SI,)  flowers ;  cats  nectary. 
Ash,  (Feaxtnts:) 

Insect,  Xyloryctes  safyriis,  (7S.)  taken  near  root. 
Insect,  Dynastes  tityrns,  (80,)  taken  on  root. 

ASTEE,  CHE^A  : 

Insect,  Upicauta  jyciiiisyJcanica.  (ISO,)  eats  flowers. 
Aquatic  Pla^'ts  : 

Insect,  Hydrop/uhis piceiis,  Eiu-ope.  (13,)  eats  foliage,  &c. 
Bacox : 

Larva  and  Insect,  Dcrmcstes  lardarius.  (49.) 

Base:  of  Teees  : 

Insect,  PseJaphidcv,  some.  {'22.)  found  under  or  feeding  upon. 

Insect,  Stap>hylinid(c,  (25.)  found  under  or  feeding  upon. 

Insect,  Histeridcr,  (27.)  found  under  or  feeding  upon. 

Insect.  Xitididini  (32.)  found  under  or  feeding  upon. 

Insect,  Ipiiii,  (34,)  found  under  or  feeding  upon. 

Insect,  Trogositidcr,  (35.)  found  under  or  feeding  upon. 

Insect,  Ti'ogosita  inauritanica,  (35.)  fomid  under  or  feeding  ui)on.. 

Insect,  CoJydiidcr,  (37.)  found  under  or  feeding  upon. 

Insect.  Aulonium  2}(iraJcUo2}ip)edum,  (3S.)  found  under  or  feeding 

uiion  pine. 
Insect,  Sylvanns  hidcnfatus,  (40,)  found  under  or  feeding  upon 

chestnut. 
Insect,  Xausihius  deniotuSy  (42.)  foiuid  luider  or  feeiling  upon. 
Insect,  ^yceiopluuiidcv^  partly^  (44.)  foiuid  under  or  feeding  upon. 
Insect,  Eucnemis  amccnicornis,  (100.)  found  under  or  feeding  upon. 
Insect,  Mclanotus  communis,  (114,)  found  under. 
Insect,  Zcnoa  pkea,  (IIG.)  found  luider  or  feediug  upon. 
Insect,  EUiclinia  corrusca,  (125.)  found  under. 
Insect,  Cymaiodcra  undulafa,  (133.)  found  under. 
Insect,  FscudocJenis  yiigripes,  (139.)  found  under. 
Insect,  Pseudo  clerks  k-hneumoneus.  (140.)  foiuid  under  oak. 
Insect,  Cvpes  concolor,  (148.)  found  under  or  feediug  upon. 
Insect,  Tenebrioldcc,  partly,  (159.)  found  under  or  feeding  upon. 
Insect,  Xylopinus  saperdokJes,  (100.)  foraid  under  or  feeding  upon. 
Insect,  Mekuidryidce,  (173,)  found  under  or  feeding  upon. 

BaELEY,  (HOEDEUM  :) 

Insect,  Zahrus  yibbus,  Em-ope,  (8.)  gi-ain. 
English  Bea:x,  (Ticia  Fajja  :) 

Insect,  JiLacrobasis  fahrkii,  (179,)  foliage. 
Beech,  (Fagus  :) 

Larva  and  insect.  Trogosiia  duhia,  (36,)  in  nuts. 
Larva,  Dkcrca  dicarkaUi,  (91,)  wood. 
Larva,  Agrihis  viridis,  Eraope,  (102.)  wood. 
Larva,  Ptilinvs pectinkffrnis,  Europe,  (153,)  wood. 


106  agricultural  report. 

Bees: 

Larva,  CIcri,  (135.)  dei^troys  iarvse. 

Larva,  Clerus  opiariv.s.  Europe,  liive  bee,  (136,)  destroys  larvae. 

Larva.  Clerus  alvecreus,  Europe,  mason  bee,  (137,)  destroys larvw. 

Larva,  Stylopida:  Europe.  (17G.)  in  body. 

Larva.  Meloe,  Europe,  (177,)  parasitic  on. 

Larva,  Horiadcr.  Europe,  Xylocopa,  (17S,)  destroys  larva?. 

Larva,  Zonitis,  Europe,  some  of  tamily,  (185.)  in  nest. 

BEM^FicLii..    (See  Predaceous.) 

Birch,  (Betula:) 

Larva  and  Insect,  Pyrochroa  coccineu,  Eui-ope,  (170.)  under  bark. 
Blackberry,  (Iireus.)    (See  also  Brazible,  Easpberry,  ETa) 

Larva  and  Insect,  Byturus,  Europe.  (4G.)  flo-^er  and  Iriiit. 

Boletl    (See  also  FmfGL) 

Insect,  Tenebrlonidcp,  some,  (159,)  found  in. 
Insect.  HopJocejyhala  hicornk  (105,)  foimd  in. 

Boxes.    {Bee  also  Carriox.) 

Insect,  Adelops  hirtus,  (20,)  found  on  bones,  Manimotli  Cave,  Ky. 

Books: 

Larva  and  Insect,  Bermestida;,  partly,  (45,)  destroys. 

Larva  and  Insect,  Ptilimis pectinieomi^.  Europe,  (153.)  destroys. 

Br  AX.    (See  also  Flour,  etc.) 

Larva  and  Insect,  Tenehrio  molitor,  (ICl.) 
Bread: 

Larva  and  Insect,  Trogosifa  mauritanica,  (35.) 

Larva  and  Insect,  Sltodrepa  panlcea,  (Anobium,)  (152.) 

Larva  and  Insect,  Tenehrio  molitor^  (IGl.) 

BisctTT,  Ship  : 

Larva  and  Insect,  Sitodrepa  panlcea  (152.) 
Larva  and  Lisect,  Tenebrio  molifor,  (161.) 

Buttercup,  (Eaxltv'culus  :) 

Insect,  Meloe  angu^ticoUis;  (177,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Epkauta  cinerea,  marginaia.  (ISl,)  foliage. 

Caxtharides,  Dried  : 

Larva  and  Insect,  Sitodrepa panicea^  (152.) 
Carcasses.    (See  Carrion.) 
Cayexxe  Pepper  : 

Larva  and  Insect,  Sitodrepa  panicea^  (152.) 
Caterpillars.    (See  also  Predaceous.) 

Larva  and  Insect,  Calosoma  ealidum,  (3.)  destroy. 

Larva  and  Insect,  Calosoma  scrutator,  {4-) 

Insect,  Silphidcr,  paitly,  (IG.) 

Carriox  : 

Larva  aud  Insect,  Sil2}liida\  some,  (16.) 

Larva  and  Insect,  Xccrojyhoriis  marginatus,  (17.) 

Larra  and  Lisect,  Kecropliorus  am€ric<inus,  (18.) 


FOOD  AND  HABITS  OF  BEETLES.  107 

CAKEION: 

Larva  and  Insect,  Kecroplilla  peltata,  (10.) 
Larva  and  Insect,  StapJiyUnida',  some,  (25.) 
Larva  and  Insect,  Creophilus  villosus,.  {26.) 
Larva  and  Insect,  Histeridce,  partly,  (27.) 
Larva  and  Insect,  JSltiduUdcc,  partly,  (29.) 
Larva  and  Insect,  I^'itididini,  Y>£ivtlj,  (32.) 
Larva  and  Insect,  Stelidota  f/eminata,  (33.) 
Larva  and  Insect,  Bcrmestkhc,  partly,  (45.) 
Larva  and  Insect,  Trogidcc,  partly,  (58.) 
Larva  and  Insect,  Kecrobia,  Europe,  (144.) 
Larva  and  Insect,  Kecrohia  violaceous,  (144.) 

Cereals.    (See  Wheat,  etc.) 

Cedaes,  (Ju]^npER^JS :) 

Insect,  Sandalns,  (117,)  affects. 
Cheese  : 

Larva  and  insect,  Corynetes  rujipes,  (143.) 
Cherry,  (PRuisaTS  Cerasus:) 

Larva,  Lucanus  dama,  (51,)  wood. 

Insect,  Macrodactylus  siihspinosus,  (05,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Lachnostenia  fusca ,  (07,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Laclinosterna  micans,  (08,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Laclinosterna  Jiirticula,  (09,)  foliage. 

Insect,  MolotricMa  cremdata,  (70,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Trichestes  tristis,  (71,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Polijplujlla  variolosa,  (72,)  foliage. 

Larva,  Dynastes  tityrus,  (SO,)  decaying  wood. 

Insect,  Osmoderma  eremicola,  (80,)  foHage.l 

Larva,  Bicerca  divaricata,  (91,)  wood. 

Chestnut,  (Castai^a  -vtisca  :) 

Larva,  (prob.,)  Sylvanns  hidentatus,  (40,)  bark;  wood. 
Larva,  Orfhostethus  infuscatus,  (111.) 

China  Aster  : 

Insect,  Epicmtta  {  ^^''^''^'"'^  }  (ISO,)  flowei 
Clejiatis  : 

Cork  : 

Insect,  Dermestes  ridpinus  (?),  Europe,  (48.) 
Corn,  Indian,  (Zea  Mays.)    (Sea  M^uze.) 
Collections  of  Natural  History.   (See  also  Furs,  Feathers,  etc.) 

Larva  and  insect,  Dermestes  caninus,  &c.,  (48.) 

Cotton,  (Gossypiidi  HEEBACEini:) 

Insect,  Colastiis  semitectus,  (30,)  in  flowers  and  decaying  bolls. 
Insect,  Carpopliilus  hemipterus,  (31,)  in  flowers  and  decaying  bolls 
Insect,  Sylvanus  quadricollis,  (41,)  in  flowers  and  decaying  bolls. 
Insect,  Euryornia  inclancliolica,  (83,)  sap  of  boU  and  flower. 


108  AGEICULTURAL    REPORT. 

COTXr.N,  (GOSSYPIVM  Heebaceum:) 

Insect.  Chaiilioffnaihiis  Pcnnsyhanicus,  (129.)  frequents  flower. 
Insect,  Chanliognatlnis  marqinatiis,  {VilO.)  frequents  flower. 
Insect.  Xotoxm  inonodon,  (172.)  lre(iuents  flower. 
Insect,  Epkauta  strigosa,  (183.)  destroys  flowers. 

DEC03IP0SrN-G  OE  DECAYT^G  VEGETABLE  [MATTER.     ( See  VEGETABLE. ) 

Deco:mposi>-g  or  Decaytng  A^tvtal  Matter.    (See  Carrion.) 
Deco^itosln-g  or  Decayen-g  Wood  Matter.    (See  Wood.) 
DxrsG  AXD  DL7sGnLLL.s.    (See  liLsjrrRE,  ExcrezveextSj  etc.) 
Elder,  (Sambucus  CA^-ADE^-SIS :) 

Insect,  Macrodacfylus  siibspinosus,  {(m^)  frequents  flowers. 

Elm,  (UL3irs:) 

Insect,  Lachnosterna  fusca,  (G7,)  foliage. 
Insect.  Lachnosierna  mkans,  (GS.)  foliage. 
Insect,  Lochnostcnia  Idrticula.  (GO,)  foliage. 
Insect.  Holotrifhia  crcnulata.  (70.)  foliage. 
Insect.  Trichestes  tristis.  (71,)  foliage. 
Insect.  FolyphyUa  rariolcsa.  (72.)  foliage. 
Insect,  Arcoda  lanigcra,  (77,)  foliage. 
Larva,  Synoxylon  hasilare^  (155,)  wood. 

Eryngo,  (Ery^^giu^i  Caxpestre:) 

Larva,  iniqnphorus  himacxtlaU'S.  Enrojx?,  (175,)  roots. 

EXCRE3IEXTS  of  HERBACEOUS  AXEMALS.      (See  also  3IAXERE.) 

Larva  and  insect,  Spharidiidcc.  some,  (15.) 
Larva  and  insect,  Hkteridcv.  partly,  (27.) 
Larva  and  in:sect,  Canthon  larls.  (5i.) 
Lana  and  insect,  Fhanccus  caniifejr,  (55.) 
Larva  and  insect,  Aphodiini.  (5G.) 
Larva  and  insect,  Gcotrupes  uplendidus,  (57) 

Feathers.  (See  also  Collec-tions  of  Xatfr al  History.  Furs,  etc.) 

Larva,  Dermesiides,  (45.) 
Fisn  SPAw^- : 

Larva  and  in.sect,  JDytiscidw,  some,  (11.) 
Fish.  Dead.    (See  al.so  Carriox.) 

Insect,  Silphidcc,  some,  (IG.) 
Flies: 

Lar\-a,  Meloidce.  Eiiroi)e,  (177,)  parasitic ;  attached  to  body. 
Flour : 

Larva  and  insect,  Ptiniisfur,  Europe,  (150.) 

Lan'u  and  insect,  Tenchrionida.  some,  (IGl.)  moist  and  damagetl 

Lai-A-a  and  insect,  Tenchrio  molitor,  (IGl,)  moist  and  damaged^ 

Larva  and  insect,  Tenehrio  ohseurus.  (162,)dry  and  sound. 

Flowers  : 

Insect,  Lebice,  (G,)  frequent. 

Insect,  StaphylinidcE,  some,  (25,)  frequeuta. 


FOOD    AXD    HABITS    OF    BEETLES.  109 

Flo^ees  : 

Insect,  Colastm  semitectus,  (30.)  frequents  flowers  of  cotton. 
Insect,  Cayjyophilus  hemiptenis,  (31.)  fi^equents  flowers  of  cotton. 
Insect,  yitididida:  and  XitiduUnii.  some,  (32.)  frequent. 
Insect,  Byturiis  tomenfosus,  Europe,  (40,)  destroys  blackberry  and 

raspberry  flowers. 
Insecr,  Byiurns  unicolor.  (40,)  frequents. 
Insect,  Aiithrenns  varius.  (.30.)  frequents. 
Insect,  2Iacrodactijlus  suhspinosus,  (05.)  destroys. 
Insect,  CetoniinL  (SI.)  fr-equents. 

Insect,  Euplioria  mdanclioUca,  (S3.)  frequents  cotton,  &c. 
Insect,  Buprcstidcv.  some,  (SO.)  frequent. 
Insect,  Throscidcc,  (105.)  fr-equents. 
Larva,  Illelanokis  communis.  (114,)  destroj'S  roots. 
Insect,  Cyplwn,  (121.)  fr-equents. 
Insect,  Lycus,  Europe,  (122.)  fr-equents  umbellifcrie. 
Insect,  ChauJiognatJtus,  (129,)  S^-equents. 
Insect,  Tckjihoridcv,  Euji-ope,  some,  (130.)  frequents. 
Insect,  MaJachiid(e,  (131,)  frequents. 
Insect,  CoUojys  4:-maci(latuSy  (131,)  fr-equents. 
Insect,  CIerid(r.  some.  (132.)  fr-equents,  but  probably  feeds  on  other 

insects. 
Insect.  XecrGhia   vioJaceus,  (144,)  frequents.  l>ut  feeds  on   other 

insects. 
Insect,  Cistelida:,  (lOS.)  fr-equent. 
Insect,  Pyrochroa  fiabeUaiu,  (170.)  fr-equents. 
Insect,  Xotoxus  monodon,  cotton.  (172.)  frequents. 
Insect,  MordeJla  octopunctata,  (174.)  frequents. 
Insect,  Rliipiplwrus  ^ayi,  (175.)  fr-equents. 

Insect,  Bpicauta    [  ^'S^'^"*'^  }  (180,)  destroys. 

Ii^ect,  Epicauta  vittata,  (1S2,)  destroys. 

Insect,  Epicauta  styigosa,  (183.)  destroys  cotton,  &c. 

Insect,  Zonitis  atrijyennis,  (1S5,)  frequents. 

Insect,  (Edem€rida\Ilnioi^e,  (187.) frequents  especially umbeUiferae. 

Insect,  Xacerdes  melanura,  (187,)  frequents. 

FOEEST  Teees.    (See  Oak,  :Maple,  etc.) 

Feot  Teees.    (See  Apple,  Peach,  etc.) 

FrTsGi : 

Insect,  Stap>hyUnida\  some,  (25.)  found  in  fungi. 
Insect,  Caypojjiiilus  hemijytcrKS,  {oh)  found  in  minute  fungi  on  cot- 
ton and  maize. 
Insect,  Xitidulini,  some,  (32.)  found  in. 
Insect,  Colydiidcc,  some,  (37.)  found  in. 
Insect,  Cryptophagidcv,  (44,)  found  in. 
Insect,  2Iycctopliagida\  (44.)  found  in. 
Insect,  Cccnocara  oculata,  (151,)  in  i)ull-baUs. 
Insect,  Endecatomus  rugosus,  (154.)  found  in. 
Insect,  Tenchrianida',  some,  (158.)  found  in. 
Insect,  Boletothcnis  conuitus,  (164,)  found  in. 

FuES : 

Larva,  Bermestidw,  (45.) 

Larva,  Bermestes  lardarius,  &c..  (49.) 

Larva,  Ftinus  fur,  (150.) 


110  AGRICULTURAL   BEPOET. 

Ginger,  Dreed  Eoot,  (Zenzieec  OrFicrxALis:) 

Larva,  Sitodrepa  panacea^  (152.) 
Grats'  in  GRA^•ARIES.    (See  also  Witeat,  Maize,  etc.) 

Larva  aud  iuseet,  Carahklcc,  Europe,  some,  (3,)  injure  graiu,  &c. 

Larv;'.  and  iuseet,  Ptcrostiehini,  Europe,  (7,)  injure  grain,  &;c. 

Larva,  Zahrus  gibbum,  European,  (S.)  roots  and  shoots. 

Insect,  Zabrus  gibbm,  European,  (8,)  injiu'es  grain. 

Insect,  A7nara,  some,  (0,)  injures  gi'ain. 

Larva,  Trogositi(l(v,  (35.)  injures  grain. 

Larva,  Trogosita  Manritavica,  (35,)  injures  grain. 

Larva^  Trogosita  duhia,  (3G,)  injiu'es  grain. 

Larva,  Sylvanus  Surinamcnsis,  (39,)  injures  grain. 

Larval  Agriotes  scgctis,  Europe,  (113,)  roots. 

Larva,  Ptinusfio-.  (150.)  grain. 

Larva,  Sitodrepa  pankea^  (152,)  gi\ain. 

Larva,  Uloma,  Europe,  (103.)  gTain. 

Golden  Kod,  (Solidago:) 

Insect,  Urirhijiis  inda,  (84,)  frequents  ilowers. 

Insect,  JLacrohasis,    \  r-hUV^J^  \  (1*^^?)  frequents  tiowers. 

Insect,  Eplcauta    {  ^^«"J^'^!J"'^''^' '^'^■'   |  (180,)  frequents  flowers. 
Grape,  (TiTis:) 

Larva,  insect,  SfcUdota  geminafa,  (33,)  in  fruit  injured  by  curculio. 
Insect,  Macrodactylus  subsjiinosus,  (Go,)  fruit  and  foliage. 

^"''''  \  AmTala  }  "«M«,  (74,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Anomala  varians,  (73,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Pelidnota punctata.  (70.)  fruit  and  foliage. 

Grasses,  (Gra^itn'l^  :) 

Insect,  Harpalus  caJiginosus,  (10,)  seeds. 
Insect,  Bryoxis,  (24.)  found  on  swamp-gTass. 
Larva,  2Iacrodactylus  subspinosus,  (05,)  on  roots. 
Larva,  LacJinosterna  fusca,  (C*c.,  (07.)  on  roots. 

GiDi,  Sweet  ;  Liqued  A3iber  : 

Insect,  Xyloryctes  satyrusy  (78,)  taken  near  root. 
Hazel,  (Corylus  :) 

Insect,  Dichelonycha  hexagona,  (GO)  foliage.    . 

Insect,  Dichelonycha  linearis,  (GO,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Dichelonycha  subvittata,  (00,)  foliage. 

Insect.  Trachys  (BrachysJ  minuta,  Europe,  (105,)  foliage. 

Larva,  PfiUnns  jicciinicornis,  Europe,  (153  :)  wood. 
BEMP  : 

Larva,  Laemophlmis  modestus,  (iS;.)  in  seed. 
HERSACEors  EooTS.   (See  also  Grass,  Yegetaele  Eoots,  etc.  ) 

Larva,  Lachiosterna  fusca,  &:c.,  (67,)  iujure.^. 

Larvii.  Erirhijns  inda,  (84.) 

Larva,  Elatcr  obscurus,  Europe.  (110.) 

Larva,  A,n-„<«j'XSr'}  (11--) 
Larva,  Melanotns  communis,  (114.) 


FOOD    AND    HABITS    OF    BEETLES.  Ill 

HEEBARIU3I : 

Larva,  Ptinusfur,  Europe,  (loO,)  dried  i->lants. 
Larva,  SitGchrjja panicca,  (152.)  dried  plants. 

HiCKOEY : 

Insect,  CotaJpa  Janigera,  (77,)  foliage. 
Larva,  Diccrca  lurkta,  (92.)  wood. 
Larva,  Si/nojci/Iou  hasilarc,  (155,)  v.'ood. 

Hides.  (See  Skins,  Furs,  etc.) 

Honey  Locust,  (Gleditschia  Teiacanthos.)    (Sec  Locust.) 

HOEEHOUND,   (]\IAEELTJIU1I:) 

Larva,  ITordeUa  pusilla,  Europe,  (174,)  in  stems. 
TTlLD  Ls^DiGO,  (Baptisia  :) 

Insect,  2Iacrobasis   |  ^^^^  \  (179,)  foliage. 

Dried  Insects.  (See  Collections  of  Natural  Histoey,  etc.) 
Locust,  (Eobinia  :) 

Insect,  ErirM2)is  inda,  (84,)  sap. 

Insect,  Agrilus  egenus,  (103,)  foliage. 

Insect,   MacroMsis  |  ^^^^'^<^^h  \  (179.) 

Insect,  Macrabmi8  \  ^'?j''^'''  \  (179,)  honey  locust. 

Maize,  (Zea  Mays  :) 

Larva,  Omopliron  JahiaUim,  (2,)  destroys  yoirng  plants. 
Larva,  Colastus  scmitectits,  (30.)  in  decaying  seeds. 
Larva,  CarpopliiJus  Jionir^terus',  (31,)  in  decaying  seeds. 
Larva,  Ips  quadrisignatus,  (34,)  biUTOws  in  sweet  corn. 
Larva,  Trogosita  dubia,  &c.,  (36.)  gTain, 
Larva,  Sylvaiu's  Surinamensis,  (39,)  gTain. 
Larva,  SyJvanus  quadricoUis,  (41,)  gTain. 
Insect,  Macrodactylus  subsjiinosus,  (05.)  foliage. 
Insect,  ErirMjns  inda,  (84,)  sap. 

Manure.  (See  also  Excrements  of  Herbivoeous  A:\t3ials.) 
Larva,  insect,  Cantlwn  Icvris,  (54.) 
Larva,  insect,  Fhancuns  carnifex,  (55.) 
Larva,  insect,  Aphodhts  Jimetarius,  {5Q.) 
Larva,  insect,  Geotrtipes  spJendidus,  (57.) 

Maple,  (Acer  :) 

Insect,  Lachiosternn  fusca,  (07,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Laclinosterna  micans,  (08,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Laclinosterna  hirticula,  (09,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Holotrichia  crenulata,  (70,)  foliage. 
Insect,  TrlcJiestes  trlstis,  (71,)  foliage. 
Insect,  PoJypliylla  variolosa,  (72,)  foliage. 
Larva,  Ptilinus  pectinicornis,  Europe,  ^153.)  wood. 
Larva,  Pyrocliroa  dcndroides,  (171,)  under  bark. 
Larva,  Dendroides  canadensis,  (171.)  under  bark. 

Meal.    (See  also  Flour,  etc.) 

Larva,  Ptinusfur,  Europe,  (150.) 
Larva,  Tenehrio  molitor,  (101.) 


112  AGBICCLTUEAL    EEPOET. 

3LEAT : 

Larva,  Dcrmcsta;  lardarius,  (J.9.) 

MOLLUSKS : 

Larva,  EydrophUus  piceiis,  Europe,  (13,)  aquatic  mollusks. 
Larva  and  insect,  Lampyrulcc^  Europe,  (127,)  terrestrial  mollusks. 

CoLLECTio>'s  OF  Xatueal  Histoey.  (See  Collections,  etc.) 

^^■aval  Tdieee.  (See  Tdieee.  Oak,  etc.) 

>^UTS.  (See  Hazel.) 
Oak,  (QrEECUS :) 

Larva,  Lv.canus  dama,  (51,)  wood. 

Lar%'a,  Platyccrus  quercus,  (52.)  Trood. 

Larva.  Fassalus  cornuiiis,  (.53,)  wood. 

Insect,  Macrodacfylus  suhsjnnosu^,  (Go,)  foliage. 

Insect^  Ladrnosternc.  fasca,  (G7,)  foliage. 

Insect.  Laclinosierna  mkans,  (G8.)  foliage. 

Insect,  Lachnostenia  hirtiada,  (09,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Rolotrklda  crenidata,  (70,) foliage. 

Insect,  Trichestes  tristis,  (71,)  foliage. 

Insect,  PohjpliyUa  variolosa,  (72,)  foliage. 

Insect,  CotaJpa  lanigera.  (77,)  foliage. 

Insect.  Osmoderma  scahra,  (85,)  foliage.? 

Larva,  ChrysohotJirisfcinorafo.,  (97.)  wood. 

Larva,  Chrysohotliris  calcarata.,  (99,)  white  oak  wood. 

Lar\-a,  Chrysohotliris  dentijyes,  (99,)  wood. 

Larva,  AfjrUus,  Europe,  some,  (102,)  wood. 

Larva,  Throscus.  Europe,  some,  (105.)  wood  wainscoting. 

Larva,  Eiicnemida.  (106.)  wood. 

Larva,  Fornax.  (106.)  stumps. 

Lan"a,  Alaus  oculatits,  (107,)  wood. 

Larva,  Alaus  my  ops,  (108,)  wood. 

Larva,  Ptilodactyla  claterina,  (120,)  wood. 

Lar\-n,  Prlonocyphon  discoidens,  (121,)  hollow  stumps,  iu  water. 

Larva.  Diciyopterus  sanguineus.  Europe,  (12-4,)  under  bark. 

Larva,  Tillus  ambulaiiSj  Europe,  (131,)  wood. 

Insect,  Pseudoclerus  iciineumonem.  (110,)  under  bark,  probably  de- 
sti'oying  oth^r  insects. 

Larva,  Lymcxylon  narale,  Europe,  (115,)  ship-timber  and  wood. 

Lar\a,  Lymcxylon  sericeum,  (116.)  wood. 

Larxa,  Eylocartus  Americanus,  (147.)  wood. 

Larva,  Ptilinm  pcctinicornis,  Eui'ope,  (153.)  wood. 

Insect,  Centronopus  calcaratus,  (159,)  stumps  of  black  oak. 

Insect,  Xylopinus  sajyerdoides,  (160,)  stumps  of  black  oak. 

Insect,  Helops  micam,  (107,)  under  bark. 

I>ar\-a,  Cistela  cera?«&oj^e5,  Europe,  (168,)  in  oak. 

Lana,  Lagria  Idrta,  Europe,  (169.)  dead  leaves. 

Larva,  Pyrochroa  coccinea,  (170.)  rotten  wood. 

Larva,  ^ynchroa  punctata,  (l'i'3,)  rotten  wood. 
Oat:meal  : 

Larva,  Sitodrepa panicea,  (152.) 
Ox-eye  Daisy,  (CuEYSAN-TiiEiruM:) 

Insect,  Macrodacfylus  suhspinosus,  (65,)  frequents  flowers. 


FOOD    AND    HABITS    OF    BEETLES.  113 

Parasitic  on  other  Insects  : 

Larva,  MeloidcCj  Europe,  (177.) 

Peach  : 

Iiisect,  Macrodactiihis  subspinosus,  {G5^)  foliage. 
Insect,  Cotinns  nifiddj  (82,)  ripe  fruit  and  sap. 
Insect,  Erirhipis  inda,  (8-i,)  ri])e  fruit  and  sap. 
Lar\'a,  Diccrca  divaricata,  (91,)  wood. 
Larva,  Cknjsobothri'ifemoyata,  (97.)  wood. 
Larva,  Chri/sobotJiHs  calcarata,  (99,)  wood. 

Pear,  (Pyrus  :) 

Insect,  HopUa  dehilis,  (59,)  frequents  foliage  and  flower. 
Insect,  Biplotaxis  sordida.  (G6,)  frequents  foliage  and  flower. 
Insect,  iSerica  iricolor,  ((3-1,)  frequents  foliagB  nnd  flower. 
Insect,  Gotalpa  lanUjera^  (77,)  foliage. 
Larva,  A(jrilus,  Eiu'ope,  some,  (102,)  wood. 

Pepper,  Eed,  (CAPSicirai:) 

Larva,  Sitodrepa  panicea,  (152.) 

i^iNE,  (PiNUS:) 

Insect,  Aidoniuni  paralJelopipediim,  (38,)  under  bark. 
Insect,  Bichelonycha  albkoUis,  (01,)  white  pine  foliage. 
Insect,  I    ^P^^ota,   }o^-„j-coZa  (75,)  foliage. 

Insect,  Vahjus  squamiger,  (88,)  in  rotten  wood  and  under  bark. 

Larva,  Chalcophora  Virginiensis,  (89,)  wood. 

Larva,  Chalcophora  -Uherta^  (90,)  wood. 

Larva,  Bicerca  punctidata,  (i)3,)  pitch-pine  wood. 

Larva,  Ancylochira  lineata^  (94,)  wood. 

Larva,  Ancylochira  striata,  (95,)  wood. 

Larva,  AFelanophila ful voguttata ,  (90,)  white-pine  wood. 

Larva,  Chrysobothris  Uarrisii,  (98,)  wood. 

Larva,  Alaits  ocidatv.s,  (107.)  wood. 

Larva,  Ahius  myops,  (108,)  wood. 

Insect,  Hypophlceus  paralellus,  (100,)  under  bark. 

Insect,  Pytho  deprcssus,  Europe,  (188,)  under  bark. 

Insect,  Pytho  Arncricamis,  {1S\),)  under  bark, probably  predaceous. 

Plants  not  specified  : 

Larva,  Flateridcc,  vSome,  (100,)  lives  on. 

Insect,  Ehipicera  marginata,  Europe,  (110,)  gnaws  under  stems. 

Plum,  (Prunus  Do:mestica  :) 

Insect,  Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  (65,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Lachnosierna  fusca,  (07,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Lachnosterna  micans,  (08,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Lachnosterna  hirticula,  (09,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Holotrichia  cremdata,  (70,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Trichcstes  tristis,  (71,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Polyphylla  variolosa,  (72,)  foliage. 

Poplar,  (Populus  :) 

Insect,  Cotalpa  lanigera,  (77,)  foliage. 
8 


114  agricultural  report. 

Potato,  (Sola^'hm  tuberosum  :) 

Insect,  Meloe  angusticoUia,  (177,)  foliage. 
Insect,    Macrohasu,  [  S^af '  }  ^^^^'^  io^g^. 

Insect.  Epicaula  \  ^^^'2^^''''''''''  }  (180,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Epicauta  rittata,  (1S2,)  foliage. 

Peedaceous,  (preying  upon  other  insects,  and  generally  beneficial:) 

Larva,  insect,  Cicindclidce.  (1.) 

Larva,  insect,  Cicindcia  vulgaris.  (1.) 

Larva,  insect,  Carahidcc^  partly,  (3.) 

Larva,  insect,  Calosoma  calidum.  (3.) 

Larva,  insect,  Calosoma  scrutator,  (4.) 

Insect,  Brachinus  fumans^  (5.) 

Insect,  Lehia  grnndis,  (G,)  destroys  lana,  Doryiiliora. 

Larva,  insect,  Dytisdda;,  partly,  (11.) 

Insect,  Gyrin idee  ( \2.) 

Insect,  Dineutes  Amerie^nus,  (12.) 

Larva,  BydrophiUdco^  (13,)  insect  feeds  on  vegetable  matter. 

Insect,  Luccnus.  Europe,  (51,)  caterpillars. 

Larva.  Lampyridco^  some,  (125,)  larva  of  borers. 

Larva,  EUiehnia  corruscus^  (125,)  worms. 

Insect,  Teleplwridfc.  (130.)  other  insects. 

Insect,  TclephorusbiUneatus.  (130.)  other  insects. 

Insect,  Malachidcc.  (131.)  other  insects. 

Lana.  Cleridce.  (132,)  other  insects. 

^^^^'  {  ^^^'J^^'''""*^'-"''^^'-''^'  }  Enrope,  (13S,)  bark  beetles. 

Larva,  Paeudoclerus  nigripes^  (139,)  Ilylesinns  acnleatns. 
Insect,  Xecrohia  rioJaceus,  (1-1^0  other  insects. 
Larva,  Fytho  Americanm,  (189,)  Ehagiiim  liueatum.? 

Puff  Ball.  (See  also  Fu^'GI.) 

Larva,  Ccenocara  oculata,  (151.) 

Easpbeeey.  (See  also  Blace33eeey.) 

Insect,  Byturus  tomentosus,  Europe,  (4G,)  fruit. 

Larva,  Byturus  toment-osus  Europe,  (40,)  cuts  footstalk  of  flowen 

Larva,  Agrilus  ruJicoUis,  (101,)  pith  of  stem. 

Insect,  iJasytes  niger,  Europe,  (118,)  cuts  off  blossoms. 

Eeeds: 

Insect,  Cyplwn  paUidus,  Europe,  (121,)  winters  in  stems. 

Ehubaeb,  (Eheoi  :) 

Larva,  Sitodrepa  pankea.  (152.)  in  dried  root. 
Eice,  (Oeyza  :) 

Larva,  Murmidius  oralis,  Europe,  ^(28,)  grain. 
EooTs.  (See  also  Keebaceous  axd  Grass  Eoots.) 

Larva,  Macrodactylns  suhspinosus,  (65,)  herbaceous,  &c. 
Larva,  Lachnosterna  fusca,  &c.,  (67,)  herbaceous,  &c. 


FOOD    ^ND  laABITS    OF    BEETLES.  115 

EooTs.  (See  also  Heebacegus  A^T)  Grass  Eoots.) 

Larva,  Cofalpa  laniffsm^  (77,)  herbaceous,  &c. 
Larva,  Euryomia  inda,  (S-i.)  herbaceous.  &:c. 
Larva,  Elater  obscurus,  Europe,  (110,)  herbaceous.  »S:c. 
Larva,  Agriotes  manclius,  &c.,  (112.)  herbaceous,  &c. 

EOSE,  (EosA:) 

Insect,  Serica  sericeaj  (63,)  foliage,  flowers. 

^^^iy  {  SeWm  ^'^'^^"^'  }  resjyertina,  (62,)  foUage,  flowers. 

LQsect,  MacrodactyJus  suh&j)inosuSj  (65,)  foliage,  flowers. 

Eye: 

Larva,  Insect,  Zabrus  gihhus,  Europe,  (S.)  roots,  grain. 

)AP  OF  Teees,  etc  : 

Insect,  Lvcanidce,  (51.) 
Insect,  Cetoniiui,  (81.) 
Insect,  Cotiiiun  nitida^  (82.) 
Insect,  Erirhipis  hiday  (84.) 

Sein'S.  (See  also  Collectiojs^s  of  In atueal  Histoiiy.  etc.) 

Larva,  Denn€stida\  (45.) 
Larva,  Dermestes  vulpinus,  (48.) 
Larva,  Anthrenus  varius.  (50.) 

S^'AILS : 

Larva,  Insect,  S'd2)]ia  Iccrigata,  Europe,  (16.) 

Larva,  Insect,  SH2)hid(T,  Europe,  (16.) 

Larva,  Insect,  Lam2)yris  noctiluca,  Europe,  (126.) 

Snaei:s,  Dead.  (See  also  Caeeio^'.) 

Insect,  Xecroplwrus  americanus,  (18.) 

Sper^A  : 

Insect,  Anthrenus  varius,  (50,)  on  flowers. 

SPA•^v^^  (See  Fish  Spatv^t.) 

Speuce,  (Abies  :) 

Larva,  Ancylocliira  striata,  (95.)  wood, 

Sugae: 

Insect,  Sylvanus  suyinamcnsis,  (39.)  fountl  in. 
Insect,  Xansibius  dentatus,  (42.)  found  in. 

^^'^^'^'   I  Ela'ifr''''''  "''' '^^"''''''  l^^iT"''''  J-  (109,)roots  of  canes. 

SorACH,  (Ehts  :) 

Insect,  Anomala  varians,  (73,)  foliage. 

Sweet  Beeee, 

I"^^*  {  &rifr"'""  "''^"'*""'-  \  (82,)  foliage. 
Insect,  Serica  scricea,  (63,)  foliage. 


116  agricultural  report. 

Tea, 

Insect,  Sjjh-a.;iu$  snriiiaiuensis,  (30.)  floatin^f  on. 

Tobacco, 

Insect,  Syl'canus  surinamcnsis,  (39.)  eating  holes  in  dried  leaf. 

Cmeelliteeje.  (See  also  Flo-rtees.) 

Insect:  Anthrenus  varhis,  (50.)  flcvrers. 

Vegetables.  (See  Cabbage,  etc.) 

Vegetable  Sltsstai^ces  Decaitxg  oh  Deco:\iposixg  : 

Insect,  HydroiMlidcc,  some,  (13,)  (larvoj  predaceous.) 

Insect,  Eisteridcc,  partly,  (27,)  fonnd  in. 

Insects,  yitidulida\  (-1),)  found  in. 

Larva,  Insect,  SteUdota  f/cminata,  (33,)  Ibnnd  in. 

Insect,  Criiptoi^liagidcr,  (4J:,)  iound  in. 

Larva,  2IcloIonthi'dcc,  (51),)  in  vc.cjetable  substances. 

Insect,  Tenebrionidcv,  partly,  (158,)  found  in. 

Vegetable  Eoots.  (Soe  also  IIekbaceous  Eoots,) 

Larva,  Elatcrtdcc,  (110,)  feeds  on  roots. 
Larva,  Elaicr  ohscurus,  Europe,  (110,)  feeds  on. 
Larva,  Mdanotus  communis,  (HI.)  feeds  on  roots. 
Larva,  Agriotes  segetis,  (113,)  Eiirope,  feeds  on  roots. 

Walxtt,  (Juglans  :) 

Larva,  Synoxylon  hasUarc^  (lo5,)  wood. 

Wasps,  (Vespa:) 

Larva,  CJcrm,  Eiu'ope,  (135,)  destroys  larva. 
Lar^'a,  Iiltipipltorus  jxtmdoxus,  Em-ope,  (175,)  in  nests. 
Larva,  Siylopida^  (17(3,)  Europe,  in  body, 
Lavxix,  Mcloidcc^  {I'^l.)  Europe,  atraclicd  to  body. 

V\'ATEE    PLAJS'TS: 

Insect,  Uydrophilus  piceiis,  (13.)  foliage. 
Wheat,  (Teiticu^i  vrLGABE:) 

Larva,  Calathus  latits,  Eiu'ope,  (7,)  injui'cs  gxain. 
Larva,  Zahrus  gihhm^  (8,)  injures  grain. 
Larva,  Amara^  (9.)  injiu'cs  grain. 
Insect,  UarpaluH  caliginosus,  (10,)  injures  grain. 
Larva,  tStaphyUnus'f  Europe  (25,)  injures  plants. 
Larva,  Trogodta  diihia,  «S:c,,  (3G,)  grain. 
Larva,  Sglvaiius  surinamcnsis,  (39,)  gxain. 
Larva,  iSitodrcpa  panicca,  (152,)  grain. 
Insect,  Ehizojmrtlta pusilla,  (I'j"?)  grain. 
Larva,  Tcncbrionidcc,  partly,  (159,)  grain. 

WnoRTLEBERRY,  (Vacci>:iu:m  :) 

Insect,  Serkii  iricolor,  (04,)  frequents  busbes. 


FOOD    AND    HABITS    OF    BEETLES.  11' 

WiLLOAV,  (SaXIX,)  OsiEn,  ETC  :)  &G. 

Larva,  Lxicamis  dama,  (ol,)  wood. 

-»"»>{  IS.  "■■■'"'"■"' }(''')f«"»s'^- 

Larva,  Dipiastcs  tiUjrus,  (80,)  decaying  wood. 
Wood  rx  Gexeeae.  (See  also  ^Vpple,  Oak,  etc.,)  &c. 

Larva,  Bj/nastidcj,  some,  (80,)  decaying  wood. 

Larva,  PcUdnota  punc-tata,  (70,)  decaying  wood. 

Larva,  Elaterida:.  (lOG,)  some,  decaying  wood. 

Larva,  2Ielanotus  communis^  (114?)  decaying  wood. 

Larva,  Lycus,  (122,)  found  in  decaying  wood. 

Insect,  Oi'thopleura  damicornis,  (112,)  found  in  decaying  wood. 

Larva,  Ftinidcc,  (149,)  found  in  decaying  wood. 

Insect,  Cupes  cincrca,  (148,)  common  about  old  frame-houses. 

Larva,  FtiUmis pectinicornis,  Europe,  (153.)  wood. 

WooLEX  Cloth: 

Larva,  Ptinusfur,  Eiu^ope,  (150.) 
Wgems,  Eat^th  ^'okms  :  ■ 

Larva,  \  f/n^^^^^npis  pymlis,  )  ^^^ 

Larva,  TelcpJiorus,  Europe,  (130.) 

TOW^'END  GLOYEE. 


REPORT  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  GARDEN  AND 

GROUNDS. 


SiE :  ]S^uiaerous  packages  of  seeds  and  plauts  are  yearly  jjlaced  in  uiy 
hands  for  trial  in  tlie  ganlen.  These  are  sent  to  the  bepartnient  in  good 
faith,  with  a  view  to  the  introduction  and  dissemination  of  valuable 
an(^  useful  plants ;  but  the  majority-  of  these  donations  proves  either  to  be 
Tvell  known  si^ecies,  or  those  of  but  little  sjiecial  value ;  and  very  fre- 
quently the  I  slants  are  shrivelled  and  dead  when  unpacked,  and  the  seeds 
fa.il  to  vegetat«. 

UTAn  CmHAATS. 

Both  seeds  and  plauts  of  these  currants  have  been  repeatedly  sent  to 
the  Department  during  the  past  six  years.  They  appear  to  be  varieties 
of  Mibes  aitreujn,  and,  although  the  fruit  of  several  of  them  is  large,  of 
fine  api>eai'ance,  and  of  a  variety  of  colors,  from  light  yellow  to  black, 
yet  it  has  large  seeds  and  but  little  pulp,  and  A\-ill  not  i)robably  be  culti- 
vated where  the  improved  varieties  of  the  red  currant,  Riles  ruhrum,  can 
be  procured.  It  is  said  that  fine  jellies  have  been  jirepared  from  these 
frnits,  forming  a  good  substitute  for  that  produced  from  the  red  and  the 
white  currant  of  the  gardens.  Many  of  these  Utah  sorts  i^roduce  as 
large  fruit  as  the  Cherry  currant,  but  of  no  distinctive  flavor. 

DAKIO    GEAPE. 

Under  this  name  seeds  of  a  grape  were  received,  in  18G3,  from  the 
United  States  consul  at  Damascus,  said  to  have  been  collected  from  the 
peasantry  of  the  village  of  Dario.  They  were  highly  recommended. 
The  seeds  vegetated  freely,  but  the  plants  have  proved  to  be  unsuited  for 
open  air  culture  in  this  climate.  In  order  to  prove  the  quality  of  the 
fruit,  plants  were  placed  in  a  glass  structure,  where  they  produced  a 
small  grai>e  of  no  particular  merit :  quite  inferior  to  good  varieties  of  the 
foreign  grape. 

ROCKY  310IISTALN:  GHEEEY. 

This  cheny  was  described  in  the  report  of  the  Department  for  18GG, 
where  it  was  claimed  to  possess  desirable  qualities  as  a  fi-uit.  Plants 
received  by  the  department  have  fniited  diuing  the  past  season,  prov- 
ing to  be  identical  with  the  sand  cheiry.  The  fruit  has  no  particidar 
merit,  the  i>lant  being  a  slender  growing  bush,  botanicaUy  interesting, 
but  not  otherwise  valuable. 

GEAPES  FROZl  AUSTBALIA. 

In  the  spring  of  1SG3,  a  package  of  grai>e  cuttings  was  received  from 
ilelboume.  They  were  cut  into  pieces  about  two  feet  in  len.L'th.  and 
packed  in  a  tight  case  so  as  to  be  completely  enveloped  in  charcoal  dust. 
Notwithstanding  the  length  of  time  that  elapsed  during  their  passage, 


REPORT  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  GARDEN  AND  GROUNDS.   119 

aud  the  various  casualties  of  climate  and  transsliipicents,  they  -vrere  in 
perfect  condition  when  opened,  fresh  and  succulent,  propagating  freely 
fi-oui  single  eyes.  These,  although  received  under  various  local  names, 
proved  to  be"known  varieties  of  the  foreign  grape,  Vitis  rinifera.  Sam- 
ples were  fruited  under  glass ;  those  in  the  open  air  have  lingered  on 
with  more  or  less  ^igor,  a  few  dying  out  yearly ;  the  past  season  finish- 
ing the  last  of  them. 

The  same  result  has  been  experienced  with  a  collection  of  the  so-called 
Hungarian  gi*a])es,  which  were  received  and  planted  several  years  ago. 
Some  of  the  plants  fruited,  bearing  good-sized  and  well-flavored  fruit, 
which,  however,  failed  to  mature,  on  accoimt  of  diseased  foliage,  and  con- 
sequent checked  gi-owth.  The  last  remnants  of  this  collection  have  also 
disappeared. 

NATITE   GRAPES. 

The  Concord,  Hartford  Prolific,  Ives,  Perkins,  Clinton,  and  Dracut 
Amber  have  proved  to  be  the  only  varieties  perfectly  exempt  fi-om  dis- 
ease during  the  past  year.  The  Adirondack,  Zona,  Delaware,  Eebecca, 
Diana,  and  others  of  very  superior  flavored  fruit,  when  compared  with 
the  precetling  list  of  healthy  varieties,  will  decidedly  take  preference  in 
localities  congenial  to  their  growth;  but  their  liability  to  disease  should 
always  be  taken  into  consideration,  when  extensive  planting  is  contem- 
plated. The  conditions  seeming  success,  although  known,  cannot  always 
be  made  available,  and  in  planting  in  new  localities,  experiment  can  best 
decide  upon  the  most  suitable  varieties. 

The  Diana  Hamburg  proves  to  be  one  of  those  grapes  the  liability  of 
which  to  disease  renders  their  profitable  culture  extremely  local.  In  this 
respect  the  variety  named  is  no  exception  to  other  hybrids  between  the 
native  and  the  exotic  grapes,  especially  when  they  partake  largely  of  the 
quaUties  of  the  latter. 

Several  hybrids  received  from  Mr.  Arnold,  of  Paris,  Canada  West,  by 
whom  they  were  originated,  are  not  yet  of  sufiicient  strength  to  fruit ; 
their  growth,  so  far,  is  satisfactory. 

The  Fedora  grape,  received  from  Mr.  Cruickshanks,  of  Chelsea,  Massa- 
chusetts, is  evidently  of  exotic  origin ;  its  growth,  however,  as  is  not 
unusual  for  a  time  with  varieties  of  the  fereign  species,  has  been  healthy 
and  even  luxmiant.    It  has  not  yet  fruited. 

The  same  remarks  may  be  applied  to  the  Weehawken  grape,  donated 
by  Dr.  Siedhof,  of  Hobokeu,  Xew  Jersey,  who  introduced  the  variety. 

HYBRIDS   OF  THE  SCUPPERNONG. 

Dr.  A.  p.  Wylie,  of  Chester,  South  Carolina,  who  has  been  studiously 
endeavoring  to  improve  the  Scuppernong  grape,  has  favored  the  Depart- 
ment with  some  of  his  productions.  In  a  letter  accompanying  them,  he 
remarks  that  he  has  established  the  following  facts  in  regard  to  hybrid- 
izing the  Scuppernong: 

"1st.  The  Scuppernong  cannot  be  hybridized  by  any  species  of  Amer- 
ican grapes,  and  not  even  by  its  own  hybrids  with  foreign  varieties. 
2d.  The  foreign  species  f  Vitis  vimfera)  cuu  be  hybridized  by  Scupper- 
nong. 3d.  All  native  species  and  varieties,  as  well  as  foreign  species,  can 
oe  hybridized  by  hybrid  Scuppernong ;  and,  if  any  usefid  hybrid  Scup- 
pernongs  are  ever  produced,  it  will  be  from  operations  in  this  direction." 

These  plants  undoubtedly  present  external  evidences  of  hybridization; 
the  peculiar,  slender  foliage  and  wood  of  the  Scupi)ernong  are  phiinly 


120  AGUlCULTUliAL    liKPOiil. 

discernible.  In  my  last  report  I  alluded  to  the  "  belt  of  no  frost"  regions 
on  the  slopes  of  the  southern  mountain  ranges,  more  particularly  to  the 
spurs  of  the  Blue  Jiidge,  in  North  Carolina,  as  noteworthy  grape-grow- 
ing localities.  This  im})ortant  subject  was  first  brought  prominently  into 
notice  1)y  Mr.  Silas  McDowell,  of  Franklin,  Macon  County,  North  Caro- 
lina. In  a  recent  letter  from  this  gentleman  he  remarks  that  further 
observations  have  enabled  him  to  state  that,  "the  frost  line  is  not  per- 
manently fixed  at  any  particular  height  on  a  mountain,  but  takes  a  higher 
or  lower  range  according  to  the  degree  of  frost  that  produces  it;  within 
the  space  of  eleven  years  its  maximum  height  has  been  three  hundred 
feet,  and  its  minimum  height  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet,  vertical. 
The  maxhnum  is  attained  when  the  thermometer  lall's  to  twenty-four 
degrees,  and  the  minimum  when  the  thermometer  shows  thirty-one 
degrees.  Another  fact  ascertained  is,  that  there  i«  no  fixed  dew-line  on 
our  mountain  sides,  but  that  it  gradually  abates  as  you  ascend,  and  at 
the  height  of  three  lumdred  feet  the  dew  is  too  light  to  produce  either  a 
grape-rot  or  leaf-blight.  Hence  we  understand  why  the  thermal  zone  is  both 
warm  and  dry — the  true  cause  why  grapes  growing  in  that  region  never 
fail  to  ripen  their  fruit  in  perfection.  I  will  not  venture  to  say  that  the 
grape  will  never  rot  within  the  limits  of  that  zone,  because  an  exceed- 
ingly wet  summer  might  i)roduco  that  result;  but  this  I  can  say :  The 
Isabella  is  decidedly  the  most  unreliable  grape  that  we  have,  when 
planted  in  our  low  valleys ;  but,  vrliere  the  vines  are  growing  on  the 
slopes  of  the  moraitains,  they  have  not  failed  to  ripen  their  fruit  for  more 
than  thirty  years,  whether  the  season  was  wet  or  dry.  In  relation  to 
a  climate  and  soil  most  congenial  to  the  grape,  within  the  field  of  my 
observations,  I  would  name  that  portion  of  the  Alleghaiiy  itmgc  of 
mountains  which  runs  through  western  North  Carolina  and  northern 
Georgia,  named  here  Blue  L'idge.  The  main  direction  of  this  range  is 
from  northeast  to  southwest  at  its  most  southern  bend,  reaching  the 
thirty-fifth  degi^ee  of  north  latitude ;  and  the  crests  have  an  average 
height  of  about  three  thousand  feet,  perpendicular,  above  the  level  of 
tide-water.  The  waters  that  flow  from  thein  on  the  northwest  side  run 
into  the  Mississippi,  and  those  of  the  southeast  directly  into  the  Atlantic. 
The  country  on  the  Atlantic  side  sinks  rapidly  by  a  succession  of  long 
simny  slopes,  reaching  down  into  the  plain  or  level  country.  It  is  on 
these  slopes  tliat  the  atmosphere  is  pure  and  dry,  a  refuge  for  the  con- 
sumptive, as  diseases  of  the  lungs  have  never  yet  been  known  to  origi- 
nate among  the  inhabitants  of  these  dry,  fogless  mountains ;  and  here 
also  Avill  the  grape  find  its  most  salubrious  diniate  and  genial  home ; 
and,  if  ever  a  'Johannisbcrger,'  a  'Medoc,'  or  a  'Margeaux'  is  found  on 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  in  my  opinion  it  will  be  here." 

PEAES. 

The  frequent  loss  of  bearing  trees  by  blight  is  a  fruitful  source  of 
vexation  luid  loss  in  many  localities.  It  is  now  fully  established  that 
the  active  agcmt  in  this  disease  is  fungoid  grov/ths. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  that  healthy  vegetation  may  be  attacked  by 
these  minute  organisms  of  destruction  ;  but  it  is  still  questionable 
whether  they  will  originate  on  a  perfectly  healthy  plant.  It  seems  more 
generally  true  that  diseased  or  unhealthy  individuals  contract  this  form 
of  rai)id  decay,  I'rom  which  it  is  communicated  to  others.  AVe  know,  for 
instance,  that  decayed  potatoes  and  apples  will  communicate  their  con 
ditions  to  healthy  specimens  when  i>laced  in  contact  with  them. 

Among  the  many  reasons  that  have  been  suggested  as  a  cause  ot 


REPORT  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  GARDEN  AND  GROUNDS.     121 

blight  in  the  pear  tree,  that  of  iiiiripened  wood  hiis  not  been  the  least  fre- 
quent ;  and  the  I'act  that  many  independent  observers  have  arrived  at 
the  same  conclusion  seems  to  point  it  out  as  a  probable  cause. 

It  cannot  have  escaped  the  notice  of  persons  who  have  had  a  general 
collection  of  pear  trees  under  their  care  and  observation  for  a  series  of 
years,  that  those  plants  which  have,  by  whatever  means,  been  induced  to 
grov/ freely  until  late  in  the  season,  and  have  been  overtakenby  frosts  while 
their  growth  was  soft  and  succulent,  have  been  the  first  to  show  symp- 
tons  of  disease.  There  are  many  noted  instances  on  record  showing 
that  pear  orchards,  while  kept  under  a  continuod  system  of  distiu'bing 
cultivation,  surface  stirring  during  the  summer,  manuring  and  plough- 
ing during  the  winter  and  spring ;  have  been  severely  thinned  by 
blighted  limbs  and  dead  trees,  biit  which  have  been  rendered  both 
fruitful  and  healthy,  and  all  diseases  checked,  by  simply  abandoning  all 
such  cultural  expedients,  and  emj)loying  the  scythe  as  the  only  imple- 
ment in  keeping  weeds  and  undergrowths  in  check.  It  is  not  at  all  uncom- 
mon to  meet  with  comments  deprecatory  of  this  "  negligent  treatment,"  as 
it  is  termed.  We  must  not,  however,  be  too  strongly  influenced  by  mere 
terms,  or  words,  especially  when  they  are  misapplied.  All  appliances 
and  operations  that  are  distinguished  by  the  term  culture  should  have 
for  their  object  the  increase  and  healthy  development  of  the  products  to 
which  they  are  directed.  Cultivation,  in  this  instance,  is  a  term  indica- 
tive of  those  operations  necessary  to  maintain  a  healthy  equilibrium  of 
the  elements  of  plant  gTowth.  It  tlierefore  ceases  to  be  a  proper  term 
when  describing  operations  the  effects  of  which  are  clearly  to  induce 
disease  in  plants,  by  encouraging  extension  of  growth  at  improper 
periods.  If  the  health  or  the  productiveness  of  an  orchard  depends  upon 
the  absence  of  all  disturbance  of  the  soil  over  the  roots  of  the  trees,  fur- 
ther than  may  be  necessary  to  jirevent  extended  spread  of  weeds  or 
undergrowths  by  occasionally  mowing,  it  seems  difficult  to  understand 
why  such  treatment  should  be  denounced  as  improper,  and  designated 
as  "  neglected  culture."  Still,  it  is  quite  as  reasonable  to  use  that  phrase, 
imder  the  cu-cumstances,  as  it  is  to  characterize  a  course  ®f  treatment 
that  stimulates  plants  to  their  destruction,  by  the  high-sounding  term  of 
"  scientific  cultivation." 

Among  other  operations  tending  to  the  production  of  unripened 
growths,  late  summer  i^runing  may  be  mentioned  as  one  of  tlie  most 
injurious.  Although  the  practice  is  not  so  prevalent  as  it  was  ten  years 
ago,  it  is  far  from  being  obsolete;  but  as  cultivators  shape  their  practice 
more  and  more  from  the  knowledge  acquired  by  study  of  cause  and 
effect,  rather  than  from  one-sided  theories,  (an  error  we  are  all  prone  to 
adopt,)  summer  "  shortening  in,"  as  it  is  technically  termed,  will  have  few 
advocates,  and  still  fewer  practitioners. 

It  is  now  many  years  since  the  Vv'riter,  somewhat  timidly,  recom- 
mended root  pruning  as  an  auxiliary  to  truitfulness,  and  as  a  corrective  of 
evils  resulting  from  jilethoric  growth  in  trees.  This  ancient  operation 
is  an  innovation  upon  the  rules  at  present  established,  and  will  be  per- 
formed only  by  those  who  are  not  trammeled  by  popular  opinion,  wben 
oj)posed  to  convictions  formed  from  careful  observations  and  practical 
study  of  vegetable  economy — a  class  of  cultivators  rapidly  increasing  in 
numbers  and  influence. 

It  may  be  well  questioned  whether  the  system  of  "  shortening  in,"  now 
so  generally  performed  on  fruit  trees  at  the  winter  pruning,  is  not  more 
injurious  than  beneficial  in  most  cases.  In  establishing  the  base  or 
foimdation  for  a  spreading  form  in  young  trees,  a  shortening  back  of  the 
youngest  shoots  will  be  unavoidable,  but  that  a  continuation  of  such 


122  AGEICULTUEAL    REPORT. 

treatment  is  necessary  is  known  to  be  a  fallacy.  The  continiied  encour- 
agement tlins^ven  to'a  multiplication  of  yonng  shoots  prevents  the  forma- 
tion of  frait-produciug  biTiiicbes ;  the  trees  become  dense  with  slender 
growths,  requiring  constant  thinning  and  manipulation  to  preserve  even 
the  appearance  of  a  fruit-bearing  tree.  Seeing  rhat  the  objects  desii^ed 
are  so  widely  difierent,  it  must  be  apparent  that  the  ti-eatmeut  best 
adapted  to  form  plants  into  a  close,  thick-set  hedge  cannot  be  a  proper 
mode  of  managing  those  cultivated  solely  for  their  truits. 

It  is  probable  that  the  best  mode  of  managing  pear  trees  is  to  relrain, 
as  far  as  possible,  from  shortening  back  the  leading  points  of  branches, 
thus  giving  them  an  oi^portunity  of  producing  Iruiting  spurs  over  the 
entire  surface  of  the  yearly  g-powths.  which  they  will  speedily  do  if  not 
disturbed  by  the  pruning  knife  ;  and  when  they  become  destitute  of  such 
spurs  near  the  base  or  main  trunk  of  the  tree,  as  in  time  they  most  cer- 
tainly will,  and  it  is  desiied  to  keep  the  plants  low  or  dwarf  in  habit, 
these  long,  spurless  branches  can  be  thinned  out  by  remoAing  them 
entii-ely,  cutting  them  quite  close  to  the  ti-unk,  supplying  their  place 
with  young  shoots,  somewhat  similar  to  the  mode  adopted  in  the  so- 
called  ••  renewal  system  "  of  pruning  the  grape-vine.  Whatever  mode 
may  be  adopted,  it  is  perfectly  evident  that  many  of  the  failiu-es  in  i>ear 
culture  are  clearly  traceable  to  erroneous  practices  and  false  ideas  of 
culture. 

AEBOEETUZJ. 

Much  time  and  attention  have  been  given  to  the  improvement  of  the 
grounds  df  the  Depaitment.  The  liower  gartlen  in  the  main  fi'ont  of  the 
building  is  completed,  wiih  the  exception  of  the  architectural  terraces. 
The  principal  avenues  and  walks  are  rapidly  approaching  completion. 
Draining  has  been  effected  as  far  as  mciuis  will  allow :  much,  however, 
of  this  fimdamental  work  remains  to  be  done,  as  the  gi'ound  is  largely 
underlaid  with  a  retentive  subsoil.  For  purposes  of  protection  and  shel- 
ter, an  Osage-orange  hedge  has  been  i^lanted  around  the  boundaries  of 
the  inclosuie. 

About  three-fomihs  of  the  list  of  plants  have  been  secured,  and  pre- 
parations for  planting  are  now  in  progress,  so  that,  when  the  proper 
season  arrives,  no  delay  may  occur  in  jilacing  each  plant  in  its  assigned 
position.  The  space  allotted  to  each  plant  is  computed  so  as  to  allow 
full  de\elopment  of  growth  for  a  period  of  forty  years,  so  far  as  data 
have  been  available  in  deciding  upon  the  resi:)ective  dimensions  each 
will  assume.  Alterations  as  indicated  by  progressive  development  can, 
to  a  great  extent,  be  effected  for  many  years  to  come,  without  interfering 
with  the  main  design,  and,  in  view  of  the  novelty  of  the  arrangement, 
such  modifications  may  become  necessary ;  but  it  is  beUeved  that  there 
will  be  but  lew  changes  to  make  in  the  present  position  of  the  plants. 

A  list  of  the  plants  and  also  the  classitication  adopted  are  subjoined. 
In  some  of  the  orders  slight  additions  will  be  made  to  the  present  num- 
bers; but  as  the  collection  stands,  it  forms  probably  as  comx»lete  an 
arboretum  as  is  to  be  found  in  any  country. 

DICOTYLEDO  X^  .  — A  XG I O  S  PE  E  M  ^. 

DlATSIOX  I.  — POLTPETAI^:. 

iiAGyoiAACEM.  — Magnolia,  10  species,  9  varieties  :  Schizandra,  1  species ;  Kadeuxa,  1 

species  ;  Liriodendron,  1  species,  3  varieties. 
AxonacEjE.  — Asimena,  2  species. 
LArj)iZAB.\XACEJ:.— Akebia,  1  species  ;    Stauntonia,  1  species. 


REPOET  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  GARDEN  AND  GROUNDS.   Izd 

MenisPeemace^. — Cocciilus,  1  species;  Menispernmm,  1  species;  Calj'cocarpum.  1 
species. 

BEKBERiDACE-n. — Berberis,  20  species,  10  varieties  ;  Slahonia,  10  species. 

Hypericace^. — Hypericum,  6  species ;  Audrosaemmu,  1  species. 

Tamariscixe^e. — Tainaris,  6  species. 

Malvace^. — HibiscuS;  1  species,  10  varieties. 

Sterouelace^. — Sterculia,  1  species. 

Tiliace^. — Tilia,  2  species,  20  varieties. 

CAJiELLLiCE^. — Stiiartia,  2  species ;  Gordouia,  1  species 

Mellace^. — Melia,  2  species. 

Retace^. — Zantlioxylum,  2  species;  Ptelea,  2  species,  1  variety 

Sevlarubace^. — Ailautbus,  1  species. 

CoRLARiE^. — Coriaria,  3  species. 

Axac.lrdiace^. — Rhus,  7  species  ;  Pistacia,  2  species. 

Ehajmnace^. — Ehamnus,  11  species,  4  varieties  ;  Frangula,  2  species  ;  Sageretia,  1  spe- 
cies ;  Bercliemia,  1  species ;  Zizyphus,  1  species ;  Ceanotlius,  13  species ;  Paliurus, 

1  species. 

Celastrace^. — EuoByinus,  9  species,  11  varieties ;  Celastnis,  1  species. 

Sapes'dace^. — I,  Staphjjleacece  :  Staphylea,  3  species.  II,  Sapindacece  vercc :  Jisculus, 
11  species,  12  varieties ;  Kolreuteria,  1  species.  Ill,  Jcerinecv  :  Acer,  27  species,  17 
varieties ;  Neguiido,  1  s^Docies,  4  varieties. 

Legujonos^. — Sub-order  I,  PapiUonacem.  Tribe  I,  Loteie  :  Genista,  13  species,  1  vari- 
ety ;  Ulex,  3  si^ecies,  1  variety ;  Spartiuru,  1  species,  1  variety ;  Laburuum,  2  spe- 
cies, 11  varieties;  Cytisus,  16 species ;  Sarothamaus,  1  species,  1  variety;  Ononis, 

2  species ;  Aniorpba,  5  species,  1  variety ;  Colutea,  2  species  ;  Robinia,  3  sjiecies,  25 
varieties;  Caragana,  11  species;  Halimodendion,  1  species;  Wistaria,  3  species,  2 
varieties.  Tribe  11,  Hedysareaj :  Coronilla,  1  species.  Tribe  V,  Sophoreae  :  Sopbo- 
ra,  1  species,  2  varieties  ;  Cladrastis,  1  species. — Sub-order  11,  CcesaJpiniecB.    Cercis, 

2  species,  2  varieties ;  Gymnocladus,  1  species ;  Gleditsckia,  6  species,  5  varieties. — 
Sub-order  III,  Mimoseoe.    Albizzia,  1  species. 

Rosacea. — Sub-order  I,  Amygda  lew.  Amygdaliis,  3  species,  IG  varieties ;  Amygdalopis,  1 
species  ;  Prunus,  27  species,  12  varieties. — Sub-order  II,  liosacecB  verce.  Tribe  I,  Spi- 
rseesB  :  Kerria,  2  sjtecies,  2  varieties;  Spiraea, 41  species,  6  varieties;  Scliizonotus,  2 
species,  1  variety.    Tribe  II,  Dryadese  :  Potentilla,  2  species,  2  varieties ;  Rubus, 

3  species,  5  varieties. — Sub-order  III,  Pomew.  Crataegus,  36  species,  27  varieties ; 
Pbotinia,  2  species;  Cotoneaster,  18  species;  Amelaucliier,  5  species,  5  varieties; 
Mespilus,  2  species ;  Pyrus,  33  species,  40  varieties ;  Cydouia,  2  species,  12  varie- 
ties. 

CALYCAXTHACEiE. — Calycantlius,  6  species ;  CMmonantbus,  1  species,  2  varieties. 

Lythrace^. — Punica,  2  species  ;  Lagerstrcemia,  5  species. 

Saxifragace.*:. — Sub-order  I,  Grossulw.    Ribes,  24  species,  7  varieties. — Sub-order  II, 

Escalloniece.    Itea,  1  species. — Sub-order  III,  Hydrangiece.    Hydrangea,  5  species  ; 

Decumaria,  1  species ;  Pliiladelphus,  9  species,  7  varieties ;  Deutzia,  6  species,  2 

varieties. 
ILvM.\:srELACE^. — Tribe  I,  Hamamelese :  Hamamelis,  1  species.    Tribe  II,  FotliergiUese : 

Fothergilla,  1  species.    Tribe  III,  Balsamiiluae  :  Liquidamber,  2  species. 
UMBELEiFER-i;. — Bupleuiuni,  1  species. 

Araliace^. — Aralia,  3  species ;  Hedera,  3  species,  4  varieties. 
CoRNACE.*;. — Comus,  12  species  4  varieties ;  Bentliamia,  1  species ;  Nyssa,  3  species ; 

Garrya,  1  species. 

Division  II.— MoNOPKTALEiE. 

Caprieollace.^;.— Tribe  I,  Lonicereae :  Linnesa,  1  species ;  Sympboricarpus,  5  species, 
1  variety ;  Lonicera,  35  species,  11  varieties ;  Diervilla,  4  species,  13  varieties ;  Ley- 
cesteria,  2  species.  Tribe  II :  Sambucus,  4  species,  9  varieties  ;  Viburnum,  17  spe- 
cies, 6  varieties. 

RcniACE^.— Sub-order  II,  Cmchmiece.  Cephalantlius,  1  species.— Sub-order  III,  Lo- 
ganice.    Gelsemium,  1  species. 

CoMi'osiT.E. — Sub-order  1,  TuhuUjlorm.  Baccbarideae :  Baccbaris,  3  species.  Senecion- 
ideas  :  Iva,  1  species ;  Artemisia,  3  species. 

Eeicace^.— Sub-order  I,  Vacciniece.  Gaylussacia,  5  species ;  Vaccinium,  16  species,  5 
varieties  ;  Cbiogenes,  1  species.— Sub-order  II,  Ericinea.  Arctostapbylos,  2  species  ; 
Epigasa,  1  species  ;  Arbutus,  4  species ;  Leucotlioe,  5  species  ;  Cassandra,  1  species ; 
Cassiope,  2  species ;  Amlromcda,  7  species ;  Oxydemlrum,  1  species ;  Cletbra,  2 
species ;  Pliyllodoce,  1  species  ;  Pernettya,  2  species  ;  KaLoiia,  7  species,  2  Viirieties  ; 
Daboecia,  1  species,  1  variety  ;  Menziesia,  2  species,  2  viu-ioties  ;  Azalea,  4  species,  2 
varieties ;  Rhododendron,  6  species ;  Rhodora,  1  species ;  Ledum,  2  species  ;  Lois- 
eleuria,  1  species ;  Leiophyllum,  1  species. 


124  AGKICULTURAL    REPORT. 

AQUiroLiACi: j:. — Hex,  li5  species,  14  varieties ;  Myginda,  1  species ;  Nemopautliea,  1 
species. 

Stvijace-E. — Styrax,  4  species ;  Iialesia,  3  species ;  Sjruplccos,  1  speci»s. 

C YiULL-vci: j:. — Cyrilla,  1  species ;  Elliottia,  1  species. 

EuEXACi:-!:. — DiospjTos,  2  species. 

Sapotactj:. — Bumelia,  4  S])ecies,  1  variety. 

BiGXONiACKJE. — Biguouia,  1  species;  Tecoma,  2  species;  Calalpa,  4  species. 

PciioriiUL-UiiACKJE. — Panlovrnia,  1  species;  BiuTcllca,  1  species. 

Vkiujkxace J::. — Callicarpa,  1  species ;  Vitex,  2  species,  1  variety. 

.i\scLi:i"L\UACE^. — Periploca,  1  species. 

Jasmlxace-E. — Jasmiuum,  9  species,  1  variety. 

OleacEjT:. — Tribe  I,  01eiue;e :  Lignstmm.  12  species.  4  varieties ;  Olea,  1  species ; 
Cliiouaiitbus,  1  species,  1  variety.  Tribe  II,  Syiiuge;?  :  Syiiuga,  4  species.  34  vari- 
eties ;  Fontauesia,  1  species ;  Forsytbia,  3  sijecies.  Tribe  III,  Fraxinese :  Fraxi- 
nns,  19  species,  16  varieties ;  Omus,  2  species.  Tribe  r\^,  Forestiereae :  Forestiera, 
2  species. 

Division  III.— ArinAL.F.. 

Aristolochlvce^:. — Aristolocliia,  2  species. 

Polygonace.e. — Brunuichia,  1  species. 

Lauii-vce^. — Laiinis,  1  species  ;  Persea,  1  sjiscies,  I  variety ;  Sassafras,  1  species ;  Lin 
dera,  2  species ;  Tetranthera,  1  species. 

TH'i'MELEACE.E. — Dirca,  1  species;  Dapb.rie,  7  species,  6  varieties. 

El^agnacEvE. — Sbepherdia,  2  species;  Elteaguus,  5  species,  1  vai'iety;  Hijjpnpbie,  2 
species,  1  variety. 

Santalacej^. — Darbya.  1  species;  Pyrularia,  1  species;  Bnckleya,  1  species. 

EcpnoRBLvcEJ:. — Stillingia,  1  species  ;  Biixus,  8  species,  9  varieties. 

E^rPETKACE^. — EmpetrHin,  1  species  ;  Corema,  1  species  ;  Ceratiola,   1  species. 

Ur.TiCACE^. — Sub-order  I,  Ulmacccc.  Ulinus,  17  species,  37  varieties  ;  Planera,  3  species ; 
Celtis,  5  species,  2  varieties.  Sub-order  II,  Artocar}yea'.  lloms,  5  species.  4  varie- 
ties; Broussonetia,  1  s^iecies,  1  variety;  Madura,  2  species,  1  variety j  Ficus,  1 
species. 

Plvtaxaceje. — Platanus,  3  species,  2  varieties. 

JcGL.vxDACE^. — Juglans,  3  species,  3  varieties;  Carya,  10  species,  1  variety;  Ptero- 
caiya,  1  species. 

CtrPULLFER^. — Quercus,  39  species,  51  varieties ;  Castanea,  3  species,  12  varieties ; 
Fagns,  3  species,  13  varieties  ;  Corylus,  4  species,  2  varieties  ;  Carpinus,  2  species, 

4  varieties  ;  Ostrya,  3  species. 

Myricaceje. — ilyrica,  3  species,  2  varieties ;  Comptonia,  1  species. 
Betulacejd. — Betula,  9  species,  6  varieties ;  ALuus,  7  species,  9  varieties 
S-U-iCACE-E. — Salix,  121  species,  12  varieties ;  Populus,  12  species,  6  varieties. 

G  Y  M  X  0  S  P  E  R  M  ^  . 

CoxiFERJE. — Sub-order  I,  Jbietlnecv.  Pinus  Biuse,  25  species,  24  varieties  ;  Piuus  Ter- 
nataj,  25  species,  3  varieties  ;  Piuus  Quiua;,  35  species,  5  varieties ;  Piuus  Dubis, 

5  species;  Abies  Yera^,  14  species,  23  varieties.  Tsuga  :  Abies,  7  species,  6  varie- 
ties. Picea  Bracteata  :  Abies,  10  species,  8  varieties.  Picea  Brevebracteata:  Abies, 
11  species, 5  varieties;  Cetlrus,  3  species,  G  varieties;  Cunningbamia,  1  species,  1 
variety  ;  Sciadopitys.  1  species  ;  Sequoia,  2  species  ;  Larix,  9  species,  7  varieties  ; 
Pseudolarix^  1  species :  Araucaria,  7  species,  5  varieties ;  Daijiiuara,  8  species,  2 

'  ^'        '  "'  ■  -.-  .      ^    arieties ; 

i  species,  2 
1  species; 
Actinostrobus,  1  species  ;  Fi-euela.  19  species ;  Liecbhardtia,  1  species;  Fitzroya,  1 
species;  Thuja,  3  species,  15  varieties;  Thujoiisis.  3  species,  2  varieties;  Biota,  1 
species,  15  varieties  ;  Cupressus,  20  species,  15  varieties ;  Eetinospora,  5  species,  7 
varieties;  Ciyptomeria,  1  species,  4  varieties;  Ta:xodium,  1  species,  4  varieties; 
Glyi)tostrobu3,  2  species.  Sub-order  III,  Taxinca:  Taxus,  7  species,  21  varieties ; 
Torreya,  4  species ;  Cepbalotaxus,  4  species ;  Podocarpus,  43  species,  3  varieties ; 
Dacrydiuiu,  (3  species ;  Salisburia,  1  species,  3  varieties;  Phyllocladus,  5  species; 
Jlicrocacluys,  1  species  ;  Pherospb:era,  1  species  ;  Saxe-Gotbea,  1  species ;  Nageia,  7 
species,  1  variety  ;  Veitcbia,  1  species. 

Wll.  SAUNDERS, 
llou.  lIop^CK  Capuox,  Commissioner. 


REPORT  OF  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SEED  DIVISION. 


SiE  :  The  following  tabular  statement  sliows  tlie  quantity  and  kinds 
of  seeds  sent  from  this  division  dming  the  jeai  ending  December  31, 
18G8: 


■i 

-a 

Seeds  for  field  culture. 

o 

'B    r/ 

a 

p 

n 

a 

cj 

To  Tvliom  gent. 

=?..i 

'^ 

" 

^• 

^ 

T)< 

tCS 

1 

1 

1 

o 

> 

o 

c  _^ 

a  'S 
o 

3 

to 

1 

O 

Pnpers. 

Papern. 

Papers. 

Quarts. 

Papers. 

Gills. 

Q'«s. 

Gills. 

Merobprs  of  Congrecs 

15(5,  815 

31,800 

:m) 

1!),  4!)3 

i>,  460 

227 

753 

Agricultural   eocieties 

8i),  nrs 

7o0 

\0-2 

7.-.'.) 

384 

76,fil4 
114, -184 

34i) 

58,341 

4,876 

262 

3,  05?6 

116 

274 

333 

Total 

430,  oil 

9^),  871 

4,87(j 

7H8 

•23,  C3 ) 

2,576 

6S5 

1  086 

SeeilH  fir 

fif'M  cnU;ue. 

Winter  wheat. 

To  whom  Bent, 

1 

a 

.:;. 

r. 

1 

C 
ti) 

1 

Si> 

"a 

n. 

.a 
to 

.2 

^ 

O 

C 

e 

Ui 

H 

tf 

di 

Papers. 

Pi^fs 

Papers. 

Quarts. 

Qwor!s. 

Qiiarts. 

Quarts. 

Qwart'J. 

Members  of  Con^ese 

4,  25!! 

476 

1,  S!1)0 

l,4-i6 

3,  2(14 

1,4.8 

1,5.' 6 

1,428 

5,  .335 

750 

5  272 

502 

7(;8 

o  520 

6  225 

69  :i 

604 

1  256 

Miscellaneoua 

913 

147 

2,  0:;0 

135 

1,778 

674 

426 

393 

Total 

10,498 

C23 

4,650 

1,581 

16,539 

3,284 

3,334 

5,597 

The  United  States  and  territories  embrace  about  twenty-four  degrees 
of  latitude  and  fifty-eight  degrees  of  longitude,  and,  in  consequence  of 
difference  of  elevation,  direction  of  winds,  and  contiguous  oceans,  wide 
isothermal  differences  of  temperature  are  manifest  even  in  the  same  lat- 
itude ;  but  within  the  difiereut  latitudes  of  these  extended  limits  are 
found  great  diversities  of  climate  and  soil,  adapted  to  the  growth  ot 
plants  of  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  The  distribution  of  seeds  was 
made  with  reference  to  climatic  and  thermal  pecuharities ;  but  the 
adaptability  of  seeds  to  different  soils  can  be  satisfactorily  ascertained 
only  by  the  sure  test  of  experiment,  and  it  is,  therefore,  to  be  regretted 
that  practical  farmers  do  not,  as  requested,  more  generally  report  to  the 
department  the  results  of  their  experiments  with  seeds  sent  to  them. 


126  AGRICULTURAL  REPORT. 

All  important  facts  connected  with  the  cultivation  of  untried  seeds 
should  be  carefully  noted,  and  promptly  reported  to  the  department. 

The  object  of  the  department  in  procuring  and  tiistributing  seeds  is, 
to  substitute  superior  varieties  for  those  which  have  deteriorated  or  have 
become  diseased,  and  to  introduce  the  seeds  of  new  plants,  that  the  re- 
sources of  our  broad  and  fertile  domain  may  be  developed,  and  its  agri- 
cultural wealth  increased.  To  accomplish  these  ends  the  co-operation  of 
the  farmer  is  indispensable.  His  farm  is  a  laboratory  in  which  the  efli- 
cacy  of  new  varieties  and  the  success  of  novel  productions  are  alike 
tested.  Without  an  intelligent  report,  showing  tlie  means  used  and 
the  results  reached,  the  depaitment  must  remain  in  doubt  in  regard 
to  the  success  and  utilits-  of  its  seed  distributions,  except  as  they  may 
be  indicated  in  the  steadily  increasing  products  of  the  laud,  and  in  the 
general  improvement  of  its  farming  interests.  Reports  promj^tly  and 
regularly  sent  in  would  ena1)le  the  department  to  fui-nish  to  the  countiy 
and  to  the  world  an  array  of  facts  of  great  practical  interest  and  value, 
while  this  co-operation  on  the  part  of  farmers  would  tend  surely  to  the 
advancement  of  their  own  interests,  and  to  the  increase  of  national 
wealth. 

SEXECA  DEAN. 

Hon.  Horace  Capeon,  Commmioner. 


REPORT  ON  AORICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN 

EUROPE. 


Sir  :  In  compliance  with  your  request  tliat  I  should  procure  certain 
information  bearing  upon  the  art  and  science  of  agriculture,  I  have  the 
honor  to  submit  the  foUowmg  observations: 

The  first  and  leading  fact  that  arrests  the  attention  of  an  American 
observer  of  agiiciiltural  phenomena  on  visiting  Europe  is,  that  in  many- 
European  countries  the  annual  yield  per  acre  of  all  the  land  under  cul- 
tivation is  greatly  on  the  increase  from  year  to  year,  while  in  the  United 
States  the  yield  per  acre  is  on  the  decrease.  The  question  naturally 
arises:  Is  this  gradual  deterioration  of  ^Vmericau  soil  proof  that  Ameri- 
cans are  poor  farmers,  or  that  our  soil  is  naturally  poor  ?  Our  soil  is 
the  best  in  the  world,  and  practically  we  are  the  most  skiUful  in  nearly 
aU  the  mechanical  appliances  required  in  farming.  But  the  question 
still  arises.  Are  we  good  farmers  ?  It  certainly  was  not  good  farming 
that  permitted  the  soil  of  Is^ew  England,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Ohio  to  deteriorate  from  a  yield  of  thirty  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  (and 
other  crops  in  proportion)  to  less  than  fifteen  bushels ;  it  was  not  good 
farming  that  permitted  large  portions  of  the  southern  States  to  become 
absolutely  barren ;  and  it  is  not  good  farming  that  is  now  permitting 
the  unparalleled  soil  of  our  prairie  States  to  grow  less  and  less  produc- 
tive from  year  to  year. 

These  facts  suggest  painful  reflections,  and  indicate  that  our  gTeat  skill 
in  producing  and  adapting  machinery  to  agricultm^al  purposes,  and  our 
unsurpassed  practical  talent  as  a  nation,  are  being  emx)loyed  only  to 
exhaust  the  natural  wealth  of  the  country. 

It  was  estimated,  twenty  years  ago,  that  to  restore  the  land  then  under 
cidtivation  in  the  United  States  to  its  original  fertility,  would  cost  a 
thousand  millions  of  dollars.  The  same  wasteful  and  exhaustive  process 
is  to  a  great  extent  stiU  continued. 

Have  we,  who  hai)pen  to  have  possessed  the  land  in  its  \irgiu  wealth, 
any  moral  right  thus  to  contract  a  national  debt,  the  burden  of  which 
will  oppress  our  children  and  our  children's  children  ?  It  is  a  delusion 
to  suppose  that  this  crime  is  greatly  mitigated  by  the  fact  that  onr  coun- 
try possesses  vast  tracts  of  mioccupied  land,  to  which  we  can  remove  as 
soon  as  we  have  partly  exhausted  our  farms.  Even  if  there  were  no 
limit  to  this,  yet  the  argiiment  would  be  founded  upon  false  principles 
of  political  economy.  There  is  a  limit,  however ;  and  he  who  rightly  esti- 
mates the  natiu'al  increase  of  our  population,  augmented  by  the  mighty 
tide  of  immigration,  must  see  that  all  our  public  domain  will  soon 
pass  into  private  hands. 

Of  an  average  of  five  hundred  to  fdx  hundi^ed  per  day  of  emigrants 
who  leave  the  British  isles,  most  of  them  go  to  America.  Of  three  hun- 
dred thousand  emigrants  yearly  from  Germany,  a  great  majority  go  to 
America.  Also,  many  other  countries,  where  the  iiopulation  has  out- 
grown the  land,  are  pouring  a  constant  stream  of  emigration  into  our 
country  in  search  of  land  to  tiU.  Is  it  not  high  time,  then,  that  we 
arrive  at  some  system  of  agriculture  which  will  secure  to  us,  as  indi\id- 
uals  and  as  a  nation,  the  benefits  of  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in 


128  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

countries  -^liere,  from  various  causes,  more  attention  has  been  i^aid  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  ? 

Enjrlantl  and  Scotland  are  perhaps  justly  cited  as  leading  all  other 
nations  in  the  art  of  agriculture.  An  over-crowded  population  and  a 
very  limited  supply  of  land  have  made  it  necessary  to  adopt  the  best 
practices  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The  fact  that  nearly  all  the  land  is 
tilled  by  tenant  farmers,  at  high  i-ental,  prohibits  a  poor  farmer  from  hold- 
ing the'land,  and,  sooner  or  later,  the  most  skillful  farmers  are  put  in 
possession.  Z^o  matter  from  what  causes  the  best  practices  in  agricul- 
ture are  secured,  they  are  equally  valuable  as  examples.  Most  tenants 
in  England  and  Scotland  are  bound  iu  the  leases  to  some  system  of  rota- 
tion of  crops.  That  which  is  most  common  is  called  the  '•four-course 
system:-'  1st.  fallow  or  roots;  2d,  wheat  or  barley;  od.  seeds;  -ith,  oats. 
The  nature  of  the  soil  indicates  the  rotation.  In  cases  where  the  tenant 
is  known  to  be  an  iutelbgent  and  skillful  farmer,  the  landlord  often 
leaves  him  free  to  cultivate  the  land  in  his  own  way. 

There  are  numerous  examples  of  the  application  of  scientific  princi- 
ples in  farming  in  Great  Britain  that  we  might  study  Avith  great  advan- 
tage. The  3Iarquis  of  Twecddale.  for  instance,  when  he  came  into  pos- 
session of  his  estate,  found  the  land  worth  a  rental  of  only  ten  shillings 
($2  50)  an  acre.  By  calling  to  his  aid  the  advice  of  scientific  men,  by 
his  intelligence  and  enteriuise,  liy  the  api>]ication  of  scientific  princii)les 
and  the  most  advanced  practices  to  the  treatment  of  the  soils,  he  raised 
his  entire  estate  to  a  degree  of  productiveness  that  commanded  a  yearly 
rental  of  £3  10s.  (817  oO)  ])cr  acre. 

During  the  summer  and  autumn  I  visited  numerous  farms  aftbrding 
examples  of  intelligent  and  advanced  culture:  tbe  Prince  Consort  farms, 
at  Windsor;  Lord  Durham's  estate,  in  Durham  County:  Sir  "Walter 
Trevclyan's  estate,  in  Northumberland  County  ;  and  others. 

The  course  pursued  by  most  American  fanners  is  entirely  without  sys- 
tem. Good  prices  appearing  to  prevail  for  any  given  production  will  cause 
our  farmers  to  push  their  crop  in  that  direction,  regardless  of  the  injuri- 
ous efi'ects  upon  their  farms,  and  indifierent  to  any  general  results.  Thus 
all  the  fiuctuations  of  markets  operate  to  derange  their  modes  of  hus- 
bandry, and  cause  extra  expense  in  all  the  machinery  of  the  farm, 
including  labor.  A  dc^fined  system  of  husbancby  would  enable  our 
farmers  to  control  the  market  instead  of  behig  at  the  mercy  of  its  con 
stant  changes,  and  to  greatly  economize  their  exi>enditures,  and  at 
the  same  time  keep  up  the  quality  of  the  soil.  There  is  nothing  more 
necessary  in  agricultiu-al  pursuits  than  some  exact  system,  regulated  by 
the  discretion  and  iutelbgence  of  the  farmer,  guided'by  all  the  light  that 
can  be  drawn  Irom  science  and  practice.  We  find  in  England  and  Scot- 
land not  only  examples  of  ordinary  farm  management  with  careful  study, 
but  the  art  of  feeding  is  unquestionably  earned  to  a  higher  degree  of  per- 
fection than  in  any  other  country. 

I  was  greatly  surjmsed,  when  I  first  attended  a  fair  of  the  Koyal 
Agricultural  Society,  on  seeing  the  fat  cattle ;  but  1  have  been  still  more 
astonisbed  on  learning  the  very  short  time  it  required  to  fatten  them  for 
the  butcher.  This  skill  is  dependent  on  many  things,  such  as  the  selec- 
tion of  well  bred  stock,  the  kind  of  food  employed,  and  the  mode  of  pre- 
paring it,  and  particularly  the  kind  of  food  given  to  the  stock-when 
young,  and  many  other  things,  all  of  which  we  should  investigate. 

My  aim  at  present  is,  however,  to  examine  such  points  as  relate  more 
directly  to  technical,  or  what  is  often  termed  practical,  education  for 
the  larmer,  or,  more  definitely,  what  relates  to  school  or  college  educa- 
tioiL    On  this  point  I  am  compelled  to  say  that  Great  Britain  does  not 


REPORT    ON    AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION    IN    EUROPE.         12!) 

afiorcl  tiie  highest  examples,  either  in  the  efforts  to  connect  agricultiu-ul 
education  vrith  the  universities,  or  to  establish  separate  agricultiual 
colleges  and  academies.  The  reasons  for  this  are  obvious:  Most  of  the 
land  being  oidtivat^d  by  tenant  fanners,  they  woidd  natiually  not  ia%  or 
any  scheme  for  education  that  -vrould  equally  benelit  the  farming  com- 
munity at  large,  and  tend  to  increase  the  productions  of  the  land  gene- 
rally, thereby  most  likely  increasing  the  rental  they  must  pay.  But 
show-  the  individual  farmer  how  he  can  increase  the  productions  of  his 
own  farm,  and  thereby  produce  better  crops  than  his  neighbor,  and  he 
is  ready  enough  to  accept  your  suggestion.  Agricidtm-al  education  in 
Great  Britain  is  based  upon  a  purely  commercial  theory.  The  young 
man  is  sent  to  some  advanced  farmer,  in  a  good  agricidtural  district,. to 
remain  one,  two,  or  three  years.  Thus  he  becomes  a  good  farmer,  but 
knows  little  else.  We  aim  at  something  higher  than  this  in  the  United 
States,  and  hope  to  make  the  young  farmer  a  student,  skilled  in  his  pro- 
fession by  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  sciences  on  which  the  art  of 
"JigTiculture  is  based.  For  this  piupose  we  must  have  schools  and  colleges. 
Agriculture  is  at  length  recognized  as  a  science,  and  the  time  has  gone 
by  when  our  journals  call  in  vain  for  government  and  State  aid  in  its 
advancement,  and  when  intelligent  farmers  plead  in  vain  for  assistanc^^. 
in  the  establishment  of  agricultui'al  schools.  The  ground- work  of  our 
national  wealth  and  i^ower  is  now  appreciated,  and  a  generosity  that  is 
truly  mun  ill  cent  pervades  the  government  and  i^eople. 

If,  however,  in  the  full  llush  of  our  hopes  on  this  subject,  wo  form  a 
wrong  conception  of  what  we  can  accomplish,  or  if  we  adopt  difficult  oi 
impossible  measures  to  secure  what  we  may  legitimately  aim  at,  the 
funds  at  our  command  may  be  squandered,  and  the  generosity  of  the 
government.  States,  and  indi\'iduals  be  discouraged.  We  have  about 
fifty  years  of  experience  from  which  to  draw  lessons  on  the  subject  of 
agTicultural  schools.  Failure  has  been  a  marked  featiue  in  the  history 
'of  this  enteri^rise.  Let  us  note  the  bad  x^ractices  which  have  led  to  par- 
tial or  entire  failures,  and,  abandoning  them,  study  the  elements  of  suc- 
cess, when  success  has  been  achieved. 

In  a  former  communication  I  claimed  that  the  model-farm  system 
shoidd  be  given  up  as  a  part  of  the  machinery  of  agiicidtm-al  schools; 
1  wish  merely  to  add  here  that  I  consider  model  farms  detrimental  on 
accoimt  of  the  buiden  they  impose,  in  various  ways,  upon  the  institution, 
even  in  cases  like  that  of  the  Cornell  University,  where  the  endowments 
are  so  great  that  the  institution  may  not  feel  the  burden  of  the  farm. 
ISo  agTicultural  commimity  will  award  the  same  faith  or  the  same  credit 
to  the  exi)eriments  of  a  coUege  farm  that  they  would  to  those  of  the 
separate,  independent  farmer.  Farmers  in  general  will  feel  a  suspicion 
that  the  college  farm  is  backed  by  college  limds,  and  that  results  aie 
•  .secured  under  the  inJiuence  of  college  bias.  It  is  not  the  greatest  pos- 
sible residts  that  the  farmer  looks  for  alone,  but  the  highest  productive- 
ness of  his  soil  that  can  be  secured  at  the  least  cost.  Of  course  the 
experimental  ground  is  not  included  in  fhe  term  model  farm.  Experi- 
mental grounds — which  need  not  be  very  lafge — are  indispensable. 

One  of  the  most  importai^t  questions  that  our  country  is  just  now 
called  upon  to  settle,  is  in  relation  to  the  value  of  separate  agi'icultural 
schools,  as  compared  with  attaching  them  to  universities,  or  making 
the  agi'icidtural  school  a  department  in  a  university.  K  the  agricultu- 
ral dei)artment  is  to  be  tacked  on  as  a  mere  subordinate  part,  and  is  to 
be  overshadowed  by  some  other  interest,  I  should  decide  in  favor  ot 
separate  schools,  with  all  their  disadvantages.  It  has  too  often  hap- 
l)ene(l  that  the  effort  to  give  agriculture  a  place  in  universities  has 
9 


130  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

resulted  iu  very  little  more  than  a  mere  uame ;  yet  I  am  of  the  opinion 
that  the  science  and  art  of  a^cultiire  will  best  be  raised  to  their  time 
di"Tiity  by  securinf^-  the  jiroiier  instruction  in  connection  with  our  imi- 
Tersities/  If  nniversities,  already  established,  will  not  give  this  subject 
a  place  proportionate  to  its  importance,  the  act  making  the  government 
g:iant  of  land  for  agricultunil  and  mechanical  education  js  so  framed  as 
to  ffive  us  a  most  fortunate  advantage  in  founding  new  institutions. 

All  that  has  been  gained,  thus  far,  on  the  side  of  practical  education 
iu  the  contest  between  the  advocates  of  the  old  classical  system  and  the 
ad\  ocates  of  the  real  studies,  or  the  study  of  Nature,  has  been  gained 
in  connection  with  oiu^  colleges  and  universities.  It  is  not  long  since 
any  young  man  who  wished  to  attain  a  standing  as  a  scholar  had  but  one 
course  open  to  him.  The  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  wa«  forced  upon  him, 
no  matter  what  his  inclinations,  tastes,  or  aptitudes  might  be.  This 
rule,  which  required  all  to  reach  knowledge  by  the  same  road,  has  been 
measm-ably  overthrown  in  our  country.  The  study  of  the  natural  sci- 
ences, of  Nature  and  her  works,  and  of  the  laws  that  govern  the  physical ' 
universe,  is  raised  to  equal  dignity  with  the  study  of  what  is  styled  a 
classical  course.  I  would  not  disparage  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin, 
but  would  gi-eatly  increase  tlie  amount  of  study  now  required.  Greek 
and  Latin  literature  oj^ens  to  the  human  intellect  the  grandest  tields  of 
its  own  activities  and  resoui^ces;  but,  with  the  whole  circle  of  human 
knowledge  before  us,  we  should  give  freedom  of  choice,  and,  to  this  end, 
insist  upon  more  thorough  preparation  beforeany  of  the  special  courses 
be  entered  upon,  diuiug  which  time  all  should  be  educated  alike;  but 
when  the  choice  can  be  made  under  the  guidance  of  capacity  or  apti- 
tude, the  university  course  should  be  such  as  will  accommodate  all. 

If  the  farmer  or  mechanic  must  go  to  an  institution  apart  from 
students  fitting  themselves  for  other  callings,  his'education  will  always 
be  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of  half  education,  or  at  least  as  being  of  an  in- 
ferior grade.  Give  these  students  a  position  of  honor  equal  to  any  others, ' 
and,  for  an  equal  amount  of  good  study  in  any  chosen  course,  award  the 
same  credit.  Contact  of  mind  with  mind  plays  a  decided  part  in  educa- 
tion. The  contact  of  students  of  all  callings  creates  new  power,  and 
spurs  forward  to  higher  ambitions.  This  intluence  or  atmosphere  of 
study  is  measurably  lost  by  separate  schools.  Then,  by  associating  the 
literary,  and  scientific,  and  the  practical  students,  there  is  less  danger 
of  a  social  stamp  being  put  ux)on  the  one  difiering  from  that  jnit  upon 
another.  This  is  of  great  importance.  In  the  university,  too,  any  student 
may  consult  his  taste  or  interest  by  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  studies 
allied  to  his  chosen  course,  although  not  strictly  belonging  to  it. 

Economy  is  greatly  on  the  side  of  the  university  plan.  The  machinery 
required  is  to  a  great  extent  the  same  for  all  the  courses,  and  to 
multiply  it,  so  as  to  supply  as  many  separate  schools  as  there  are  natural 
subdivisions  in  the  university,  woidd  be  a  great  waste  of  capital.  I  do 
not  mean  to  argue  that  we  may  yot  at  some  time  need  s|)ecial  schools ;  but 
this  is  not  our  first  great  wn^it. 

In  Prussia,  where  agricidtural  education  has  long  been  an  established 
part  of  the  school  system,  there  are  a  number  of  old  and  well-estab- 
lished separate  agricultural  academies  and  schools.  The  university  at 
Halle  established  an  agricultural  department  in  1863,  which  now  has 
one  hundred  and  eighty  students — more  than  double  the  number  in 
attendance  at  any  other  agricultural  school  or  academy  in  Prussia.  1 
believe  it  will  be  found  that  where  agricultural  studies  have  i^ropercare 
bestowed  upon  them  in  the  universities,  the  latter  will  take  the  lead  in 
this  department. 


REPORT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    131 

It  is  an  aliuost  unavoidable  result  in  cases  of  schools  for  any  given 
pui'poso,  that  the  studies  are  attempte<l  to  be  rendered  easy,  with  the 
view  of  adapting"  them  to  the  special  coui'se.  This  is  an  injury  to  the 
studeilf,  and  justly  merits  the  position  usually  assigned  such  schools  as 
being  of  a  low  grade.  I  lind,  both  in  England  and  oji  the  continent, 
that  those  whose  judgment  is  entitled  to  the  greatest  weight  are  inclin- 
ing toward  the  opinion  that  agricultui-al  education,  so  far  as  the  schools 
are  concerned,  should  be  collegiate  in  character,  or  scientrfic.  The  same 
is  true  in  regard  to  education  in  mechanics.  The  notion  that  the  student 
should  go  to  these  schools  to  learn  agriculture  or  any  of  the  mechanical 
arts,  very  much  as  he  would  learn  a  trade,  is  rightfully  discarded. 

In  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden  I  found  the  Ministerium  of  Trade  and 
Agriculture  engaged  in  the  inaugiu-ation  of  a  system  of  agricultural 
education  which  must  succeed  in  extending  the  knowledge  of  the  acad 
emies  to  the  agricultural  community,  '^'his  system  reqmres  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  school  in  each  district  (eleven  in  the  grand  duchy)  for  the 
sons  of  farmers,  (the  peasantry,)  the  principal  of  each  school  to  be  paid  by 
the  government,  and  required  to  be  not  only  an  educated  man,  but 
educated  in  tlio  science  of  agricultiu^e.  These  schools  are  to  consist  of 
one  term  in  the  year  (a  winter  term)  of  live  months.  The  remainder  of 
the  year  the  principal  teachers  are  to  travel  and  study  all  the  best  prac- 
tices of  agriculture  to  be  found  in  the  country,  occasionally  lecturing  in 
the  villages  to  interest  the  farmers  in  the  subject  of  the  schools,  that 
they  may  send  their  sons  in  the  winter.  This  system  not  only  extends 
to  the  people  a  knowledgeof  all  that  can  be  discovered  in  the  academies 
and  colleges,  and  by  the  best  practice  of  the  more  intelligent  and  enter- 
prising farmers,  but  it  opens  employment  for  thorough  students  of  agri- 
culture who  go  from  the  colleges  from  year  to  year. 

There  are  only  two  institutions  in  Great  Britain  where  agTiculture  is 
at  present  successfully  taught — one  in  England  and  one  in  Scotland. 
The  former  is  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  College,  at  Cirencester,  in  Glou- 
cestershire, which  is  devoted  exclusively  to  agriculture ;  the  latter  is  an 
agTicultmal  department  in  the  University  of  Edinbui'gh. 

THE  EOYAX,  AGIIICULTURAL  COLLEGE  AT   CIRENCESTER. 

The  Eoyal  Agricultiu'al  College  at  Cirencester  had  for  a  long  time  but 
a  feeble  existence.    The  reasons  were : 

First.  Want  of  capital,  having  no  government  aid,  and  charging  its 
students  at  a  non-i^aying  rate. 

Second.  It  was  supporting  a  very  heavy  burden  in  the  way  of  a 
model  farm,  which  ran  the  institution  in  debt  to  the  extent  of  about 
$50,000. 

Third.  It  required  the  students  to  labor,  and  thereby  secured  satisfac- 
tory results  neither  in  study  nor  in  labor.  All  these  difficulties  have  been 
overcome.  The  first,  by  increasing  the  charges  for  board  and  tnition, 
which  of  course  changed  the  class  of  students ;  the  second  and  third,  by 
the  abandonment  of  the  ])ractices  out  of  which  they  grew.  The  insti- 
tution is  now  self-.sustaining  and  i)rosperous,  and  in  September  last, 
soon  after  the  opening  of  the  term,  there  were  about  seventy  students 
in  attendance.  The  increase  of  the  expense  of  board  and  tuition  excludes 
the  sons  of  small  farmers,  who  were  at  first  intended  to  be  edTicated  at 
this  institution,  and  the  more  wealthy  classes  now  send  their  sons.  If 
there  Avere  no  question  of  expense,  it  would  l)e  impossible  to  mingle  the 
two  classes  in  the  same  institution  in  this*  country — a  difiiculty  which,  it 
is  to  be  hoped,  may  never  be  encountered  in  America. 


132  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

The  Duie  of  3Iarlborougli  is  president  of  the  college,  and  its  present 
focnlty  enibrat^'es  the  llev.  John  Constable,  principal,  and  six  resident 
professors,  occupying  the  chaii-s  of  agriculture,  chemistry,  naniral  his- 
tory, anatomy,  physiology  and  hygiene,  mathematics  and  surveying,  and 
di'awing. 

The  institution  was  incorporated  by  charter,  March  27, 1845.  The 
college  building  is  a  handsome  and  commodious  gothic  structure,  ot 
stone,  situated  one  and  a  half  miles  out  of  Cirencester.  Its  frontage  is 
one  hundred  and  ninety  feet.  The  buildings  include  a  chapel,  dining- 
hall,  library,  museum,  lee tuie- theater,  hiboratories,  class-rooms,  i>rivatc 
studies,  and  servants'  othces :  with  apartments  for  resident  prolessors, 
and  ranges  of  dormitories  on  the  upper  floors.  The  whole  building  is 
lighted  ^"ith  gas,  and  the  Ix^st  methods  of  warming  and  ventilation  have 
l>een  adopted.  Each  student  has  a  separate  sleeping  apartment,  and 
private  studies  are  allotted  to  meritorious  students. 

The  managers  appe-ar  to  apiVreciate  the  great  educational  value  of  a 
practical,  industrial,  and  scientific  museum ;  the  college  museimi,  i>os- 
sessing  a  valuable  collection  of  geological  specimens,  minerals,  and 
objects  of  natural  history ;  an  interesting  set  of  anatomical  and  patho- 
logical preparations,  such  as  casts  of  teeth,  to  illustrate  the  age  of  the 
horse,  sheep,  and  other  animals ;  an  extensive  museum  of  economic 
botany,  containing  specimen  plants  of  many  varieties  of  known  cereals, 
samples  of  seeds  of  every  species  of  plants  used  by  the  agriculturist,  and 
a  series  of  wax  models  of  every  variety  of  cultivated  roc»ts ;  and  also  a 
beautiful  herbarium,  containing  about  three  thousand  specimens  of 
British  i^-lants. 

Thirty  acres  of  land  are  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  an  experimental 
fiu'm,  which  is  so  managed  that,  by  accurate  records  and  the  systematic 
weighing  of  animals  and  products,  students  are  enabled  to  secure  cor- 
rect ideas  of  many  of  the  important  details  of  tiu'm  practice.  The  farm 
formerly  conducted  by  the  college  as  a  model  farm  is  now  under  the 
management  of  one  of  the  giaduates  of  the  institution,  to  whom  it  is 
let  with  the  reserved  right  of  students  trnd  professors  to  \-isit  it  at  will. 
This  farm  consists  of  about  live  hundred  acres.  The  soil  of  the  farms 
rests  on  the  forest  marble  and  great  oolite.  Much  of  it,  therefore,  is 
brash.    The  general  elevation  above  the  sea  is  about  six  himdred  feet. 

Instruction  in  agricultuie  is  given  l)y  lectures  and  by  daily  practical 
exercises  on  the  farms.  The  agricultural  course  of  instruction  thus 
embraces  not  only  a  scientific  discussion  of  established  methods  of  cul- 
tivating diflereut  kinds  of  soils  in  different  climates;  of  the  breeding, 
rearing,  and  general  management  of  stock,  and  the  use  of  machinery ; 
but  also  affords  a  good  illustiation  of  the  cultivation  of  at  least  one 
good  farm  in  the  neighborhood,  to  which,  by  an  arrangement  made  with 
TUe  tenant,  the  students  have  free  access.  Each  student  is  exi>ected  to 
keei>  a  daily  journal  of  all  the  operations  on  the  farm,  and  to  make  him- 
self thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  accounts.  Isatural  and  mechanical 
philosophy  are  taught  by  a  series  of  lecimes  delivered  by  the  jnincipal. 

The  chemical  laboratory  is  well  arranged  and  well  furnishetl,  and 
chemical  manipulation  and  analysis  are  taught  to  each  class  of  sfadents 
in  succession,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  professor  of  chemistry 
and  his  assistants.  After  studying  the  properties  of  the  more  commonly 
occuiTing  substances,  they  are  taught  to  analyze  a  series  of  compound^ 
proceeding  ii  oni  simple  to  more  complex  cases,  and  to  apply  the  knowledge 
thus  obtained  to  the  analysis  of  manuies,  soils,  ashes  of  plants,  farm 
products,  and  other  substaucejj  with  which  the  liractical  agriculturist  is 
more  immediately  concerned ;  and,  in  addition,  'there  is  a  systematic 


REPOST  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    133 

course  of  illustrated  lectures  given  on  inorganic,  organic,  -and  agricul- 
tural chemistry,  as  well  as  catechetical  lectures.  Analyses  of  artificial 
manures,  oil  cakes,  waters,  &c.,  are  daily  performed  iu  ihe  college  labora- 
tory, and  chemico-agricultural  researches  undertaken  by  the  more 
advanced  students,  under  the  immediate  direction  of  Mr.  Church  and 
assistants. 

Geology  is  taught  by  lectures,  and  practically  illustrated  in  field 
excursions  and  geological  surveys  in  the  surrounding  neighborhood. 

The  professor  of  botany  delivers  annually  a  full  course  of  lectures  in 
systematic  botany,  illustrated  by  a  botanical  garden  belonging  to  the 
institution,  which  enables  him  to  instruct  practically  in  the  botany  of 
agriculture,  and  to  show  the  students  various  experiments  in  vegetable 
physiology.  The  professor  of  botany  conducts  field  classes  weekly  during 
the  summer  and  autumn  months. 

Imstruction  in  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene  is  given  by  lectures, 
illustrated  by  cases  in  the  hospital  attached  to  the  college ;  and  in  order 
to  make  the  teaching  as  practically  useful  as  possible,  students  are 
cequired  to  record  the  particulars  of  all  cases  admitted  for  treatment, 
especially  the  results  of  post-mortem  examinations. 

In  the  department  of  mathematics  and  surveying  the  instruction  is 
rendered  as  practical  as  possible  by  opportunities  which  are  afforded 
for  instruction  in  the  field,  in  siu've\ing,  leveling,  and  land-measuring, 
and  in  the  use  of  the  theodolite,  spirit-level,  and  other  instruments. 
Architectural  and  mechanical  drawing  are  also  carefully  taught  in  the 
institution.  To  such  students  as  desire  it,  instruction  in  carpentry  and 
smiths'  work  is  given  in  the  shops  attached  to  the  liirm  buildings. 

There  are  two  terms  in  the  year,  with  vacations  of  seven  weeks  each, 
one  vacation  commencing  about  the  ISth  of  June,  and  the  other  on  the 
ISth  of  December.  Students  who  complete  the  two  years'  course  receive 
a  diploma  as  graduates,  under  the  title  of  members,  on  having  passed  a 
satisfactory  examination  in  agriculture,  chemistry",  and  any  other  one 
subject  selected  by  the  candidates. 

Students  who  live  in  the  institution  (in-students)  pay  £100  per  annum, 
to  be  paid  half  yearly,  in  advance.  Students  who  live  out  of  the  insti- 
tution (out -students)  pay  £50  per  annum,  half  yearly,  in  advance. 

There  has  recently  been  established  at  Cu-encester  a  farmers'  club, 
the  lectures  and  discussions  of  which  are  of  great  service  to  the  students 
of  the  college.  Some  of  the  professors  belong  to  this  club,  and  they 
find  no  difiiculty  in  seeming  from  among  the  leading  farmers  those  who 
are  willing  to  test  practically  the  scientific  discoveries  or  supposed  im- 
provements of  the  college,  and  to  report  residts. 

• 

THE  UNIVEESITY  OF  EDUSTBLTIGH. 

The  chair  of  agiiculture  in  this  university  is  at  present  endowed 
jointly  by  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland  and  the 
government,  and  is  filled  by  Professor  John  Wilson,  an  experienced  and 
able  scholar  in  the  science  of  agriculture.  The  efficiency  of  this  chair 
has  recently  been  greatly  increased. 

The  university  has  Jicsolved  to  grant  degrees  to  those  who  pass  the 
prescribed  examinations,  in  conformity  with  the  educational  curriculum 
prescribed  by  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society.  It  has  been  ar- 
ranged that  the  lectures  on  agriculture  shall  extend  over  two  sessions, 
in  order  that  the  subject  may  receive  a  more  comprehensive  considera- 
tion than  has  hitherto  been  accorded  to  it.  The  course  has,  therefore, 
been  arranged  in  two  divisions,  and  is  completed  in  two  sessions.    The 


134  AGRICULTURAI,   REPORT. 

first  is  occupied  chieily  in  discussing  the  priuciples;  while  in  the  second 
the  practice  of  modern  afrriculture  is  more  particularly  considered. 
Each  division  of  the  subject  is  rendered  as  complete  as  possible,  so  as 
to  meet  also  the  requirements  of  those  gentlemen  -who  may  not  intend 
to  go  up  for  the  di]iloma  examiuation. 

The  Course  of  LEcmiES. — First  Division. — I.  History  of  Agi-icnl- 
ture.  with  the  various  epochs  of  advancement  np  to  the  present  time : 
Sacred  ^Vritings.  Ancient  Egyi)tians,  Greeks.  Eomans.  Early  and  ^liddle 
Ages;  Application  of  Science;  Tnll,  Young,  Sinclair,  Davy,  Liebig, 
Boussingault^  &c. 

II.  General  purposes  of  agriculture,  conditions  affecting  it,  and  prin- 
ciples on  which  it  is  based ;  combination  of  knowledge  necessary  for 
their  proper  comprehension  and  successful  application :  the  production 
of  suihcient  and  regular  supplies  of  food :  civilization ;  increase  of  pop- 
ulation ;  necessities  for  increased  supphes ;  necessity  for  an  acquaint- 
ance ^vith  the  laws  governing  the  thi-ee  great  kingdoms  of  nature,  the 
animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral,  and  the  intimate  union  of  all  these. 
This  combination  of  knowledge  comprises — 

in.  The  Chemistry  of  Agricultiu-e:  The  constituents  and  chemical 
composition  of  soils,  cultivated  crops,  the  atmosphei^^.  rain  and  spring 
water ;  chemical  changes  effected  by  decomposition  and  recombinations 
in  reference  to  the  gaseous  and  miueral  food  of  plants:  rotation  of  crops, 
fallcwing  and  manuring — ^their  principles  tliscussed. 

lY.  The  Geology  of  Agiicrdtiire :  Conditions  under  which  the  differ- 
ent strata  forming  the  eaith's  crust  were  deposited :  their  composition, 
mechanical  and  chemical,  mode  of  disintegration,  &q.  ;  the  formation  of 
soils ;  the  condition  and  extent  of  smface  soils,  and  their  characteristics 
and  influence  on  agiiculture ;  lociil  variations ;  economic  produce  of  dif- 
ferent formatioiLs,  as  stones  for  building  and  other  puriJoses.  marbles, 
slates,  clays,  hmestoues,  metallic  ores,  coals,  salt.  &c. :  general  surface 
geology  of  Great  Britain. 

T.  The  Botany  of  Agriculture :  The  nature  and  character  of  the  vari- 
ous agiicultural  ]ilants,  and  the  diseases  and  insect  ravages  to  which 
they  are  most  liable,  and  theii"  remedies :  the  weeds  of  agriculture :  indi- 
genous plants  as  indicative  of  quality  of  soils ;  special  crops  cultivated 
for  food  or  for  technical  ]}tui)oses,  as  linseed,  coriander,  woad.  teazles, 
&c. :  arboricidture,  the  ctiltivation  and  management  of  truit  and  forest 
trees ;  plr.uting.  pmning,  felling,  barking,  &e. 

YI.  The  Physics  of  Agriculture :  Meteorology,  including  climate  and 
the  various  conditions  affecting  it:  atmospheric  effects,  as  winds,  rain, 
hail,  thunder-storms,  their  causes  explained:  barometer,  thcrmom.eter, 
dew-point,  &:c.,  indications  a^brded  by  them :  the  absorption  and  reten- 
tion of  heat  and  moisture  by  different  soils,  and  their  capillarity  in  refer- 
ence to  drainage ;  hydiodynamics ;  the  general  laws  of  light,  heat,  and 
electricity  as  affecting  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Sccojid  Dirisii.m. — 1.  The  Mechanics  of  Agiiculture:  their  fipplication 
in  the  practical  operations  of  the  farm.  This  will  comprise  the  jirinci- 
ples  of  constniction  of  plows,  harrows,  scarifiers,  rollers,  horse-hoes, 
drills,  threshing  machines,  reaping  and  mowing  machines,  chaff  cutters, 
crushing  and  grinding  machines :  the  application  of  steam  to  tillage  pur- 
poses; motive  power — man,  horse,  wind,  water,  steam — their  absolute 
and  relative  values  and  various  modes  of  application  considered. 

II.  Rotations  of  various  districts  discussed  and  explained ;  sequence 
of  agricultural  operations ;  economical  divisions  of  labor :  the  hay  and 
corn  crop  :  different  modes  of  harvesting. 

m.  Improvement  of  the  Soil  by  Draining,  Manuring,  &c. :  Draining, 


REPORT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.   135 

iiTigatioD,  warpiug,  claying,  marling,  liming,  paring,  and  bmning;  ma- 
nui-es,  farm-yard  and  artificial,  solid  and  liquid,  their  chemical  composi- 
tion, suitability  for  difiereut  crops  and  modes  of  application,  their  com- 
I)ara rive  money  values,  adulterations,  &c. 

IV.  Live  Stock:  Different  breeds  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  swine, 
poultry,  &c. ;  the  physiological  principles  of  breeding,  rearing,  and  feed- 
ing ;  special  points  to  be  attended  to,  their  pra<}tical  application  in  the 
treatment  (jf  stock  generally;  different  substances  used  for  feeding  pur- 
poses, their  composition,  relative  value,  adulteration,  &«. ;  the  diseases 
and  injuries  to  which  farm  stock  are  most  liable. 

y.  The  Economics  of  Agriculture :  Dairy  produce ;  butter  and  cheese 
making,  baking,  malting,  brewing,  wine  and  vinegar  making;  beet-root 
sugar  and  spirit ;  potato  starch  and  spirit ;  flax,  fiber,  oil  and  cake;  lime 
burning,  brick  and  tile  making,  «S:c. 

YI.  Farm  Engineeiing  and  Construction :  Farm  buOdings ;  general 
principles  to  be  observed,  as  position,  aspect,  size,  materials,  and  mode 
of  construction,  cost,  &c. ;  arrangement  of  land  inclosures,  fences,  shel- 
ter, road  making,  draining,  &c. 

VII.  Agricultural  Policy  :  Tenancy — leases,  size  of  farms,  rent,  cap- 
ital, labor,  wages;  relation  of  landlord,  tenant,  and  laborer;  importance 
of  correct  faim  accounts  and  general  returns ;  agricultural  statistics, 
markets,  &c. 

VIII.  General  Management  and  Improvement  of  Lauded  Property. 
The  students  of  agriculture  in  this  university  have  the  advantages  of 

'access  to  one  of  the  best  industrial  museums  in  existence. 

AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES. 

The  Higldand  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland  was  incorporated  by 
charter,  jMay  17, 1787,  by  the  name  of  the  Highland  Society  of  Scotland, 
and  was  newly  incorporiited  Jume  18, 1834,  by  the  name  and  style  of  the 
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland. 

Much  of  the  general  improvement  in  the  practice  of  agriculture  in 
Scotland  has  been  secured  by  the  labors  of  this  society  in  granting 
premiums  for  agTicultual  improvements;  the  holding  of  shows  of  cattle, 
imi)lements,  and  produce,  and  for  the  general  promotion  of  the  science 
and  practice  of  agriculture;  and  recently,  since  1856,  when  it  procured 
a  supplementary  charter  conferring  additional  powers"  upon  the  society', 
by  more  efficient  and  direct  eii'orts  to  i)romote  agricultural  education. 
The  supplementary  charter  enabled  the  society  to  constitute  and  appoint 
a  committee  on  education,  to  be  called  ''The  Council  of  the  Highland 
and  Agi-icultnral  Society  of  Scotland."  This  society  is,  therefore,  now 
encouraging  a  high  standard  of  agricultural  education.  The  following 
is  the  course  adopted  by  the  council : 

The  council  consider  that,  in  organizing  the  proposed  system  of  edu- 
■•.ation,  there  are  two  leading  points  to  be  attended  to:  First.  The  offer 
of  evei-y  proper  en£ouragemeut  and  facility  to  induce  and  enable  agricul- 
tural students  to  become  candidates  for  the  society's  diploma.  Second, 
The  enforcement  of  stringent  precautions  against  the  possibility  of  the 
powers  created  by  the  charter  being  abused,  or  the  diploma  being  con- 
ferred on  insufficient  grounds.  The  council  conceive  that  a  well-defined 
curriculum  vnl\  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  young  agi-icidturist,  both  as  regards 
the  subjects  of  study  and  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  piu'sued;  and 
that  its  observance  wiU  afford  the  best  guarantee  for  an  education 
worthy  of  the  diploma.  This  education  must  be  of  a  two-fold  character, 
scientific  and  practical — the  one  to  be  acQuiied  in  the  class,  the  other  on 


136  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

the  farm.  The  suflicieucy  of  both  should  be  tested;  1st,  by  evideuce  of 
Jit  tendance  for  prescribed  periods  in  the  chiss  and  on  the  farm;  2d,  by 
rij^id  and  searching  examination  after  the  required  attendance  has  been 
completed. 

In  addition  to  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  details  of  practical 
farming,  a  candidate  must  be  conversant  with  those  departments  of  the 
following  branches  of  study  which  bear  upon  agriculUire:  1,  botany;  2, 
chemistry,  scientific  and  applied ;  3,  natural  history,  iucludiug  the  prin- 
ciples of  zoology  and  geology;  4,  veterinary  medicine  and  surgery;  5, 
field  engineering  and  siu-ve^ing;  G,  the  principles  of  mechanics  and  con- 
struction, as  apphed  to  the  implements  and  buildings  of  the  farm ;  7, 
book-keeping  and  accounts. 

While  candidates  are  not  tied  down  to  any  particular  college  or  school. 
They  must  produce  certificates  of  attendance  for  the  prescribed  period 
in  the  following  classes  in  some  educational  institution,  approved  and 
recognized  as  suflicient  by  the  examiners :  Agriculture,  botany,  chemis- 
try, natural  history,  veterinary  medicine  and  surgery.  Acquirements  in 
field  engineering  and  surveying,  mechanics  and  construction,  and  book- 
keeping, may  be  estabUshed  by  examination,  without  certificate  of  attend- 
ance; but  students  should,  nevertheless,  take  advantage  of  whatever 
classes  may  be  available  for  these  branches. 

In  following  out  the  jiractical  part  of  the  coui'se,  students  are  not 
restricted  to  any  particular  i^art  of  the  country  or  system  of  farming ; 
but  the  examiners  may  judge  of  the  sufficiency  of  the  certificate  pro- 
duced, and  of  the  competency  of  the  party  granting  it.  The  whole 
course  of  study  must  embrace  not  less  than  four  years — two  at  classes, 
and  two  at  larm;  and  students  should  be  strongly  recommended  to  pass 
through  the  scientific  departments  first,  so  as  to  enter  on  the  i)ractical 
part  with  the  advantages  and  the  aids  derivable  fi'om  a  proper  educa- 
tion. When  the  scientific  com-se  is  preferred  in  point  of  time,  a  student 
may  be  examined  upon  it  before  going  to  the  tVirm. 

A  student  may  take  alternate  years  of  the  classes  and  of  the  farm,  but 
must  not  devote  to  either  less  than  an  eutiie  year  at  a  time.  No  part 
of  the  comse  must  commence  until  the  student  is  sevent<?en  years  of 
age,  and  a  diploma  cannot  bo  granted  until  he  is  twenty-one. 

The  Scientific  Course. — First  year.  Summer :  botany,  three  months ; 
book-keeping  and  accounts,  three  months.  Winter:  chemistry,  six 
uionths;  natural  history,  six  months.  Second  year.  Summer:  analytical 
chemistry,  three  months;  engineering  and  surveying,  three  months. 
Winter:  agriculture,  six  months;  veterinary  surgery,  six  mouths. 

This  arrangement  is  merely  suggested  as  providing  a  proper  course  ot 
study  and  succession  of  subjects;  but  the  student  is  not  prohibit^^dfrom 
adopting  anotlier  order,  provided  he  proves  attendance  for  the  i>rescribed 
period  in  the  specified  cUjsses.  By  adopting  the  arrangement  indicated, 
lie  has  the  advantage  of  currying  to  the  agricultmal  class  a  knowledge 
(;f  botany,  chemistry,  and  natural  history;  and  he  is  examined  imme- 
diately after  the  close  of  his  course,  and  at  the  end  of  the  winter  session. 

In  addition  to  the  professorshii>  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  the 
society  has  an  able  chemist,  Thomas  Anderson,  ]M.  !>.,  of  Glasgow. 

ROYAI.  AGRICULTITHAL   SOCIETY. 

The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  is,  in  addition  to  the  ordi- 
nary work  of  agricultural  societies,  also  making  an  elfort  to  encom-age 
agricultural  education  by  granting  certificates  and  awarding  certain 
prizes;  also  by  scientific  and  practical  experiments  conducted  by  one  of 


EEPORT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.     137 

tlio  most  able  figricultural  chemists,  Dr.  Augustus  Yoelcker,  consulting 
chemist  of  the  society,  and  formerly  chemist  of  the  Koyal  Agricultural 
College  at  Cirencester. 

PRr\''ATE  WORKERS. 

■  There  is  much  valuable  private  work  being  done  both  in  England  and 
Scotland  for  the  advancement  of  agriculture,  Tvhich  I  cannot  at  present 
undertake  to  describe ;  and  the  scientific  and  practical  experiments  of 
J.  B.  Lawes,  F.  R.  S.,  ¥.  C.  S.,  and  Dr.  J.  H.  Gilbert,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  C.  S.,  at 
Rothamstead,  are  too  well  known  to  need  a  description. 

I  wish  here  only  to  call  attention  to  the  Rothamstead  experimental 
station  as  being  the  best  model  I  have  yet  seen  for  experimental  farms  for 
agricultural  colleges.  The  thoroughness  with  which  Dr.  Gilbert  exe- 
ciites  his  work,  the  perfect  system  witli  which  he  conducts  his  experi- 
meuts  and  records  the  results,  the  size  of  the  experimental  plots  of 
land,  and  the  arrangement  of  tlie  laboratory,  are  all  most  admirable. 

The  plots  of  land  are  often  entirely  too  small  (not  more  than  thre^  or 
tour  yards  square)  at  experimental  stations  to  insure  reliable  results, 
;ind  frecpiently  the  results  are  rendered  still  less  rebable  on  account  of 
grass  and  weeds  being  permitted  to  grow ;  but  at  Rothamstead  the  plots 
are  from  one-eighth  to  a  quarter  of  an  acre  in  size,  and  kept  perfectly 
clean. 

The  estate  of  Mr.  Lawes,  sui-rounding  the  experimental  ground,  is  cul- 
tivated with  a  view  to  the  greatest  profit,  by  the  application  of  princi- 
|)les  developed  at  the  experimental  station,  in  the  use  of  manures,  rota- 
tion of  crops,  &c.,  and  a  complete  record  kept  from  year  to  year  of  the 
treatment  and  results.  This  station,  though  a  private  enterprise,  has 
given  to  the  world,  in  the  way  of  scientific  reports,  papers,  &c.,  results 
that  have  done  and  are  doing  much  for  the  iutroduction  of  scientific 
])rinciples  in  the  practice  of  agriculture;  and  thus  these  gentlemen, 
though  private  workers,  are  among  the  leading  educators  of  the  people. 

There  are  many  intelligent  farmers  in  England  and  Scotland  who  take 
young  meu  who  wish  to  learn  agriculture  practically,  at  £100  to  £150 
per  year;  but  this  is  not  educational  in  the  sense  in  which  we  are  con- 
sidering the  subject.     ' 

Tina  AaRICULTURAL  INSTITUTIONS  OF   GERMANY. 

At  the  iiresent  stage  of  progress  in  scientific  agTicultiu^e  in  America, 
we  cannot  afibrd  to  neglect  what  has  been  done  iu  a  country  where  the 
experience  of  fifty  years  is  embodied  in  the  present  facilities  offered  both 
by  individual  enterprise  and  by  the  various  governments  to  the  student 
of  agriculture,  and  where  the  best  intellect  and  scholarship  of  the  land 
are  employed  in  the  interest  of  agriculture  and  the  sciences  on  which  it 
is  based. 

German  agriculture  should  not  be  considered  under  this  one  title,  as 
the  various  German  states  present  peculiarities  not  common  to  all;  but 
too  much  space  would  be  required  for  a  detailed  account  of  the  interests 
of  scientific  agriculture  in  each  German  state. 

During  my  investigations  I  have  visited  schools  of  all  the  various 
grades  existing  in  Prussia,  Saxony,  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  Wilr- 
tcmberg,  and  Austria ;  and  in  this  report  I  have  selected  one  or  more 
institutions  representmg  each  of  the  grades  or  types  of  the  schools  of 
agriculture  in  Germany. 

The  controversy  -which  most  interests  our  country  is  that  existing 


138  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

between  the  advocates  of  separate  agricukoral  schools  (colleges  or  acad- 
emies) aud  the  advocates  of  agricultiual  education  as  a  part  of  the  uni- 
versity course.  This  controversy  is  still  going  on  in  Germany,  and,  as 
facts  are  the  best  logic,  I  am  compelled  to  decide  that  the  gieater 
strength  of  argument  rests  "with  the  advocates  of  university  education. 
Xot,  however,  in  favor  of  the  comi)lete  merging  of  the  agricultural  acad- 
emy or  school  into  the  university  course,  but  in  favor  of  a  union  with 
the  university.  Though  there  are  advocates  of  the  complete  disestab- 
lishment of  the  academies  of  agriculture,  in  favor  of  the  uuiversities,  it 
has  been  found  in  practice  that,  to  some  extent,  a  separate  faculty  and 
a  separate  organization  for  the.agricultural  department  are  necessary, 
and  that  the  university  department  of  agriculture  should  in  a  degree 
resemble  an  agricultural  academy,  so  allied  with  the  university  as  to 
open  to  the  students  certain  university  advantages  that  cannot  be 
secured  in  separate  academies:, and  my  observation  of  the  working  of 
some  of  these  universities  is,  that  some  modification  must  be  adopted  to 
give  du-ectness  to  the  studies  of  the  agiicultural  student. 

4^t  the  University  of  Halle,  where  agriculture  is  a  depiUtment  in  the 
university,  and  where  there  are  more  agricultural  students  than  in  any 
other  institution  in  Germany,  there  is  a  laboratory  whoUy  devoted  to 
exi)erimental  and  practical  agricultural  chemistry,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  Dr.  StohmaBu,  a  most  thorough  chemist,"^  and  an  experimental 
farm  of  eighty  acres,  under  the  director  of  the  exi)erimental  station,  and 
professor  of  agriculture,  Dr.  Julius  Kiilm,  who  is  one  of  the  most  pop- 
ular teachers  in  Germany.  Last  winter  when  I  visited  Halle  there 
were  ono  hundred  and  eighty-five  agricultural  students  in  the  uni- 
versity. 

At  Leipzig  University,  where  it  is  claimed  that  the  student  of  agricul- 
ture can  best  be  provided  for  in  the  university  proper,  it  is  still  found 
to  be  an  advantage  to  aid  the  student  in  his  specific  aim  by  a  six 
months'  course,  furnished  by  an  academy  at  Plagwitz,  two  or  three 
miles  distant,  before  entering  the  university.  At  Plagwitz  a  large 
model  farm  is  accessible  to  btudents,  and  also  manufactories  of  various 
kinds. 

Among  the  advocates  of  university  advantages  for  the  student  of 
agi-iculture  there  are  two  distinct  classes,  one  class  contending  that  the 
department  of  agriculture  should  be  constituted  of  the  professors  of 
the  various  sciences  on  which  agriculture  is  based,  giving  the  lectures 
an  agi-icidtural  bearing  or  tendency,  and  adding  a  i'evr  special  courses 
ai)on  the  subject  directly;  the  other  class  contending  for  a  separate  and 
distinct  organization,  Avith  a  full  faculty,  &c.  Both  agree,  however, 
that  the  university  is  the  true  seat  or  center  of  learning,  into  which,  or 
around  which,  students  of  agriculture  should  be  gathered.  Of  the  tirst 
class.  Dr.  Carl  Birnbaum,  the  able  director  of  the  Academy  of  Agiicul- 
tiire  at  Plagwitz,  and  professor  in  the  University  of  Leipzig,  is  an  advo- 
CJite.    The  following  is  tha  substance  of  his  argument :  * 

The  first  impulse  to  scientific  agriculture  in  Germany  was  given  by 
the  rosult  of  investigations  and  experiments  in  England  and  the  Neth- 
erlands. The  earliest  step  was  the  establishment  of  professorships  of 
agriculture  in  the  German  universities.  In  accordance  with  the  spirit 
of  the  age,  student  life  presented  few  attractions  to  practical  workers ; 
therefore  the  influence  upon   the  masses  was  of  an  indirect  nature. 

*  For  the  nnabridged  arjjument  of  Dr.  Bimbanm,  ee«  the  "  Mittheilnngen  fiber  den 
I^lirplan,  die  LehrbiUfsniittel  u.  tlie  Einrichtungen  der  mit  der  Konigl.  Univereitat 
Leipzig  verbrmdenen  landwirthschaftlichen  Lehranstalt  Plagwitz,"  166b. 


REPORT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    139 

Tliroiigh  these  professorsMps  opportunity  was  offered  for  of&cials  and 
OA' orseers  to  gain  advanced  ideas,  and  from  them  the  contest  was  carried 
to  the  peasantry,  between  the  old  manual-labor  system  and  science  with 
the  resultiug  improvements.  Thus  came  the  introduction  of  machines, 
stall-feeding-,  artificial  food,  root  crops,  and  rotation  of  crops  in  place  of 
fallowing.  But  results  were  slow  because  the  opportunities  for  practical 
application  of  the  principles  failed  in  the  universities.  Dr.  Albrecht 
Thaer,  the  great  reformer  of  German  agTiculture,  recog-nized  the  neces- 
sity of  observation  as  an  element  of  instruction,  and  was  the  founder  of 
the  first  academy  of  agricidture  on  his  model  farm,  Moglin.,  Other 
academies  in  connection  with  model  farms  soon  followed. 

Little  by  little  the  professors  in  the  universities,  ignoring  the  practical 
in  the  department  of  agiiculture,  failed  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid 
progress  made  through  observations  and  experiments.  The  result- was 
tliat  soon  their  teachings  contradicted  known  practical  results.  Ap. 
exodus  from  the  lecture-rooms  of  the  universities  followed,  and  in  this 
popular  protest  against  mere  theoretical  teaching,  it  was  almost  for- 
gotten that  from  these  sources, had  flowed  the  streams  of  scientific 
knowledge  now  quickeniug  and  fertilizing  the  land.  Thought  and 
effort  were  now  turned  to  broadening  and  deepeniug  the  scope  of  the 
academies.  Still,  in  the  academies  there  was  wanting,  and  must  be 
wantiug,  the  breadth  of  culture  possible  in  a  university.  Many  lec- 
tures, most  invaluable  to  agriculturists,  which  belong  to  university 
courses,  are  not  given  in  academies,  because  their  bearing  upon  the 
immediate  subject  is  not  sufficiently  apparent.  Concentration  must  be 
the  central  idea  of  special  agricultui'al  academies.  Because  of  the  lim- 
ited time  given  by  most  students,  the  subjects  under  consideration  must 
be  restricted  to  those  most  immediate  and  important. 

G.  Fr,  Schidz,  as  early  as  the  third  decade  of  this  century,  claimed 
for  agiiculture  a  broader  development  and  the  retransl'er  of  agricultural 
education  to  the  universities.  In  Jena  and  Greifswald  sprang  up 
through  his  influence  such  agricultural  institutions,  and  Bonn  and  Got- 
tingeu  followed  the  example.  Liebig  has.attacked  the  academies  with 
severity,  and  the  result  is  a  bitter  strife  as  to  the  most  desirable  organiza- 
tion for  agricultural  institutions.  In  our  day,  when  there  is  no  scarcity 
of  model  farms,  the  disciples  of  progress  are  tempted  to  repeat  the  in- 
gi-atitude  shown  the  universities,  by  forgetting  that  for  all  the  practical 
methods  of  progress  the  academies  are  to  be  thanked. 

The  need  of  experimental  fanns  and  chemical-agricultural  stations 
appears  in  the  foreground,  and  that  academies  have  not  sufficiently  ap- 
preciated this  need  is  proved  by  the  rapid  establishment  of  tliese  centers 
of  experiment,  and  the  exceptional  cases  in  which  they  stand  connected 
with  academies.  The  author,  while  admitting  fully  the  advantages  up  • 
to  this  date  conferred  by  the  academies,  and  the  beneficial  direction 
they  have  given  to  agricultural  effort,  is  in  favor  of  their  complete  ab- 
sorption by  the  universities.  But  he  claims  that  the  universities  must 
afford  every  opportunity  for  a  most  thorough  and  complete  special  course 
of  agriculture. 

Moglin,  the  first  academy  of  agriculture,  was  the^first  to  disappear  as 
an  independent  organization,  and  reappear  in  connection  ^Tith  Berlin 
University.  Waldau,  in  East  Prussia,  followed,  and  the  disestablishment 
of  Tharand  Academy  is  in  prospect.  Halle  established  a  moderately 
complete  agi-icultural  institution  several  years  ago,  and  in  Breslau,  not- 
withstanding the  flourishing  condition  of  the  Schlcswig  Ac>a(lemy  at  " 
Proskau,  a  "similar  department  has  been  organized.  In  the  middle  ot 
the  nineteenth  centmy,  therefore,  the  coiu?se  of  agricidturtd  instruction 


140  AGRICULTUEAL   EEPORT. 

is  agam  gradually  taking:  its  place  in  the  curriculmu  of  the  university. 
If  agricTilt^irists  are  to  Ktntly  to  good  purj^ose,  ho\rever,  there  must  be 
in  the  university  the  same  opportunities  for  a  thorough  course  in  agri- 
culture as  exist  in  other  depaitments. 

From  these  considerations  there  have  been  founded  at  certain  uni- 
versities, as  Bonn  (Poppelsdort"),  Jena,  Greifswald  (Eldena),  special 
institutions  similar  to  agricultural  academies,  but  in  unity  with  the 
universities.  These  institutions  have  their  separate  cori")S  of  i^rofessors, 
and  the  students  pay  one  tuition  fee  for  the  advantages  of  university 
and  special  school,  and  besides  the  course  of  the  latter  they  can,  as  far 
as  time,  means,  and  distance  will  allow,  hear  the  universiry  lectures ; 
i>ut  they  appear  as  occasional  students,  and  remain  strangers  to  the 
peculiar  life  of  the  university.  By  paying  a  united  or  total  tuition  fee, 
the  distinguishing  right  of  a  German  student,  free  choice  of  teachers,  is 
abridged.  Many  claim  this  as  an  advantage,  as  the  student  of  agricul- 
ture, having  a  free  choice  of  lectures,  might  not  select  such  as  bear  most 
directly  and  fidly  on  the  special  purpose  of  study ;  and  as  a  consequence 
their  studies  fail  in  concentration  or  continuity.  Admitting  this  advan- 
tage in  institutions  thus  organized,  and  their  adaptation  to  certain  stu- 
'lents  who  might  be  versatile  and  di&usive,  it  may  be  answered  that  the 
'ievelopment  of  self-reliance  in  farmers  is  the  first  necessity  in  a  course 
f  study,  that  they  may  be  adequate  to  indei^endent  investigations  and 
'udividual  action,  and  that  a  fixed  course  of  study  does  not  tend  to  such 
development.  On  the  other  hand,  a  due  consideration  of  the  needs  of 
agricultural  students  must  be  insisted  upon;  and  the  lectures  of  uni- 
versities have  an  adaptation  to  their  ends. 

As  yet  agricultural  students  cannot  be  matriculated  without  having 
riuished  the  gymnasium  coiu'se,  and  many  insist  that  this  requirement 
must  be  continued.  Since  a  ceitain  ]iractical  experience  m  agincultnre 
is  necessary,  this  requirement  shoidd  be  relaxed  in  favor  of  agricidtural 
-students ;  and  if  applicants  fail  in  points  requisite  to  entrance  upon  a 
university  course,  there  should  be  a  short  preparatory  term,  as  a  special 
'•ourse  of  reading  is  often  iiec^ssaiy  to  jurists,  medical  students.  &c. 
This  bridge  betv.eeu  self-preparation  and  the  uiiiversity  coiuse  is  fiir- 
uished  by  an  organization  like  that  at  Plagwitz.  It,  too,  has  its  separate 
<orps  of  professors  and  a  united  tuition  fee;  but  the  course  is  only  six 
mouths — -just  the  tie  between  the  i>reparation  and  the  university.  For 
those  fitted  to  enter  at  once  the  agiicultttral  department  of  the  univer- 
sity, the  necessity  for  this  six  months'  coui'se  does  not  exist.  Still  it  is 
recommended  as  an  advantage,  since  students  enter  upon  the  university 
course  with  a  certain  preparation  and  self-confidence  as  the  result  of 
rliis  brief  term  of  stutly,  and  a  warm  class  feeling-exists  among  those 
V.  ho  pass  from  the  academy  together,  which  is  a  stimulus  to  study.  The 
iieainess  to  Leipzig  allows  students  to  hear  both  the  academy  and  uni- 
versity lectures,  and  to  combine  the  advantages  of  a  university  town 
V,  itli  the  practical  opportunities  ofiered  at  Plagwitz.  Students^esiriug 
it  have  a  common  home  under  the  control  of  the  director.  Only  such 
icotures  are  delivered  at  Plagwitz  as  require  experiment  or  demonstra- 
tion. • 

In  favor  of  the  other  mode  of  securing  for  the  student  of  agrictdture 
t  lie  advantages  of  the  university,  Dr.  Edward  naitsteiu,  director  of  the 
!*opx>elsdorf  Academy,  is  an  able  advocate.  The  following  is  briefly  the 
substance  of  his  ai-gument:*  "From  those  who  favor  the  entire  dis- 

*  For  the  full  statemtnt  of  Dr.  Ilartstein's  views,  see  "  Die  lanclwirthschaftliche 
.Vkadeinie  Poiipelsdoi-f,  als  Beitrag  zur  Gescliiclit©  und  Benrtheilung  der  landwirtli- 
. .  hiiltlicheii  Akademien,"  of  1864. 


REPORT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    141 

establishmeut  of  agiiciiltural  academies  and  theii-  reorgaiiizatiou  as 
departmeuts  of  universities,  the  favorite  charge  agaiast  the  academies 
is  their  'one-sidedness'  or  specialty,  and  the  claim,  made  in  behalf  of 
imiversity  education  is  its  universality  of  culture.  The  accusation 
against  academies  and  the  advantage  claimed  for  universities  are  a 
mere  form  of  -words,  however,  unsustained  by  facts,  as  an  investigation 
of  the  university  system  vrill  prove.  Universities  do  not  ofier  universal- 
ity of  culuire.  Like  agriculuu-al  academies,  mining  schools.  i>olyteclmic 
institutions,  schools  of  art,  «:^e.,  they  are  preparatory  schools  for  si>ecial 
lile  piu'suits,  not  places  for  that  process  of  diffusion  celebrated  under  the 
name  of  universal  cultiu-e.  The  division  of  the  universities  into  foiu-  or 
live  departments  (as  is  done  in  high  schoolij)  proves  that,  to  reach  their 
piiqiose  of  prepai-iug  stiulents  for  the  practical  callings  of  life,  there 
must  be  a  division  of  studies  hi  accordance  with  the  aims  of  students. 
The  judicial  course  is  for  the  study  of  law,  and  a  demand  that  the  legal 
student  should  devote  himself  at  the  same  time  to  general  scientihe  and 
medical  studies  would  be  unreasonable.  The  medical  department  is  also 
a  well-defined  cotu'se  of  preparation  for  one  decided  life  career;  and  not 
less  clearly  defined  is  the  theological  course.  Those  who  wish  for  a 
thorough  revolution  in  the  method  of  agiicuitural  study  do  not  think  of 
these  well-organized  and  cleai-ly-defined  courses,  but  expect  undefined 
and  mysterious  advantages  from  the  absoriition  of  agricultuial  acade- ' 
mies  by  the  philosophical  departments  of  universities.  And  yet  univer- 
sities complain  that  the  philosophical  department,  on  account  of  the 
diversity  of  its  iuterests,  fails  in  dii'ectness.  This  department  includes 
history,  physiology,  philosophy,  tlie  natui'al  sciences,  and  mathematics. 
The  desire  is  to  open  all  these  sources  of  knowledge  to  the  students 
of  agiiculuu-e,  overlooking  the  fact  that  the  philosophical  department  is 
subdivided  into  si^ecial  coiuses,  according  to  the  liie  aims  of  the  student. 
2so  student  has  yet  api)eared  so  universally  gifted  that  he  has  taken  all 
the  heterogeneous  c©iu'ses  of  this  department.  Xo  one  mind  can  drink 
from  all  these  foimtains.  Even  one  department,  the  fourth  of  a  imiver- 
sity, is  too  copious  for  the  capacity  of  single  minds.  The  i)roposition 
to  divide  the  philosophiciil  department  into  two  or  thi-ee  departments, 
now  under  consideration  in  ditierent  universities,  proves  how  empty  is  this 
term  'universality  of  cidnu^e'— a  possibility  never  reduced  to  aVeality. 
Universities  do  not  exist  for  the  development  of  universal  geniuses,  but 
for  the  education  of  usefid  men  for  the  ditierent  pursuits  of  life.  As  to 
the  accusation  of  *one-sidedness'  which  is  made  against  the  academies, 
if  this  means  that  chemistry,  i)hysies,  and  other  branches  of  the  natural 
sciences  are  studied,  not  in  their  whole  compass  but  only  so  fai'  as  bciir- 
iug  upon  and  serviceable  to  agriculture,  this  is  admitted:  but  why  does 
not  the  same  reproach  rest  ujjyn  students  of  medicine,  who,  equallV  with 
agricidturists,  study  natiu-al  laws  in  their  relations  to  the  proiiession 
chosen,  not  in  tbeir  complete  range  and  iUiniitable  possibilities?  *  The 
world  has  need  of  good  physicians  and  good  agTicidturists,  but  neither 
need  to  be  accomplished  uanirahsts ;  with  neither  is  the  end  fmtherance 
of  science,  but  such  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  nature  as  may  be  avail- 
able in  the  piu'suit  of  their  respective  vocations.  The  only  way  in 
which  academies  might  advantageously  become  parts  of  universities 
would  be  by  the  organization  of  separate  agTicultural  depaitments  with 
corps  of  jirofessors  and  all  the  practical  accessories  of  exi^erimental 
farms,  &c.,  &c. ;  and  this  woidd  have  no  advantage  over  a  separate  organ- 
ization, as  agiicidtural  academies  in  connection  with  universities,  as  is 
the  case  with  Poppelsdorf,  having  its  own  faculty  and  government  but 
still  allied  to  the  university,  the  students  of  the  academy  being  matric- 


142  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

ulated  at  the  imirersit}'.  For  the  teachers,  the  advantages  oi'  residence 
in  a  university  town.  as.sociation  -^ith  professors  in  other  departments, 
and  all  the  accessory  benefits  of  a  university,  are  marked.  Then  certain  of 
che  lectures  at  the  iiniversity  are  available  for  the  students  of  the  acad- 
emy npon  subjects  associated  with  agriculture,  yet  not  warranting  profes- 
sorships in  the  agricidtural  institutions.  Again,  access  to  the  collections 
and  hbrary  of  the  university  offer  advantages  hardly  possible  to  gather 
about  an  independent  academy.  Of  all  the  advantages  which  follow 
university  matriculation,  however,  that  of  association  with  students  in 
other  departments  is  considered  the  greatest.  By  matricidation,  acade- 
my students  have  the  same  rank  as  university  students.  Independent 
academies,  with  agricultiu'e  as  the  single  aim,  are  apt  to  give  a  too  exclu- 
>ive  tone  to  the  whole  life;  so  that  in  this  respect,  and  in  this  respect 
only,  may  the  charge  of  '  oue-sidedness '  be  feared — not  in  the  course  of 
study,  but  in  the  social  life.  By  mingling  with  students  of  the  various 
departments  of  a  university,  the  free  interchange  of  opinions,  the  intro- 
duction of  subjects  bearing  upon  then-  different  courses  of  studj',  recip- 
rocal sympathies  and  interests  are  awakened  which  keep  the  agricidtu- 
ral student  fiom  being  merely  an  agiiculturist,  the  legal  student  from 
being  merely  a  jurist.  This  recognition  of  the  studies  and  aims  of 
others  may  give  socially  an  approximation  to  that  'universality  of  cul- 
ture' which  might  not  otherwise  be  poSvSible.  Study  must  be  specific, 
but  sympathy  may  be  universal." 

My  own  opinion  is,  that  well-organized  agricultural  departments  in 
our  American  universities  are  the  first  and  the  leading  demand,  not  only 
for  the  promotion  of  scientific  agriculture  in  the  United  States,  but  to 
lift  practical  agriculture  into  a  thorough  system  and  to  its  highest  devel- 
opment. Not  a  mere  agricultural  professorship,  but  a  complete  depart- 
ment of  agriculture,  with  at  least  two  able  professors,  one  of  jiractical  or 
applied  chemistry,  and  one  of  agriculture;  with  c-omses  of  lectures 
adapted  to  agricidture  by  a  half-dozen  more  of  thfe  professors  of  each 
university:  and  the  use  of  an  ex|>erimental  farm  where  demonstrations 
may  be  given  having  a  practical  bearing  upon  the  lessons  of  the  course. 
In  every  consideration  of  economy,  thorouglmess,  and  comprehensive- 
ness, such  schools  of  agriculture  must  rank  before  separate  academies. 
The  mere  physical  advantages  that  must  constitute  a  pai't  of  the  acces- 
sories of  any  good  university  offer  advantages  to  the  student  of  agri- 
culture such  as  it  is  abnost  impossible  to  accumulate  for  a  separate 
academy;  such  as  chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus,  collections  in 
botany,  zoology,  geology,  mineralogy,  libraries,  &c.  In  the  emplo.'vTnent 
of  the  best  talent,  even  supposing  it  to  be  possible  to  secure  it  in  con- 
nection with  separate  academies,  the  argument  is  greatly  in  favor  of 
university  departmeits.  Take  for  examjile  the  department  of  agricul- 
fure,.in  the  university  at  Berlin,  Prussia.  Professor  Rose,  the  distin- 
:aiished  mineralogist  and  geologist,  who  has  a  world-wide  fame,  is 
employed  to  debver  a  special  course  of  lectures  (two  each  week)  extend- 
ing through  one  quarter,  for  two  hundred  thalers  ($150  in  gold.)  His 
services,  if  they  could  be  secured  at  aU  for  a  separate  academy  of  agri- 
culture, woidd  cost  85,0C>0.  But  he  is  a  professor  in  the  university,  and 
aas  his  regular  salary  independent  of  the  agricultural  department. 
I'rofessor  Karl  Eoch,  the  botanist,  delivers  a  full  course  of  lectures  in 
the  agricultural  department  for  four  himdred  thalers,  and  Dr.  Knej 
delivers  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  physiology  of  plants  for  two  hundred 
: balers.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  economy  and  the  opportunity  oi 
securing  able  instructors  are  in  favor  of  connecting  agricultural  instmc- 
tion  with  the  university'.    For  a  complete  canvass  of  the  advantages  oi 


REPORT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    143 

(lifferent  metliods  of  instruction,  the  claims  of  separate  academies  can- 
not be  overlooked.  The  academy  at  Hohenlieiu  long  ranked  as  the 
pattern  of  an  agricultural  school  in  Germanj',  and  to  a  great  exent  for 
other  countries.  Many  of  the  most  eminent  agriculturists  look  to  it  as 
their  alma  mater.  Liebig,  I  believe,  first  raised  the  question  as  to 
whether  a  complete  agricultural  education  could  best  be  attained  in 
isolated  academies  or  in  agricultural  departments  of  universities.  Since 
then  the  advocates  of  the  university  i)lan,  in  one  form  or  another,  either 
by  combining  institutes  or  academies  with  the  universities,  or  by  creat- 
ing departments  of  agriculture  in  the  universities,  have  become  very 
numerous,  and  the  growth  of  such  institutes  or  departments  has  been 
very  great  both  in  number  and  prosperity.  This  growth  has  been 
marked  in  Prussia,*  even  where  the  Ministerium  of  Agricidture  for  a 
time,  at  least,  struggled  against  the  change.  I  doubt  not,  however,  that 
the  separate  schools  wiU  continue  to  be  necessary.  It  is  chiefly  where 
gTeat  scholarship  is  called  for  that  I  would  recommend  the  university 
departments;  and  to  secure  this  a  thoiough  preparation  must  be 
required  as  a  condition  of  entrance.  In  all  countries,  and  particularly 
in  our  own,  there  are  multitudes  of  young  men  who  would  be  glad  to 
know  the  rudiments  of  scientific  agriculture,  sufficiently  to  relieve  their 
life-calling  from  being  a  mere  physical  drudgery.  These  can  neither  get 
the  requisite  preparation  to  enter  the  university  course,  nor  the  time  to 
pursue  it  if  they  were  prepared.  Various  grades  of  agricultural  schools 
wiU  therefoie  be  called  for,  and  can  easily  be  provided  by  ])rivate  enter- 
prise, or  by  private  enteiin-ise  aided  by  the  States  or  by  societies,  (as  is 
the  case  in  Germany,)  as  soon  as  we  get  educated  men  for  teachers. 
First  of  all  we  must  provide  wide  scholarship,  either  by  university 
courses  or  by  academies  of  a  very  high  grade.  By  this  means  we  may 
secure  a  class  of  competent  men  for  professors  and  teachers,  and  for  the 
work  of  high  experimental  agriculture,  and  at  the  same  time  alford 
means  of  culture  to  all  who  can  unite  "s^ith  an  agricultural  training  a 
liberal  education.  Schools  for  special  branches,  and  also  schools  of  the 
various  grades,  will  naturally  follow.  Dr.  Komers,  of  Prague,  chief 
director  of  the  Tetschen-Liebwerd  Academy,  and  one  of  the  most  ener- 
getic teachers  of  scientific  agriculture  in  Germany,  whose  "Study  of  the 
methods  of  instruction  has  been  profound,  expresses  most  emphatically 
his  belief  in  the  necessity  of  three  distinct  grades  of  agricultural  schools,' 
to  meet  the  wants  of  all  classes  of  students,  viz:  1st,  a  high  school,  such 
as  a  university  department  would  be;  2d,  a  middle  school,  such  as  the 
agricultiu-al  academy;  3d,  a  lower  school,  such  as  the  Ackerbau-Schule. 
The  first,  for  securing  accomplished  scholarship  such  as  would  fit  men 
for  professional  careers;  the  secoiid,  to  educate  overseers  of  estates  and 
owners  of  small  estates,  and  all  such  students  as  could  enter  upon  the 
course  of  study  with  some  rudimentary  knowledge  of  the  sciences  relat- 
ing to  agriculture,  and  jxt  could  not  take  the  higher  course;  the  third, 
for  a  class  of  men  who  wish  a  thorough  practicalttrainingin  agTiculture, 
working  with  their  own  hands,  but  who  cannot  come  with  any  previous 
preparation  to  enable  them' to  comprehend  strictly  scientific  lectures. 

The  Ackerbau  schools  of  Germany  are  among  the  means  adopted  to 
extend  the  results  of  scientific  investigation  to  the  masses.  In  Germany 
much  attention  is  being  given  to  this  subject,  and  it  is  a  much  more  difii- 
cult  one  to  deal  with  there  than  it  can  ever  be  in  our  country.  We  might 
Ve  inclined  to  award  to  Germans  the  credit  of  being  a  practical  people, 
iudging  by  the  results  of  their  industries,  if  we  did  not  know  how 
immeasurably  beyond  their  practice  their  theories  are.  There  is  no 
nation  where  theory  and  practice  are  so  disassociated  as  in  Germany, 


144  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

where  science  is  ho  uiucli  iu  advance  of  its  practical  applicatiou — where 
there  is  such  a  tlitlereuce  between  knoicing  and  doing. 

Could  space  be  afforded  to  fully  consider  tlie  i)rosress  of  scientific; 
agriculture  in  Germany,  the  questions  growing  out  of  this  need  would 
prove  most  fruitful  in  instruction,  paiticidarly  such  as  pertain  to  the 
methods  of  instruction,  viz.,  the  questions  as  to  how  far  agriculture  can 
be  taught  in  the  Volks-schide  (common  schools,)  the  organization  of  nor- 
mal agricultural  scliools,  the  appointment  of  wandering  teachers,  and 
the  establishment  of  casinos.  1  do  not  believe  that  agricidture  can  bo 
introduced  as  a.  branch  of  study  into  the  common  school.  Even  were 
the  cliihlreu  mentally  ready  for  such  stiulies,  which  they  are  not,  all  the 
jjcriod  of  life  that  belongs  to  the  common  school  is  needed  for  develo})- 
mcnt  in  general  directions ;  not  that  the  teacher  may  not  di-aw  laxgely , 
iu  the  way  of  illustration,  from  many  of  the  i)ractices  in  agricidture  and 
from  some  of  the  rudiments  of  the  science  of  agricidtiu-e,  for  the  quick- 
ening of  observation  and  broadening  of  the  comprehension  of  his  schol- 
ars; but  there  is  a  period  of  life  (student  life)  when  most  of,  if  not  jUI, 
the  sons  of  American  farmers  might  be  provided  ^Yith  special  agricul 
tural  instruction  to  great  advantage — such  winter  schools  as  are  being 
inaugurated  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden.  The  question  recuj's,  how 
;ire  we  to  secm-e  competent  teachers?  And  we  are  thrown  back  upoji 
the  work  that  must  antedate  any  great  multiplication  of  schools  of  agri- 
culture. If  we  scatter  our  resources  at  the  outset  by  the  establishment 
of  a  multitude  of  schools,  academies,  and  colleges  of  agriculture,  the 
result  will  be  that  we  shall  secure  only  a  low  standard  of  agricidtural 
education — at  best,  only  a  sort  of  half  education ;  and  any  effort  to 
deepen  and  broaden  the  system  will,  ten  years  hence,  be  siuTOunded  by 
difficulties  far  greater  than  now  exist.  To  revive  any  system  that  has 
faUen  iiito  disgrace,  to  renew  an  undertaking  that  has  failed  of  success, 
is  far  n^^ore  difficult  than  to  originate  and  perfect  an  enteri)rise  that  can 
be  commenced  free  liom  prejudices.  Since  there  are  no  less  than  one 
hiuidi'cd  and  fifty  agTicultural  institutes,  imiversity  departments,  acade- 
mies, schools,  and  stations  in  the  German  states,  it  is  not  practicable  to 
give  a  description  of  all  of  tliem.  The  systems  adoptetl  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  tlie  various  grades  of  schools,  and  the  methods  of  instruction  in 
use,  can  best  be  understood  by  a  statement  of  the  departments  of  study 
embraced  and  their  distribution  in  the  courses,  which  will  be  undertaken 
in  the  following  pages. 

The  lloyal  Institute  or  Academy  of  Agricultare  at  [^opi>elsdorf,  near 
Bonn,  on  the  Khine,  represents  one  class  of  schools,  in  which  the  student 
of  agriculture  has  university  advantages,  by  the  union  of  the  institute 
with  the  university.  The  course  of  study  of  the  University  of  Leipzig, 
where. agriculture  is  a  department  in  the  university,  is  given,  not  because 
the  organization  is  superior  to  that  of  the  University  of  Berlin  or  Halle, 
but  because  the  course  is  preceded  by  a  preparatory  course  at  Plagwitz, 
which  course  is  also  presented.  Of  the  separate  schools  or  academies 
four  have  been  selected  which  are  believed  to  represent  compreliensively 
the  academic  system  ior  general  agricidtural  education  in  Germany. 
There  exist  many  special  schools  for  single  departments  of  study,  such 
as  foresti-y,  fruit  cultm-e,  tlax  culture,  horticidture,  veterinary  siu'gery, 
•i'C,  but  these  ha\  e  not  been  selected.  The  highest  class  of  sei)arate 
schools  might  be  still  fm-ther  represented  by  the  lloyal  College  of  Agri- 
cultiue  and  Forestry  at  Tharant,  in  Saxony;  by  that  at  Altenberg,  in 
Llungarj';  by  that  at  Proskau,  ajid  by  many  others;  and  those  con-' 
nected  -with  universities,  either  as  departments  or  institutes  in  union 
^nth  universities,  by  the  universities  of  Berlin,  HaUe,  Gottingen,  Vienna, 


REPORT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    145 

Eldeua,  &c.;  but  tliis  would  involve  much  repetition  and  require  consid- 
erable space.  Justice  could  not  be  done  to  an  account  of  tbe  agricultu- 
ral experimeutal  stations  of  Germany,  except  by  a  very  lengthy  special 
report  on  that  subject.  Much  could  be  said  iu  praise  of*  the  ^rork  these 
stations  are  accomphshing  both  for  the  advancement  of  the  science  and 
the  art  of  agriculture.  This  vrork  is  not  confined  ro  the  iuvestigation  of 
the  nature  of  sods,  and  the  best  methods  of  enriching  them,  and  the 
nature  and  growth  of  all  that  the  sod  can  be  made  to  produce  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  but  embraces  also  the  best  methods  of  utdizing  these 
products  for  the  food  of  man  and  beast.  It  wiU  be  seen,  however,  by  the 
annexed  brief  account  of  these  stations  that  they  are  of  recent  origin, 
and  followed  the  work  of  the  agricultural  schools. 

The  academy  of  Tetschen-Liebwerd,  though  much  newer  than  mauy  of 
the  other  schools,  deserves  a  much  more  detailed  account  than  I  have 
been  able  to  give.  The  State  AgTicultural  College  of  jMichigan  is  the 
only  institution  in  the  United  States  of  the  class  of  Hohenheiu  and  Tet- 
schen-Liebwerd that  may  be  considered  as  highly  successfid.  The  hope 
of  America,  and  to  some  extent  of  other  nations,  is  turned  towards  the 
Cornell  University  for  an  example  that  will  broaden  and  UberaUze  Indus 
trial  education,  not  only  in  agriculture,  but  in  aU  the  departments  of  art, 
trade,  and  science ;  but  the  leaders  in  that  university,  no  less  than  in 
the  Industrial  University  of  Illinois,  and  in  aU  the  institutions  of  the 
various  States  founded,  or  to  be  founded,  under  the  stimulus  of  the  gov- 
ernment grant  of  lands  for  agTicultural  and  mechanical  education,  will 
find  that  the  more  they  study  the  causes  that  have  led  to  the  success  or 
failure  of  other  institutions  having  the  same  or  similar  aims  in  view,  the 
sooner  they  will  attain  the  highest  usefulness  and  i^rosperity. 

THE  KOYAL  INSTITUTE  OR  ACADEilY   OF  AaEICULTURE  AT  POPPELS- 

DOEF. 

Poppelsdorf  is  one  mile  j&'om  Bonn,  on  the  Ehine,  through  beautifully 
shaded  walks.  The  natural  history  collections  of  the  University  of 
Bonn  oceupy  an  old  palace  at  Poppelsdorf,  and  the  new  chemical  labor- 
atory just  completed  is  situated  here  also.  '  This  is  one  of  the  very  best 
laboratories  in  Europe. 

The  academy  at  Poppelsdorf  has  two  farms,  one  at  Poppelsdorf  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  morgeuj*  another  at  Annaberg  of  one  thousand 
morgen.  The  field  for  experiments  contauis  about  twenty  morgen. 
The  academical  farms  receive  no  subsidies  from  government,  but  they 
yield  a  considerable  amount  of  rent.  The  field  set  apart  for  experi- 
ments, and  the  experimental  station  or  branch  receive  an  annual  sub- 
sidy fiom  government  X)f  four  thousand  thalers.  Besides  the  field  set 
apart  for  experiments,  a  smaller  farm  is  requisite  dui"iug  the  term  of 
instruction.  The  students  are  not  practically  employed  on  the  farms,  as 
they  are  supposed  to  have  acquired  the  practical  part  of  farming  before 
entering  the  academy.  The  academy  is  exclusively  supported  by  the 
government,  and  the  annual  expenditures  of  the  institution  amount  to 
twelve  thousand  thalers.  There  are  fifteen  instructors,  viz:  three  in 
the  difterent  branches  of  agriculture,  two  in  chemistry  and  technology, 
and  one  each  in  botany,  physics,  geology,  zoology,  foresty,  veterinary 
surgery,  mathematics  and  architecture,  gardening  and  rearing  fruit  trees, 
national  economy,  and  in  agricultural  jurisdiction.  The  weekly  lectures 
of  the  several  teachers  varj-  from  three  to  seven,  and  the  entire  course 

*  In  Koln  a  morgen  is  0.7850  of  an  acre. 
10 


146  AGRICTLTCEAL  BEPOET. 

extends  over  two  years.  The  course  for  the  smmner  comineiices  on  the 
15th  of  April,  and  lasts  untO  the  15th  of  Augrnst;  the  winter  course 
extends  from  the  15th  of  October  to  the  15th  of  March. 

Thoujrh  the  students  are  not  ]iracticaDy  employed  on  the  farms,  ]>rac- 
tical  courses  of  chemistry,  botany,  and  physics  are  introduced,  during 
which  the  students  are  employed,  with  the  assistance  of  the  teachers,  in 
solving  chemical,  vegetable,  and  physiological  problems;  the  result  of 
these  studies  of  nntural  science  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the 
students.  The  teaching  is  carried  on  in  the  form  of  lectures.  The  whole 
premium  payable  for  two  years  amounts  to  one  hundred  thalers,  viz : 
seventy  thalers  for  the  first,  and  thirty  thalers  for  the  second  year. 
The  lowest  age  for  admission  of  students  is  seventeen  years,  but  the 
greater  number  of  the  students  are  of  the  age  of  twenty  to  twentj^-five 
years.  The  number  of  students  at  the  last  term  was  ninety.  The  aggre- 
gate number  of  students  in  this  academy  is  eleven  thousand.  The  students 
are  matriculated  in  the  University  of  Bonn,  where  they  enjoy  the  same 
rights  as  the  university  students.  The  following  is  the  distribution  of 
the  different  branches  of  teaching  in  the  four  terms  of  the  biennial 
course: 

First  year. —  Whiter  term. — Introduction  to  agTicuJtural  studies : 

I.  Agricultural  exercises:  1,  economical  basis  of  agi-icultiu-al  science; 
2,  the  science  of  manure;  3,  general  science  of  animal  production;  4, 
agricultural  book-keej)ing;  5,  agricultural  lirerature,  with  particular 
reference  to  new  publications;  G,  rearing  of  fruit  trees,  with  practical 
illustrations;  7,  practical  agricultural  illustrations. 

II.  Forestry:  1,  the  use  of  forests,  care  and  valuation  of  them,  with 
practiced  iUustrations;  2,  the  chase  and  fishery. 

III.  Natural  sciences:  1,  inorganic  experimental  chemistry;  2,  analyt- 
ical chemistry,  with  practical  lessons  in  the  laboratory;  .3,  chemistry  of 
the  sod;  4,  geology  and  geognosy;  5,  general  botany,  and  anatomy  of 
plants ;  G,  microscopic  studies :  7,  anatomic  and  physiological  view  of 
the  animal  creation ;  8,  natural  history. 

rs''.  Mathematical  exercises:  agricidtural  mechanics,  and  science  of 
machinery. 

V.    Economy:  science  of  national  economy. 

YI.  Jurisprudence:  agricultural  jiuisprudence. 

YII.  Veterinary  surgery:  1,  anatomy  and  physiology  of  domestic 
animals ;  2,  exterior  ailments  of  domestic  animals. 

TIIL  Technology:  geneial  technology. 

IX.  Architecture:  1,  construction  of  agricultiu^al buildings,  and  indus- 
trial undertakings ;  2,  lessons  in  diawing. 

Summer  term. — Introduction  to  agricultural  studies: 

I.  Agricultural  exercises :  1,  comparative  illustration  of  the  agricul- 
tural condition  of  the  principal  European  countries,  particidarly  of  Eng- 
land, with  partictdar  reference  to  Germany;  2,  cidture  of  cereals  and 
vegetables  for  feeding  pur]>oses ;  3,  agricultural  implements  and  machin- 
ery; 4,  rearing  cattle:  5,  exterior  knowledge  of  horses;  C,  ctdture  of 
wine  and  vegetables,  with  practical  illustrations ;  7,  agricultural  illus- 
trations and  excursions. 

II.  Forestry,  with  practical  illustrations. 

III.  Natural  sciences:  1,  organic  experimental  chemistry;  2,  experi- 
mental physics ;  3,  analytical  chemistry,  with  practical  lessons  in  the 
laboratoiy ;  4,  agricultural  literature  treating  of  chemistry ;  5,  agricul- 


REPORT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    l47 

tural  botany  and  ailments  of  plants ;  6,  physiological  lessons  on  plants ; 
7,  natural  history  of  invertebrate  animals;  8,  statistics  of  natural  sciences; 
9,  botanical  excursions. 

IV.  Mathematical  sciences :  practical  geometry,  and  lessons  in  meas- 
uring laud  aud  leveLiag. 

V.  Ecouomj' :  the  policy  of  national  economy. 

VI.  Jurisprudence:  agrarian  jurisprudence. 

VII.  Veteriuary  surgery :  acute  and  iufectious  diseases  of  domestic 
animals. 

VUI.  Architecture :  1,  knowledge  of  btdlding  materials,  and  lectures 
on  architectural  construction ;  2,  lessons  in  drawing. 

Second  year. —  Winter  term, — Introduction  to  agricultural  studies: 

I.  Agricultural  exercises :  1,  the  systems  of  agriculture,  management 
of  large  farms,  and  planniog;  2,  tillage,  drainage,  and  sowing  the  soil; 
3,  agricultural  calcidation;  4,  literature  of  agriculture,  with  particular 
reference  to  the  newest  publications ;  5,  breeding  of  sheep  and  knowl- 
edge of  wool ;  6,  rearing  of  fruit  trees,  T\ith  practical  illustration ;  7, 
practical  agricultural  illustrations. 

II.  Forestry :  1,  the  use  of  forests,  caTC,  and  valuation  of  them,  with 
practical  illustration;  2,  the  chase  and  fishery. 

III.  Natural  sciences :  1,  inorganic  experimental  chemistry ;  2,  experi- 
mental i)hysics,  meteorology ;  3,  analytical  chemistry,  with  practical  les- 
sons in  the  laboratory ;  4,  mineralogy  and  geology ;  5,  the  physiology  of 
plants  ;  C,  microscopic  studies ;  7,  natiu\al  history  of  vertebrate  animals ; 
8,  agricultural  statistics. 

IV.  Economy:  science  of  national  economy. 

V.  Jurisprudence :  introduction  to  agricidtural  jurisdiction. 

VI.  Veterinary  surgery:  anatomy  and  physiology  of  domestic  ani- 
mals. 

VII.  Technology :  technology  of  the  industrial  branches  of  agTicul- 
ture. 

Vm.  Architecture:  1,  construction  of  agiicultural  buildings  and 
industrial  undertakings  ;  2,  road-making  and  water  works ;  3,  lessons  in 
drawing. 

Summer  term. — Introduction  to  agricultural  studies: 

I.  Agricultural  exercises :  1,  valuation  of  farms,  and  calculations,  as 
to  yields;  2,  culture  of  commercial  produce;  3,  knowledge  of  the  soil, 
and  plans  for  improving  the  same ;  4,  management  of  meadows ;  o,  iiis- 
tory  and  statistics  of  agriculture ;  G,  rearing  and  breeding  of  the  smaller 
domestic  animals ;  7,  medical  treatment  of  domestic  animals ;  8,  culture 
of  wine  and  vegetables,  with  practical  illustrations;  9,  agricultural  illus- 
trations and  exclusions. 

II.  Forestry,  with  practical  illustrations. 

III.  Ifatural  sciences:  1,  organic  experimental  chemistry;  2,  experi- 
mental physics,  electricity,  magnetism,  sound,  and  light ;  3,  chemistry 
of  the  animals ;  4,  analytical  chemistry,  with  practical  lessors  in  the 
laboratory ;  5,  literature  of  chemical  agTiculture ;  G,  agiicultnral  botany 
and  elements  of  ]>iants;  7,  selections  from  general  botany,  and  the  anat- 
omy and  physiology  of  plants ;  8,  physiological  lessons  on  plants ;  9, 
statistics  of  natural  sciences ;  10,  botanical  excursions. 

IV.  Mathematical  sciences :  practical  geometry,  and  lessons  in  meas- 
uring land  and  leveling. 

V.  Economy :  the  policy  of  national  economy. 


148  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

VI.  Jurispradence:  agricultural  jurispradence. 

Vn.  Veterinary  surgery :  acute  and  infectious  diseases  of  domestic 

animals. 

VIU.  Architecture :  1,  knowledge  of  building  materials,  and  lectures 
on  aichitectural  construction ;  2,  lessons  in  dra^ving. 

AGEICULTOLLL  SCHOOL  AT  PLAGWITZ,  ^'EAE  LEIPZIG. 

This  school  is  preparatory  to  entering  upon  the  agricultural  course  iu 
the  university  of  Leipzig,  and  embraces  a  term  of  six  months.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  course  of  study : 

History  and  literature  of  agricidture  ;  elements  of  physics  and  chem- 
istry, with  instructions  in  the  small  laboratory ;  introduction  to  botany, 
with  the  use  of  the  microscope :  anatomy  of  animals,  with  study  of  horse- 
shoeing :  field  measurements,  leveling,  and  drawing  of  plans ;  book- 
keeping and  study  of  exchange:  introduction  to  mineralogy  and  geog- 
nosy :  practical  demonstrations  and  exercises. 

Students  can.  also,  according  to  their  time  and  wish,  attend  certain 
of  the  university  lectures. 

AGEICTLTTRAL   COTJBSE  Es   THE  OfTTEUSITY  OP  LEIPZIG. 

Agriculmral  lectures  and  associated  subjects : 

Study  of  plants,  meadows,  and  stock-raising,  and  estimates  of  yields 
or  returns :  sheep-raising,  and  study  of  wool :  care  of  domestic  animals; 
associated  manufactories  and  technology:  agricultural  chemistry,  and 
practice  in  the  large  agricultural-chemical  laboratory. 

Lectures  on  accessory  sciences :  Inorganic  and  organic  chemistry ; 
nathematics,  physics,  and  mechanics:  botany;  zoology,  comparative 
rinatomy.  comparative  osteology,  and  physiology  of  animals ;  mineralogy 
md geognosy;  universal  mathematical  and  physical  geography:  mete- 
orology and'  astronozay ;  i)olitical  economy :  historical  science ;  litera- 
ture, and  history  of  literature ;  philosophical  sciences. 

The  total  tuition  fee  for  the  six  months'  course  at  the  academy  at 
Plagwitz  is  sixty  thalers.  For  the  succeeding  terms  at  the  university, 
or  for  those  who  enter  at  once  uixtn  the  university  agricultural  course, 
there  are  fifteen  thalers  per  term  to  be  paid  to  the  academy,  and  for 
the  use  of  the  laboratory  special  fees,  according  to  circumstances.  The 
payment  of  the  fifteen  thalers  secures  the  right  to  the  academy  lectures 
and  the  lectures  of  the  director  at  the  university.  At  the  university, 
for  four  hours'  lectures  a  week,  for  the  entire  term,  four  and  five  thalers; 
and  for  two  hours'  lectures  "pev  week,  two  and  three  thalers  for  the  term 
are  charged. 

HOHEXKEIX  ACADEJTY. 

This  academy  was  the  first  of  the  separate  schools  visited,  and  is  per- 
haps the  best  known  of  the  German  academies  of  agriculture.  My  visit 
to  the  institution  was  on  the  occasion  of  a  meeting  or  congress  of  Ger- 
man agricultural  chemists,  of&cers  of  the  agricultural  experimental  sta- 
tions, and  friends  of  agricultural  chemistry  generally.  Isearly  all  parts 
of  Germany  were  represented,  as  well  as  several  other  countries.  The 
subjects  presented  at  the  congress,  either  in  the  form  of  stated  pai)ers 
or  discussions,  and  their  titles  indicate  fiiUy  the  character  of  the 
meeting,  and  also,  to  a  great  extent,  the  character  of  German  eflort 
for  the  advancement  of  agriculture,    German  scholars  occupy  them- 


REPORT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    149 

selves  almost  exclusively  witli  tlie  tecliuical  and  strictly  scientific  bear- 
ings of  the  subject.  It  would  be  almost  impossible  at  such  a  meet- 
ing to  introduce  any  question  relating  to  the  practicability  of  making 
available  to  the  masses  the  very  principles  evolved  or  discussed.  Scien- 
tific facts  and  theories  absorb  the  entire  energy  of  most  German  scholars. 
The  following  sul^jects  and  allied  questions  occupied  the  entire  attention 
of  the  meeting :  Analysis  of  foods ;  ash  analysis  of  agricultural  sub- 
stances ;  investigation  on  the  feeding  of  animals;  cultivation  of  plants 
in  water;  control  of  the  manure  trade  by  experimental  stations;  rela- 
tions of  food,  and  cost;  appropriation  of  food,  (in  relation  to  experiments 
on  the  subject;)  manuring;  analysis  of  harvest  products  ;  soil  analysis; 
results  of  experiments  on  feeding,  vegetation,  and  nAnures. 

The  congress  assembled  August  17,  at  10  a.  m.,  in  the  "balconsaale  " 
of  the  castle,  and,  alter  the  usual  preliminaries  on  such  occasions,  the 
reading  of  papers  continued  until  2  o'clock,  the  hour  fixed  for  a 
I)ublic  dinner.  _  The  afternoon  was  occupied  in  visiting  the  exi3erimental 
stations,  museum,  &c.,  and  the  evening  by  a  social  meeting.  The  fore- 
noon of  the  second  day  was  occupied  in  reading  papers  and  in  discus- 
sions; the  afternoon, by  an  excui'sion  to  the  Necker  Valley,  returning  to 
Stuttgard  in  the  evening.  The  forenoon  of  the  third  day  was  occupied 
in  visiting  the  polytechnic  schools,  museums,  and  art  academies  in 
Stuttgard;  and  the  afternoon,  by  excursions  to  Berg  and  Cronstadt. 

By  attending  this  meeting  I  was  enabled  to  see  all  the  departments 
of  the  Hohenhein  academy  under  the  very  best  circumstances,  and  to 
meet  personally  representatives  from  institutions  in  all  parts  of  Ger- 
many ;  thus  learning  much  of  the  spirit  of  the  present  workers  in  agri- 
culture. 

Hohenhein  is  situated  on  high  ground,  about  two  hours'  drive  from 
Stuttgard,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg.  The  academy 
buildings  were  erected  by  Duke  Charles,  in  1770-1780.  This  princelj^ 
residence  had  fallen  into  comparative  ruin,  but  was  repaired  by  King 
William  and  api^ropriated  to  the  use  of  the  agricultural  academy,  whiel) 
was  founded  in  1818.  The  school  is  located  on  the  royal  domain,  and  is 
sustained  and  directed  by  the  State.  It  commenced  with  only  eight 
students  under  the  directorship  of  Baron  Kepomuk  Schwerz. 

At  the  i)resent  date  this  institution  consists  of  three  separate  schools 
as  well  as  a  number  of  extraordinary  coiu'ses,  such  as  school  teachers' 
course,  fiTiit-growers'  course,  meadow-culture  course,  and  shepherds' 
course ;  also  special  courses  for  government  officers,  and  a  course  for 
l)ee  and  sUk-worm  management. 

The  first  of  the  three  schools  is  the  academy,  which  embraces  a  full 
coiu'se  of  instruction  in  all  the  branches  of  agricultiu'e,  including  for- 
estry, and  requires  two  years  for  its  completion.  Students  are  expected 
to  be  eighteen  years  of  age  when  they  enter.  The  second  is  an  agTicuI- 
tural  school  for  men  whose  practical  education  is  the  main  object.  They 
receive  instruction  in  the  lecture-room  about  two  hours  daily,  morning 
or  evening,  and  the  entire  day,  with  this  exception,  is  spent  in  actual 
labor.  This  department  is  open  only  to  residents  of  Wiirtemberg,  and 
the  number  of  students  is  limited  to  twenty-five.  The  course  covers  a 
period  of  three  years,  and  students  are  admitted  at  sixteen  years  of  age. 
The  third  is  the  horticultural  school,  to  which  only  six  students  are 
admitted  annually.  They  must  be  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  are  re- 
quired to  have  served  a  three  years'  apprenticeship  in  gardening  or  in  the 
^^neyard,  or  to  have  gone  through  one  course  in  the  agricultural  school. 
The  student  is  thus  exj^ected  to  get  a  complete  education,  both  theoret- 
ical and  practical,  in  all  that  pertains  to  horticulture. 


150  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

The  purpose  of  Hoheuliein  to  educate  large  land  owners,  ovei-seers, 

1  ^'      '     ■  ir  public  departmeuts,  &c..  in  agriculture  and  forestry,  is  thus 

ured  by  schools  for  ihe  ordinary  tarmer,  {aclccrban-schuie,)  and 

b\  sLou  speciarcourses  for  such  students  as  desire  to  devote  themselves 

to  some  one  department. 

Two  years  are  required  for  the  thorough  and  linished  course  in  eitlier 
forestiy  or  agriculture,  and  I  regaid  this  as  beuig  entiiely  too  little  time 
for  the  studies  embraced  in  the  course.  Yet  the  lectiu'ers  tieat  the  prin- 
cipal subjects  in  agiiculture  and  natiu^al  sciences  within  the  sjiace  of 
oue  year,  from  the  fact  tliat  many  students  cannot  remain  a  longer  time, 
and  thus  they  are  supposed  to  have  the  beueiit  of  a  complete  course  of 
lectures.  Tliis  cannot  be  undertaken  without  too  great  crowduig  of 
studies,  with  superficiality  as  the  result.  The  accessories  of  this  insti- 
tution, in  the  way  of  museums,  model  collections,  &c.,  are  excellent,  and 
the  apparatus  for  demonstrating  manufactT;ring  jirocesses  are  as  com- 
plete as  such  facilities  can  be  made  ui  an  isolated  situation,  where  they 
must  be  created  solely  for  the  purpose  of  demonstration.  In  such  cases 
the  progress  of  invention,  as  urged  on  by  the  necessities  of  competition 
in  actual  business,  cannot  be  fully  represented.  The  museums  consist 
of  model  collections  of  farming  implements.  macl4nes,  &c. :  of  Pro- 
fessor Fleischer's  mineralogical  collections:  well  arranged  geological 
collections :  collections  of  Viuieties  of  soils,  seeds,  and  herbs :  models  in 
pomology,  &c. ;  zoological  collections :  and  collections  of  native  woods, 
in  longitutUnal  and  cross  sections.  In  the  facilities  for  practical  or 
applied  chemistry  are  embraced  :  factories  for  beet-root  sugar,  brandy, 
starch,  ^onegar,  tiuit-drying,  new  wine,  a  beer  brewery.  «S:c.  The  sugar 
fabric  has  the  press  method  and  Dombasleschen  maceration  process, 
both  with  steam-heating.  It  is  in  operation  only  in  Xovember  and  De- 
cember. In  connection  with  it  is  an  arrangement  for  the  pi*eparation 
of  bone  coal.  The  beer  brewery  is  arranged  for  the  making  of  fifty  to 
seventy  e'uners*  of  beer  in  January  and  February,  after  different  methods. 
Brandy  is  j>repared  from  potatoes,  grain,  molasses,  and  brewery  resid- 
uum, one-half  d/w^r  daily;  th<^  time  of  operation  being  according  to 
the  needs  of  instruction.  The  managements  for  starch,  vinegar,  &c., 
lU'c  on  a  smaller  scale,  chiefly  for  the  pm-poses  of  demonstration.  The 
acriicultural  experimental  station  was  completed  in  186G  at  a  cost  of 
JJ.'.KIO  dorins,  and  embraces  experimental  stalls,  hot-houses,  and  experi- 
mental gardens  and  fields.  There  is  also  an  agi'icultural  machine  fac- 
tory, the  shops  now  being  let,  resei-ving  the  priAriiege  of  access  for  the 
-:"..l.'i::s.  '  The  entire  groimds  connected  v.ith  the  institution,  exclusive 
c'l  i^'icsis,  amount  to  971|  7«o?*/7e7i,  or  about  770  acres.  These  giounds 
may  be  looked  ui>on  as  experimental  land  on  a  large  scale  rather  than  as 
a  model  farm.  The  land  is  divided  as  follows  :  Tilled  land,  G15  morgen; 
meadow,  149^ ;  tree  nursery,  21f ;  experimental  fields,  29f  fi-uit-'tree 
nursery,  16|- ;  hop  garden,  \^  -,  botanical  garden,  14| :  vegetable  and 
liower  garden,  3g ;  vineyard,  "f ;  practice  field  for  students".  If :  Avoods 
or  spots  unfavorable  for  culture,  and  banks  of  streams.  11| :  bmltlings, 
11^ ;  roads,  ptisture,  and  sheep  range,  70^' ;  leased  part  of  the  estate  on 
account  of  unfavorable  situation,  14|. 

The  average  amount  of  live  stock  kept  is  sixteen  horses,  twenty  oxen 
in  the  hay  harvest,  eighty  to  one  hundred  cows,  and  six  hundi*ed  to  one 
thousand  sheep. 

There  are  in  this  institution  twenty  professors  and  teachers.  The  prin- 
ciple of  division  of  labor,  so  fruitful  in  good  results,  is  practiced.     The 

*An  cimer  in  Wiinemberg  is  70.59040  gallons. 


REPORT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    151 

professors,  therefore,  have  leisure  and  strength  for  scientific  investiga- 
tion and  experiments.  This  system  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended 
for  adoption  in  our  own  country. 

The  number  of  students  at  present  is  one  hundi-ed  and  twenty-five, 
and  the  aggi'egatc  numberfi-om  the  commencementabout  three  thousand 
six  hundred  and  fifty.  Prizes  are  given  among  the  students  for  the 
best  essays  on  agricidtural  subjects.  Examinations  during  the  term  or 
at  the  close  of  the  course  are  optional ;  certificates  are,  liowever,  granted 
only  to  tiiose  who  pass.  Wiutcmberg  students  of  forestry  must  undergo 
an  examination  before  admission.  Foreign  students  of  forestry  and  all 
students  of  agi'iculture  enter  without  such  conditions,  only  a  general 
fitness  for  the  understanding  of  the  lectures  being  required.  Occasional 
students  are  not  allowed  a  stay  of  more  than  four  weeks.  Cost  for 
residence  and  instruction  of  students :  For  foreigTiers,  thi-ee  hundred 
florins  for  the  first  year,  and  two  hundred  florins  for  the  second  year; 
for  students  of  the  country,  one  huntb-ed  florins  per  year.  Students  in 
forestry  :  For  foreigners,  two  hundred  florins;  for  natives,  sixty  florins. 

Connected  with  this  department  of  forestry  are  six  thousand  morgen 
of  forest,  exhibiting  all,  or  at  least  a  great  variety,  of  indigenous  trees, 
shrubs,  plants,  «S:c.,  with  twenty-five  morgen  for  exotics.  The  cultivation 
of  seeds  is  practiced  on  the  model  or  experimental  farm,  for  distribution 
among  the  farmers  of  the  kingdom. 

The  following  is  the  coui-se  of  study,  or  plan  of  lectures,  demonstra- 
tions, and  practical  exercises  in  the^  Eoyal  Wiirtemberg  Agiicultural 
and  Forestry  Academy  of  Hohenhein : 

Agricultural  course. — 1.  History  and  literature  of  agriculture ;  2.  Gen- 
eral field  and  plant  cidture,  iucludiug  the  drainage  of  land :  3.  Study  of 
agricultural  machinery  and  implements;  4.  Special  plant  culture,  in 
special  lectures  ;  5.  Hop  and  tobacco  culture ;  6.  Wine  culture ;  7.  Fruit 
culture ;  8.  Vegetable  culture ;  9.  Meadow  cidture ;  10.  General  breed- 
ing of  animals ;  11.  Horse  breeding :  12.  Exterior  of  horses,  in  special 
lectures;  13.  Cattle  breeding;  14.  Sheep  breeding ;  15.  Study  of  wools ; 
IC.  Breetliug  of  small  animals ;  17.  Silk-worm  cultiu^} ;  18.  Bee  culture; 
19.  Carrying  on  of  agriculture ;  20.  Agiicultural  taxation,  with  exer- 
cises in  drawing  agiicultural  plans;  21.  AgTicultural  bookkeeping; 
22.  Management  of-  the  Hohenhein  farm  ;  23.  Agricultural  technology. 

These  lectures  are  united  with  demonstradons  in  the  agricultural 
model  collections  of  machinery  and  tools,  wool  and  soil  collections,  on 
the  experimental  fields,  in  the  nurseries  and  ditferent  gardens,  among 
the  live  stock  of  the  farm,  in  the  technical  work  shops ;  also,  practical 
exercises  in  agricultui'al  taxation,  agTicultural  excui'sions,  &c.,  &:c. 

Forestry  course. — 1.  Encyclopedia  of  forestry,  with  paiticular  consid- 
eration of  the  allied  studies  of  forestry  and  agriculture;  2.  Forest 
botany ;  3.  Climate  and  soil  adapted  to  forestry ;  4.  Forest  culture ;  5. 
Protection  of  forests ;  C.  Use  of  forests  and  forest  technology;  7.  Valu- 
ation of  trees,  and  profits ;  8.  Forest  taxation ;  9.  Duration  of  forests ; 
10.  State  forests,  in  special  lectures ;  11.  Wiirtemberg  forest  laws ;  12. 
Business  in  connection  with  forestry ;  13.  Agricultural  encyclopedia 
for  foresters. 

Connected  with  this  course  are  demonstrations  in  different  forest 
sections,  the  botanical  garden,  and  forestry  collections,  as  well  as  prac- 
tical exercises  in  forestry  taxation,  excursions,  &c. 

Itudimentary  accessory  exercises. — 1.  Political  economy;  2.  Science  of 
law ;  3.  Mathematical  course,  including  arithmetic,  algebra,  planeometry, 
stereometry,  trigonometry,  practical  geometry.  Hereto  are  joined  reg- 
ular exercises  in  field  measurements  and  leveling;  4.  Natural  sciences, 


152  AGRICULTURAL   REPOET. 

includiufr  mechanics,  experimental  physics,  general  inorganic  chemistry, 
universal  organic  chemLstry,  agricultural  chemistry,  analytical  chem- 
istpy,  geognosy,  introduction  to  botany,  anatomy  and  physiology  of 
plants,  pathology  of  plants,  special  botany,  anatomy  and  physiology  of 
domestic  animals,  general  and  si»ecial  zoology,  microscopic  observations. 
Connected  with  these  studies  ai-e  practices  in  the  chemical  laboratory, 
demonstrations  in  the  gieen-houses  and  on  the  ex]ierimental  fields  of 
the  experimental  agiiculniral  station,  in  the  botanical  garden,  in  the 
botanical,  mineral ogical.  anatomical,  and  zoological  collections.  There 
:ire  also  botanical  and  geognostic  excursions ;  o.  Veteriuaiy  sciences, 
including  remetlies  and  receipts,  pathology  and  therapeutics  of  domestic 
animals,  aids  to  animals  in  giving  birth,  shoeing  animals,  and  veterinary 
clinical  demonstrations:  0.  Agricultural  architecture,  including  the 
drawing  of  plans. 

HIGH    SCHOOL,   OE    ACADKSIY   OF   AGEICULTUEE,   AT   TETSCHEN-LIEB- 

TTEED  BOHESnA. 

The  grade  of  this  school  is  that  of  a  higher  agricultural  and  industrial 
agricultural  academy.  The  instruction  is  in  German  and  Bohemian. 
The  first  two  years  are  devoted  to  general  agriculture,  and  the  third 
year  to  si>ecial  branches.  Lnstrucriou  by  lectures,  practice  in  fields  and 
tiie  manufactories  of  Tetschen  and  Bodenbach,  excursions,  fi'ee  conver- 
sational meerings  under  the  guidance  of  professors,  and  the  writing  of 
essays.  The  lectures  are  not  written  and  delivered,  but  spoken  freely, 
M-ith  opportunity  for  questions,  explanations,  and  illxLStrations.  Each 
subject  under  considerarion  is  neated  with  some  class  book  as  a  general 
basis  for  study  and  invesrigation.  Xotes  on  the  lectures  are  taken  by 
the  students.  Tuition  costs  sixty  florins  yearly.  The  lowest  age  of  ad- 
mission is  seventeen  years,  and  proofs  must  be  produced  of  the  applicant 
having  finished  the  course  of  the  under  gymnasium,  or  lower  "Eeal- 
school ;"  also,  of  some  practical  preparation  in  agricultui'e.  Number  of 
professors  and  teachers,  fifteen.  At  the  close  of  the  summer  term  of 
ISoS  there  were  one  hundred  students.  The  arrangements  of  the  Lnsti- 
tntion  are  for  the  admission  of  not  more  than  thirty  students  at  the  be- 
ginning of  each  year,  so  that  ninety  is  the  normal  ntmiber  of  students  in 
the  institution,  as  it  is  composed  of  three  classes.  Yearly  ten  thousand 
florins  have  l>een  received  fiom  government,  since  the  opening  of  the 
academy  in  1S66,  as  a  national  high  school :  previous  to  that  date,  two 
thousand  florins  yearly.  "Whole  area  of  the  farm,  1219.S  metzeji;*  leased, 
SiiSA  metzen  ;  leaving  S51.4  metzen  farmed  by  the  institution,  as  follows: 
Arable  land — rotation  of  crops.  582 ;  border  pasture  land,  20.7  ;  experi- 
mental fields,  3.4 ;  botanical  garden,  0.12 ;  grass-seed  school,  6.5  ;  ho]) 
garden,  0,13 :  meadow  land,  1G6 ;  boundaries,  roads,  &c.,  65.8. 

Other  accessories  to  improvements  exist  in  Tetschen,  open  to  the  stu- 
dents, as  the  beer  brewery,  flax  factory,  distillery,  beet  di-^ing,  fruit  dry- 
ing, vegetable  garden,  vineyard,  chemical  experimental  station,  forests, 
libmry,  philosophical,  chemical,  and  mathematical  apparatus,  mineral 
collection,  zoological  collection,  varieties  of  soil,  workshops  for  agricul- 
tural tools  and  small  machines,  cocoonery,  apiary,  &.Q. 

In  1S50  Tetschen-Liebwerd  was  established  as  an  agricultural  school 
for  the  i^easantry,  under  the  protection  of  Count  Thun,  on  the  farm 
Liebwerd,  given  by  him  for  the  puri>ose.  It  was  organized  on  a  plan  of 
Director  Komers,  who.  with  four  jirofessors  and  teachers,  constituted 

*  A  metze  is,  0.4733  of  an  acre. 


REPOKT  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    153 

tlie  facility.  This  was  the  first  agricultural  school  with  German  instruc- 
tion hi  Bohemia.  In  1856  it  was  reorganized  under  Director  Komers, 
with  a  higher  and  lower  department — the  courses  distinct.  The  higher 
department  received  from  the  lioyal  Economical  Society  a  gift  of  twenty- 
one  hundred  florins,  and  the  buildings  were  enlarged  at  the  cost  of  the 
Protector,  Coimt  Thun.  The  organization  of  the  experimental  station, 
under  Dr.  Th.  von  Gohreu,  took  place  in  18G4-'05.  The  formal  opening 
of  the  institution  as  a  high  school  of  the  Kingdom  of  Bohemia  was  in 
18(30.  There  is  an  examination  every  term,  with  classification  of  stu- 
dents. The  first  three  receive  prizes,  Vith  publicatioir  of  their  names. 
Particular  attention  is  called  in  the  report  to  the  need  of  occasional  travel 
by  representative  professors,  to  compare  the  operations  and  results  of 
other  institutions;  in  the  case  of  Dr.  von  Gohren,  whose  able  report  on 
Lichtenhof,  Weihenstephan,  Hohenhein,  and  Grignon,  was  the  result  of 
such  a  jom^ney. 

After  the  two  years'  general  study  of  agriculture,  there  is  a  di\ision  of 
the  third  year  into  four  courses:  1st.  General  administration  of  estates, 
with  rational  stock  raising ;  2d.  AgTicultural  technology,  sugar  making 
manufacture  of  brandy,  beer,  oil,  &c. ;  3d.  Agi'iciiltural  engmeering,  and 
science  of  reclamation  ;  4th.  Agricultural-industrial  improvements. 

In  the  second  year  the  students  are  divided  into  foiu-  classes,  in  the 
management  an(l  overseeing :  1st.  The  local  direction ;  2d.  Administra- 
t  ion  ;  3d.  Account  of  the  revenues ;  4th.  Natirral  accounts. 

The  first  year  they  are  busied  in  a  varied  manner,  in  house,  on  fields, 
&c.  Students  who  work  as  a  part  payment  are  allowed  thirty-eight  to 
forty  kreutzers.  The  soil  at  Liebwerd  is,  in  the  poilious  lying  in  the 
valleys,  hard  loam  ;  on  the  heights,  sandy  loam,  or  loamy  sand.  The 
working  of  the  soil  is  very  hard.  Climate  mild  and  damp.  Prevailing 
-^vinds  southeast,  northwest,  and  northeast.  In  September  fogs  often 
roll  into  the  vaUey  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  do  not  break 
away  until  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

IIOYAL  BAVARIAN  DISTRICT  SCHOOL  AT  LICHTENHOF. 

This  school  is  situated  near  Niu"emberg.  Its  grade  is  that  of  a  middle 
school,  embracing  three  institutions:  1st.  The  District  AgTicultural 
School;  2d.  The  Lower  Agricultural  School  for  peasantry;  3d.  The 
Preparatory  School.  The  character  of  instruction  is  general  agTicultm^e, 
with  rudiments  of  forestry ;  the  instruction  of  an  order  to  prepare  scholars 
ibr  the  management  of  small  or  moderate  estates  as  owners  or  over- 
seers, or  to  enter  the  higher  agricultural  school  at  Weihenstephan,  or 
th(^.  Central  Veterinary  School  at  Munich,  or  for  entrance  upon  a  course 
of  universal  practical  forestry. 

The  full  cost  of  tuition  is  oiie  hundred  florins,  yearly,  for  scholars  un- 
der thirteen  years ;  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  florins  for  tliose  from 
thirteen  to  sixteen  years;  one  hundred  and  fifty  florins  for  all  pupils 
over  sixteen  years — ^living  included.  Twelve  years  is  the  lowest  age  for 
admission.  The  course  embraces  a  period  of  three  years.  There  are  two 
courses  :  1st.  District  school  course,  inclusive  of  the  preparatory  course, 
Avhen  students  are  not  fitted  for  immediate  entrance;  2d.  The  coiu-se  in 
the  lower  school,  for  peasantry. 

The  number  of  professors  and  teachers  is  ten ;  number  of  scholars  last 
year,  eighty-three.  The  buildings  will  accommodate  one  hundred  scholars. 
The  institution  has  the  rents  of  the  Maximihan  foundation  or  establish- 
ment. This  consists  of  the  estates  Lichendorf  and  Gibitzhof,  which  are 
given  for  the  use  and  purposes  of  the  institution,  and  the  income  from 


154  AGEICULTUBAL  P.EPOET. 

them  for  free  scbolarsliips  for  i)Oor  students.  All  rents  and  a  subsidy 
r  '     district  •  .  funds,  with  private  ^ts,  amouDt  to  from  four 

.  to  six  tl  or  even  eight  thousand  florins  yearly.    Con- 

necicu  \nth  the  sijiiuui  are  an  exi>erimental  farm,  vegetable  garden, 
botanical  gard*-n.  and  a  tree  school.  The  experiments  with  superphos- 
])liate  have,  to  their  reports,  resulted  unfavorably  in  beet  cul- 

ture, but  the  •  nt  will  be  continued  for  further  resojts. 

This  school  opeutrd  in  1833,  with  twelve  students ;  at  present  there  are 
ninety-six.  Wliole  number  from  commencement,  six  hundred.  The  sub- 
sidy from  the  province  is  seven  thousand  to  eight  thousand  florins  yearly. 
The  receipts  of  the  agricultural  journal,  -'Lichtenhofer  Blatter,"  go 
toward  the  establishment  of  free  scholarships.  The  students  form  three 
classes :  Those  who  pay  full  tuition  and  board ;  those  admitted  at  reduced 
prices ;  and  free  scholars.  The  farm  is  situated  in  the  "  Knoblancksland ;" 
the  subsoil  coarse-grained  quartz  sand,  ^nth  beds  or  layers  of  clay  run- 
ning through  it.  One  peculiar  physical  feature  of  thLs  district  is  the 
frequent  presence  of  water  at  a  depth  of  three  to  five  feet,  which  in  many 
places  prevents  the  ui>e  of  suljterranean  cellars.  Liebig's  doctiine  of  the 
absorptive  capacity  of  arable  lantl  finds  here  a  striking  confirmation, 
where  the  soil  Ls  of  marshy  and  sandy  earth,  mixed  through  culture  with 
a  mass  of  manure  stufls,  chiefly  mineral.  The  wi-iter  believes  that  the 
^cret  of  fmitfobiess  of  this  regiofi  consists  in  the  mixing  of  mar.-ihy 
and  sandy  sod.  otherwise  he  cannot  account  for  rhe  less  favorable  results 
of  the  same  experiments  in  preparation  and  manuring  of  the  soil  upon 
adjacent  sand  fields.  Only  the  result  of  more  than  one  thousand  years' 
alternating  jdant  growth  with  theii-  decay  could  be  at  the  bottom  of  this 
fertility.  The  i)rincipal  experiments  are  in  raising  fodder  and  trade 
crops,  fruit-tree  cuitiu-e,  various  modes  of  manuring,  bee  raising,  and 
crossing  of  different  breeds  of  cattle.  The  soil  is  cultivated  to  a  depth 
of  oHe  and  a  half  to  three  feet,  with  frequent  manuiing  at  almost  every 
plowing. 

WEEHEXSTEPH^JN'  EOYAL   BATATITAN   CE:>'TEAE  SCHOOL. 

This  school  is  situated  at  Weiheustephan.  near  Treising.  Its  grade  is 
that  of  a  high  school  of  agxicultnre.  The  character  of  instruction  is 
agiiculture,  forestry,  aud  stock  raising.  The  full  cost  of  tuition  for 
Bavarians  is  twenty-five  florins  half  yearly;  for  all  others,  fifty  florins 
for  first  half  year,  aud  twenty-five  florins  for  second  half  year.  Sixteen 
years  is  the  age  for  admission.  The  course  covers  a  period  of  two  years. 
In  connection  with  the  usual  course  are,  1st,  a  practical  preparatory 
course  of  one  year;  2d,  a  brewery  school  of  one  year;  3d,  fruit  cidture 
course  of  two  or  three  years;  4th,  trial  station  for  agricultural  machines 
and  tools.  Xumber  of  professors  and  teachers;,  thirteen;  number  ot 
pupils,  sixty,  (twenty-two  in  regidar  course,  seventeen  in  technical  course, 
sixteen  iu  preparatory,  five  occasional.) 

The  royal  estate  Weihenstephau,  with  seven  hundred  and  ten  tugicei"- 
len  (about  four  hundred  and  twenty  joc/te**)  of  meadow  land  fields  and 
turt  iund,  belongs  to  the  school.  The  following  may  l>e  mentioned  among 
the  accessories :  Fitty-.'^even  cows,  four  hundred  sheep,  swine — number 
variable — botanical  garden,  hop  garden,  apothecary  for  veterinary  sur- 
gery, brewery,  rlistiUery,  brick-kiln,  lime-kdn,  cheese  dairy,  fishery,  turf- 
cutting  field,  chemical  laboratory,  library. 

The  institution  was  founded  in  ISoU.  "Weilienstephan  was  a  Benedic- 
tuie  cloister,  established  in  725.    The  exijenses  of  students  are :  Winter 

A  jock  ia  1.4223  acres. 


EEPOET  ON  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IX  EUROPE.    155 

term.  Bavarian  students,  for  tuition  and  boarding,  including  single 
room,  fire,  lights,  washiug,  service,  and  use  of  reading-room,  ninety-five 
florins ;  Mhen  two  smdents  use  a  double  room,  tlie  expense  to  eacli  is 
eighty  florins.  For  the  same  items  the  cost  to  foreign  students  is  one 
himm-ed  and  twents'  florins  for  single,  and  one  hiimU'ed  and  five  florins 
for  double  room.  Summer  term,  Bavarian  students,  single  room,  fifty 
florins,  (including  above  particulars,)  and  double  room  forty-five  florins; 
foreign  students,  seventy -five  and  seventy  florins.  The  second  year's 
exj^enses  for  foreigners  and  native  students  are  the  same,  the  former 
being  rednced  to  the  same  plane  as  the  latter.  The  entire  expense  for 
the  one  year  preparatory  course  is  three  huudred  florin-s.  In  the  brevrery 
school  one  hundred  florins  for  practical  instiTiCtion  during  the  winter 
term,  and  eighty  for  the  summer  term,  are  charged.  Tuition  in  the  frtiit- 
cidture  course,  forty  florins  yearly.  Under  this  head  mention  is  made  of 
pa\ing  students  Tvho  choose  to  labor :  twenty-four  kreutzers  per  day  in 
the  first  year;  later,  more  is  paid,  according  to  their  ability. 
'  In  sheep  raising  the  Southdown  bucks  have  been  crossed  with  merino, 
and  the  resuJt  promises  well.  The  raising  of  the  piu-e  merino  sheep  is 
also  an  object  here.  Four  hundred  sheep  and  lambs  sheared  gave  eight 
hundi'ed  and  six  pounds  of  wool.  Experiments  have  been  made  in 
Liebig's  substitute  for  mother's  milk  in  raising  calves.  Also  in  the  use 
of  gTeater  quantities  of  malt  germs  in  the  raising  of  young  cattle.  Great 
efforts  are  being  made  to  discover  the  proper  i)roportion  of  nourishment 
containing  niti'ogen,  and  that  without  nitrogen,  for  gTOwn  sheep.  The 
stuToimding  woods,  evergreen  and  *■  needle,"  are  used  for  practical 
exi)eriments  and  instruction. 

AGEICUXTUEAL  CHIDnCAL  EXPEEDIENTAL  STATIONS. 

I  regard  the  work  these  stations  are  accomplishing,  both  for  scientific 
and  practical  af;Ticultiu-e  iu  Germany,  as  being  of  the  very  highest  im- 
l^ortauce.  They  cannot,  however,  supersede  or  even  precede  the  work 
of  the  agricultui-al  college.  First  of  all  we  must  have  thoroughly  edu- 
cated men  (educated  technically  in  agricultiu*e)  to  conduct  these  stations. 
As  soon  as  agTicultural  colleges  can  produce  competent  men,  the  more 
experimental  stations  vre  can  have  the  better.  The  following  remarks, 
taken  fi'om  a  sketch  of  this  work  by  Dr.  Theod.  von  Gohren,  will  show 
something  of  the  history,  progress,  and  economy  of  these  stations  in 
Germany : 

"  The  year  1S40  (the  date  of  the  publication  of  Liebig's  Chemistry) 
was  the  birth  year  of  scientific  agriculttu-e.  Liebig's  book  was  the  seed 
from  v\-hich  already  such  wondrous  growths  have  been  qtiickened. 
Adolph  Stockhardt,  of  Tharand,  is  the  man  who.  by  ceaseless  efforts  in 
chtbs,  schools,  and  experimental  stations,  has  done  most  to  prepare  the 
soil  for  the  reception  of  this  seed  of  truth.  The  question  early  arose  as 
to  the  means  of  linking  men  of  science  with  the  masses.  What  method 
woidd  best  convey  the  fertilizing  streams  of  scientific  knowledge  through 
channels  and  ducts  to  the  people  ?  Stockhardt  and  others  saw.  in  the 
establishment  of  chemical-agriculture  experimental  stations,  a  means. 
The  first  private  experimental  farm  in  Germany  was  established  by 
Boussingault,  iu  Bachelbronn ;  but  the  first  true  ex])erimental  starlon 
was  founded  in  Ibol,  in  Mockern.  In  Prague,  an  experimental  station 
was  founded  by  the  Bohemian  Eoyal  Economic  Society  in  ISoo,  tuider 
the  <listinguished  guidance  of  Dr.  Hofiiuian,  which  is  still  in  active 
operation. 

"In  ]\Iahi'en  an  experimental  station  was  foimded  in  Blansko,  on  the 


156  AGEICULTU1LA.L   REPORT. 

estate  of  Priaco  Salni.  by  the  Koyal  Sclileswig:  Agxicutiiral  Society  in 
1856,  but  it  was  dLscon tinned  in  1864.  In  1855  an  experimental  Ktation 
wa-s  established  in  the  most  munificent  manner  by  Prince  Johann  Adolpb 
von  Schwarzenberg,  in  Lobositz,  a  private  enteri^rise,  but  connected  with 
it  were  Dr.  Hannamann  and  Dr.  Breitenlohner,  highly  distinguished  in 
their  respective  departments.  Quite  recently,  Carl  Maximilian,  Count 
von  Seilem,  the  well-known  author  of  '  Nourishment  of  Plants, '  has 
established  an  experimental  station  upon  his  estate,  Piilep,  in  Miihren. 
Finally,  in  Bohemia  mu.>t  recognition  be  made  of  the  activity  of  the 
exi>erimental  station  connected  with  the  academy  of  Tetschen-Liebwerd. 
In  1SC6  the  number  of  stations  in  operation  in  Germany  was  twenty- 
eight. 

"  The  first  chapters  in  the  history  of  experimental  stations  is  a  record 
of  discouragements,  injustice,  and  partial  failure.  The  development  of 
such  an  enterj^rise  must  necessarily  be  slow,  and  the  practical  results 
not  immediate.  But,  not  considering  the  series  of  years  needed  for  ex- 
periments, the  public  exacted  speedy  and  marvelous  results.  Failing  in 
these,  the  scheme  was  denounced  as  a  failure,  and  popular  sympathy 
and  support  withdrawn ;  nor  did  the  strife  of  the  agricultural  chemists 
among  themselves  tend  to  raise  their  authority  in  the  eyes  of  the  prac- 
tical. For  a  rime  the  starions  seemed  to  be  in  a  hopeless  condition 
because  of  this  distrust.  !Now,  exj^erimental  starions  stand  recognized 
in  the  first  line  in  the  service  of  science.  It  is  less  than  tkiee  decades 
since  agriculture  took  its  rank  among  sciences.  Its  first  purpose  must 
be,  as  in  the  case  of  every  other  science,  the  discovery  of  truth ;  theu 
adaptation  of  that  truth  to  pracrical  ends. 

"  The  most  pernicious  foes  of  science  are  those  who  constantly  demand 
the  useful,  and  ignore  all  truth,  the  immediate  marketable  value  of 
which  is  not  evident.  Eeverence  for  truth  must  so  fill  the  minds  of 
scientific  workers  that  a  false  description  of  the  most  insignificant  plant 
would  be  felt  as  much  a  rejjroach  as  a  false  description  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem. Simple,  pure  truth  must  be  the  end  of  all  naturalists.  Science 
<ran  never  accejjt  as  her  task  the  discovery  of  what  we  wish,  but  the 
iliscovery  of  what  is  true ;  and  never  can  the  welfare  of  mankind  be 
attained  by  even  the  pleasantest  illusion,  except  through  the  complete 
and  simple  truth. 

"  These  stations  are  working  great  practical  good  to  agriculture ;  and 
in  the  future  the  results  will  be  more  marked.  Their  task  is  threefold — 
to  seek,  to  teach,  and  to  warn. 

"A  few  statistics  will  show  the  results  of  knowing  the  elements  of  the 
soil,  the  nature  of  manures,  &c.  In  Belgium,  where  agricultiire  is  most 
rationally  pursued,  a  square  mile  produces  means  of  nourishment  for 
7.345  persons,  whereas  the  Polish  three-field  farming  produces  food  for 
only  2,229  persons  per  square  mile.  Therefore  the  Belgians  are  better 
nourished  than  the  Poles,  though  the  country  of  the  latter  is  more 
fruitful  by  nature.  Great  Britain,  in  the  commencement  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  produced  grain  for  eleven  millions :  now,  for  at  least 
.seventeen  millions.  Still  the  results  of  searching  out  the  secrets  of  na- 
ture are  chiefly  in  the  future.  The  most  important  questions  look  to 
future  experiments  for  their  answer. 

'*  In  regard  to  animal  productions,  the  results  of  scientific  farming 
are  not  less  marked.  Austria  produces  on  one  square  mile  3,796  head 
of  stock;  Prussia,  within  the  same  limits,  5,537;  France,  5.970 ;  Great 
Britain.  11,447.  -?    '       ? 

"Added  to  the  questions  of  ijlant  and  animal  production  is  that 
scarcely  less  imponant  one  of  agriciutural  industrial  manufactories,  as 


REPORT  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.    157 

breweries,  distilleries,  refineries,  imd,  above  all,  siij^ar  raa.uufactories. 
There  is  a  rumor  of  a  prospective  undertaking  in  Hungary  in  behalf  of 
the  beet-root  sugar  interest,  viz.,  the  establishment  of  a  manufactory 
M'ith  large  experimental  rooms  attached.  It  is  intended  to  be  a  com- 
plete sugar  manufactory,  with  accommodations  for  fifty  students  from 
various  parts  of  Austria.  These  students  wdl  have  the  advantages  of  a 
large  manufactory  in  operation,  and  opportunities  for  study  aiul  exi)eri- 
ment.  The  intention  is  to  establish  it  under  government  patronage : 
the  whole  concern,  after  a  stipulated  number  of  years,  to  belong  to  the 
nation,  in  consideration  of  a  yearly  subsidy  from  government  to  assist 
in  carrying  out  its  purposes  during  this  interval. 

"The  second  duty  of  experimental  stations  is  to  teach,  or  to  convej''  to 
the  people,  the  advantages  deducible  from  study  and  experiment;  to 
make  possible  the  practical  adaptation  of  the  theoretical  truth  discovered. 

"The  third  duty  is  to  warn  ;  to  be  the  people's  true  knight,  fighting 
oft'  from  them  falsehood  and  trickery.  In  the  one  field  of  adulterated 
and  worthless  maniu'es  are  sufficient  opportunities  for  science  to  expose 
and  defeat  impostiu^es. 

"The  locations  of  experimental  stations  is  now  the  subject  of  much 
<liscussion.  They  were  first  established* on  isolated  estates,  generally 
remote  from  great  cities,  chiefly  because  scientific  land  owners  offered  the 
land  and  certain  assistance  to  such  enterprises.  Now,  however,  the  ne- 
cessity for  locating  them  near  large  cities,  and  in  connection  with  acad- 
emies and  imiversities,  is  urged.  The  ground  for  such  change  is  two- 
fold :  the  necessity  of  full  apparatus  for  experiment,  and  an  increase  of 
the  staff  of  scientific  worlcers.  At  isolated  stations  the  investigations 
must  be  chiefly  chemical,  as  a  chemist  is  in  charge,  generally  without 
allied  workers  in  other  departments  of  natural  science,  and  the  means 
for  experiments  are  generallj'-  such  as  a  chemical  laboratory  can  furnish; 
but  scientific  agTiculture  calls  for  aid  from  mineralogy,  geognosy,  phys- 
ics, physiology  of  plants,  physiology  of  animals,  &c.  Such  union 
of  strength  can  at  present  only  be  reached  for  experimental  stations 
when,  by  connection  with  academies  or  universities,  they  have  the  co-op- 
eration of  the  entire  faculties  of  such  institutions.  If  means  were  unlim- 
ited, agTicidtTU'al  stations,  however  isolated,  might  command  such  corps 
of  workers ;  but  while  the  investments  for  experimental  stations  are  so 
small,  only  their  union  with  institutions  can  sufficiently  broaden  their 
scope.  Again,  in  isolated  localities,  only  such  students  as  make  practi- 
cal agricultural  chemistry  a  specialty  could  tiu-n  aside  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  advantages  of  such  stations.  Allied  to  institutions,  the 
advantage  is  reciprocal :  the  station  drawing  strength  ii^om  the  faculty 
and  apparatus  of  the  institution,  and  the  students  of  the  high-school  or 
university  having  access  to  all  the  records  and  participation  in  the  ex- 
l)eriments  of  the  station.  Considering  the  meager  expenditure  upon 
experimental  stations,  the  results  upon  the  agriculture  of  the  country 
have  been  most  remarkable.  Within  this  decade  they  have  cost,  at 
highest,  forty  thousand  thalers,  hardly  enough  to  maintain  a  company 
of 'soldiers  for  the  same  length  of  time ;  and  yet  with  this  paltry  outlay 
they  are  expected  to  revolutionize  the  agricidtiu-e  of  Germany. 

"More  important  than  the  place  chosen  for  experimental  stations  is 
the  working  capital  at  theii'  command.     Only  with  a  liberal  outlay  of 
money  and  time  can  liberal  results  be  reached.    Kot  lightly  does  nature 
allovr  man  to  wrest  the  seal  from  her  ti'easury  of  secrets." 
I  remain,  most  truly,  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  H.  McCHESNEY. 

Hon.  HoKACE  Gapkon,  Commissioner. 


REPORT  ON  BEET  SUGAR  IN  EUROPE. 


Sm :  In  obedience  to  yoiir  request,  I  present  a  few  statements  show- 
ing the  progress  and  condition  of  the  beet-sugar  enterprise  iu  Europe, 
after  personal  iuvcstigation  of  the  operations  of  each  establishment. 

The  time  when  sugar  first  became  known  in  Europe  cannot  be  stated 
with  any  certainty,  but  the  statements  of  various  authors,  such  as  Theo- 
phrastus,  Plinius,  Paulus  ^gineta,  and  others,  leave  no  doubt  that  cane 
iuice,  boiled  to  siru]).  was  kuown,  and  used  as  a  medicine  by  the  most 
ancient  people.  Still  earlier,  the  art  of  making  sugar  appears  to  have 
been  known  by  the  Chinese,  Alexander  von  IlumboUlt  having  seen 
Chinese  paintiugs  on  porcelain  of  gTcat  age  representing  various  meth- 
ods of  working  sugar  cane  and  extracting  its  juice.  Asia  undoubtedly 
is  the  mother  country  of  sugar,-whence  it  was  fii'st  brought  by  the  Turks 
to  C\-prns,  in  the  ninth  and  iu  the  eleventh  century ;  also  to  Khodes, 
Sicily,  and  Crete,  and  probably  all  around  the  Mediterranean-,  thence  by 
the  crusaders,  especially  by  the  Venetians,  to  the  more  western  coim- 
tries.  Later,  perhaps  in  the  fifteenth  centuiy,  it  found  its  way  over 
Madeii-a  and  the  Canary  Islands  to  Brazil;  and,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
to  the  West  India  Islands.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  cultivation  of 
sugar  cane  on  a  large  scale  was  first  introduced  into  America,  and 
especially  into  the  West  Indies,  by  the  Euro])eans. 

The  fii'st  importation  of  sugar  into  Eiu'ope  which  is  particularly  known 
was  in  the  year  OOG,  into  Venice.  In  the  year  1311)  the  Venetians  brought 
a  cargo  of  100,000  pounds  of  sugar  and  1(J,000  ])ounds  of  rock  candy  to 
London.  The  tii'St  sugar  refinery  on  the  continent  of  Eiu'ope  was  built 
in  Augsburg,  in  the  year  1373,  by  a  man  named  Roth.  Another  was 
built  in  Dresden,  in  the  year  1597.  While  in  its  early  days  sugar  was 
found  only  in  ai)Othecaries'  shops,  and  used  as  a  mediciae,  it  is  counted 
now  among  the  provisions,  and  has  become  a  necessity  second  only  to 
meat  and  dour. 

The  lirst  discovery  of  beet  sugar  was  made  the  3d  of  ]March,  1747,  by 
the  Prussian  chemist  Margraaf,  (Andrea  Sigismund,)  director  of  the 
philosophical  section  of  the  Academy  of  Science  at  Berlin,  who  read,  at 
its  general  meeting,  an  essay,  in  which  he  proved  the  existence  of  cane 
sugar  iu  many  home-giown  roots.  He  stated  that  the  most  sugar  v.-as 
to  be  found  in  the  Silesiau  beet,  produced  samples,  and  specified  the 
method  by  which  he  had  obtained  them,  and  proved  it  not  oidy  ])racti- 
cable,  but  remunerative,  to  produce  beet  sugar  on  a  large  scale.  It  will 
be  borne  in  mind  that  this  was  during  a  time  of  war,  when  the  ordinary 
means  of  transportation  were  interrupted  and  money  for  importations 
was  scarce,  in  consequence  of  which  sugar  was  high;  but,  as  soon -as 
peace  was  restored,  sugar  prices  went  down,  and  the  gieat  interest  taken 
in  producing  it  at  home  died  out. 

No  sooner,  however,  had  war  commenced  again,  than  tlie  subject  of 
beet  sugar  production  was  resumed.  Shortly  after  1790,  Achard  built 
on  an  estate  (Cunem)  in  Silesia,  which  the  King  of  Prussia  had  pre- 
sented to  him  for  the  pur^iose,  the  first  beet-sugar  factory.  In  this  fac- 
tory he  worked,  supported  by  the  Prussian  government  and  under  the 
observation  of  a  government  ofiicer,  7.000  pounds  of  beets  per  day,  from 


REPORT  ON  BEET  SUGAR  IN  EUROPE.  159 

whicli  he  obtained  six  per  cent,  of  raw,  or  five  per  cent  of  white  sugar. 
In  November,  1799,  Van  Mons  caused  a  letter  to  be  published  in  the  Au- 
nales  de  Chimiej  written  by  Achard,  in  which  he  described  the  results 
obtained  in  his  sugar  works  at  Cunern.  He  states  the  cost  price  of  raw 
sugar  to  be  5.4  cents  per  pound  English,  (65  centimes*  per  kllw/ram,\) 
besides  the  beet  pulp,  beet  leaves,  and  molasses  5  the  former  lie  used 
for  fattening  cattle,  and  the  molasses  for  making  alcohol. 

These  residts  caused  a  gTeat  sensation  in  France.  All  the  newspapers 
republished  them.  The  enormously  high  price  which  sugar  commanded 
after  France  had  abolished  slavery  in  her  colonies  was  the  reason  why 
the  National  Institute  of  France  appointed  a  chemist  of  great  celebrity 
to  examine  this  new  process  and  rej^ort  upon  it.  M.  Deyeux  made  his 
report  in  1800,  and,  although  he  considered  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  beet-sugar  industry  overestimated,  two  experimental  factories  were 
<5stabhshed  near  Paris — one  at  St.  Eouen,  the  other  in  the  old  abbey 
of  Chelles.  Neither  of  the  two  reached  results  which  could  be  compared 
with  those  of  Achard,  and  were,  therefore,  closed  again,  and  for  a  long 
time  were  the  laugliing-stock  of  those  who  knew  of  them.  Meantime,  two 
new  factories  had  been  built  in  Germany,  one  by  the  Baron  von  Koppy, 
in  Silesia,  the  other  by  the  celebrated  Mathusius,in  Althaldensleben,  near 
Magdeburg.  The  publicity  given  to  the  results  obtained  by  the  tlu-ee 
German  beet-sugar  factories  di-ew  anew  the  attention  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment to  the  subject,  and  new  trials  were  made  in  1810  l)y  Deyeux  and 
Derosne,  and  in  1811  by  Barrud  and  Isnard,  with  the  German  method 
of  extracting  the  sugar  from  the  beet,  and  the  result  obtained  proved 
more  satisfactory.  The  war  which  deA-astated  Germany  during  181.3, 
1814,  and  1815  left  the  country  in  an  exhausted  condition,  from  which  it 
did  not  recover  for  many  years.  Industry  in  general  was  paralyzed,  and 
no  eilbrts  were  made  to  perfect  the  system  of  sugar-making.  It  was  dif- 
ferent, however,  in  France.  The  new  impulse  giveri  to  chemistry  and  engi- 
neering showed  its  effect  on  the  sugar  factories,  which  were  considerably 
improved,  one  of  the  principal  improvements  being  the  use  of  animal  char- 
coal. In  1828  one  hundred  and  three  factories  were  making  beet  sugar 
in  France^  producing  three  thousand  three  hundred  tons  of  sugar,  and 
during  the  year  183(j-'37,  hfty-five  thousand  tons ;  but,  in  consequence  of 
a  tax  being  levied  on  it,  the  production  feU  the  following  year  to  twenty- 
five  thousand  tons. 

The  beet-sugar  production  in  Germany  or  in  the  ZoUverein  made  little 
progi'ess  till  1830,  but  it  has  since  reached  such  dimensioDS  that  it  not 
only  supplies  the  home  demand,  and  prevents  cane  sugar  from  coming 
into  competition,  but  has  become  a  regular  article  of  export,  competing 
in  the  English  and  the  Dutch  markets  T\'ith  the  sugar  of*  the  tropics. 
The  table  (A)  shows  the  enormous  dimensions  which  the  beet-sugar 
industry  has  attained  during  the  period  between  183G  and  1SG7.  Of  the 
one  himcfred  and  twenty -two  factories  in  operation  in  1836,  ninety  belonged 
to  Prussia  and  thirty-two  to  the  various  other  states  of  the  Zollverein. 
During  the  year  1866-'67  two  hundred  and  ninety-six  factorial  were 
engaged  in  making  beet  sugar,  two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  of  wliich 
were  located  in  Prussia  and  its  provinces,  while  only  tiiirty-ninc  were  in 
the  other  states  of  the  Zollverein.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  facto- 
ries has  been  almost  exclusively  in  Prussia,  where  its  number  was  trebled 
during  thirty-two  years.  The  tax  levied  on  beet  sugar  in  1840-'41,  of 
0.575  cents  per  centnerX  of  green  beets,  diminished  the  whole  number 

*  Centime,  §0.00192.  iEUogram,  2.204737  pounds, 

t  Centner,  (Prussian,)  113.44  pounds. 


160  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

of  working  sugar-factories  from  one  liiiiidred  and  fifty-two  to  one  hun- 
dred and  tbrty-tive ;  in  ISl^-'-to  the  tax  was  doubled,  when  the  number 
was  reduced  to  ninety-eight  factories. 

The  small  and  iioorly-constructed  establishments  could  not  compete 
with  the  new  and  larger  ones,  nor  with  the  cane-sugar  refineries,  the 
proprietors  of  which  strained  every  nerve  to  drive  beet  sugar  out  of  the 
market,  and  the  former,  therefore,  had  to  suspend  work.  Although,  in 
lS43-'-4-l,  factories  were  at  work  again,  the  number  was  reduced  to  ninety- 
eight  the  next  year,  and  to  ninety-six  in  the  following  year,  the  tax  hav- 
ing been  again  increased.  Since  1846-'4:7  the  production  has  taken  a 
decided  start,  the  number  of  factories  having  grown  from  year  to  year, 
and  they  emaucijjated  themselves  from  the  cane-sugar  refineries  by  pro 
ducing  "either  molasses  or  white  loaf-sugar  direct  from  the  beet  juice, 
without  lu'st  working  it  into  raw  sugar ;  so  that  when,  in  1S50-'51,  the 
tax  on  beet  sugar  was  again  doubled,  it  did  not  prevent  new  factories 
from  being  built.  - 

While  the  number  of  sugar  factories  increased,  the  quantity  of  the  beet 
worked  by  the  same  increased  in  a  far  greater  ratio.  It  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  that  official  figures  have  been  kept  only  since  1840-'41, 
when  records  were  commenced  on  account  of  the  tax  to  be  levied,  and 
comparisons  should  be  made  only  of  years  included  in  the  official  figures. 
Accordingly,  the  columns  2  and  3,  table  A,  show  that  during  the  twenty- 
seven  years  from  IS-iO-'il  to  lS66-'67  the  number  of  working  factories 
increased  from  one  hundred  and  forty-five  to  two  hundred  and  ninety- 
six,  making  an  increase  of  about  one  hundred  and  four  per  cent., 
while  the  Cjuantity  of  beets  worked  in  these  factories  increased  from 
4,829,734  cwts.  (of  one  hundred  pounds)  to  50,712,709  cwts.,  making  an 
increase  of  nine  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent.  Of  course  the  quantity 
of  beets  worked  by  each  factory  must  have  increased  in  proportion, 
as  may  be  seen  by  column  15,  table  A,  according  to  which  each  fac- 
tory worked,  on  an  average,  in  1836-'37,  4,155  cwts.,  or  227  English 
tons ;  in  1840-41,  33,309 ;  while  in  lS66-^'67  the  high  average  of 
171,327  was  reached.  The  variations  in  columns  3  and  15  of  table 
A  are  the  results  of  unfavorable  beet  crops.  According  to  column  8, 
table  A,  the  internal  revenue  or  tax  paid  on  the  beets  has  increased 
from  a  quarter  of  a  cent  to  seven  and  a  half  cents,  or  thirty-fold,  while 
the  actual  revenue  derived,  as  given  in  column  9,  has  increased  fi-om 
40,248  thalers*  to  12,678,177  thalers,  or  nearlv  three  hundred  and  fifteen 
fold. 

These  averages  are  correct  according  to  the  best  authorities,  and  go  to 
show  the  enormous  progi'css  made  not  only  in  manufactming  beet  sugar, 
but  in  cultiwituig  and  producing  beets.  It  is  obvious  that  the  great 
variation  in  the  average  weather  of  the  various  years  necessarily  ac- 
counts for  the  variations  of  percentage  of  sugar  and  foreigTi  matter  in 
the  beets,  and  the  more  or  less  difficidt  working  of  the  same. 

The  systems  of  taxation  in  the  different  countries  iniiuence  the  gen- 
eral result  in  many  particulars.  In  Prussia,  or  the  Zollverein,  the  beets 
are  washed  and  trimmed,  and  then  weighed  by  government  officials, 
and  the  revenue  collected  according  to  the  quantity  which  enters  the 
factory.  From  that  moment  the  sugar  manufactiu^er  is  at  liberty  to 
work  at  will,  the  government  taking  no  notice,  or  at  least  not  interfer- 
ing, no  matter  how  rich  the  beets,  or  how  much  or  what  kmd  of  sugar 
is  made;  in  fact,  leaving  him  entirely  free  to  do  with  the  beets  as  he  may 
please,  except  working  them  into  alcohol. 

*  A  thaler  is  about  73  cents. 


REPORT  ON  BEET  SUaAR  IN  EUROPE. 


161 


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162  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

In  France  the  g^oveniraent  begins  it«  control  as  soon  as  t»lie  beet  juice 
is  exti'acted,  weighing  its  specific  gravity  in  the  claiifying  pau,  and  trom 
that  inomeut  keejis  a  continual  supervision  ot'  ibe  whole  process  ol 
sugar  making,  until  the  sugar  leaves  the  entrepot  or  bonded  warehouse, 
and  enters  into  con.sumption.  The  nnnoyances  incidental  to  this  system 
are  innumerable  and  continuous. 

in  Austria  the  system  of  taxation  i'?  regidated  accortling  to  the  dif- 
ferent methods  of  extracting  the  juice,  and  the  capacity  of  the  machines 
employed  for  the  purj^ose.  The  quantity  of  beets  which  could  be  worked 
with  each  machine  for  extinttiug  juice  is  computed  for  twenty -four 
hours,  and  '•  lumped,''  which  is  called  "  pauschaling.''  The  government 
keeps  no  other  control  than  noting  the  number  of  hydraulic  presses  or 
other  machines  wliich  work  each  day,  acconling  to  their  rating,  allowing 
for  no  stoppages,  unless  a  machine  stops  at  least  twenty-sLs  hoius.  This 
system  of  taxation  bears  miovenly  upon  diliereut  factories,  and  is  the 
cause  of  the  secrecy  observed  in  some  of  them  as  to  general  results. 

In  llussia,  when  new  factories  are  built,  they  work  for  a  certain  time 
on  trial,  under  the  contiol  of  government  officials,  after  which  a  quan- 
tity is  agreed  upon,  which  the  factory  works  in  twenty-four  hours,  and 
the  amount  of  revenue  which  it  ought  to  pay  accordingly.  Otherwise 
tlie  government  takes  no  notice  of  what  is  produced  in  any  factory,  and 
no  official  records  are  kept. 

In  Belgiimi  the  system  is  like  that  of  Fi'ance  in  nearly  every  resi^ect, 
and  in  Poland  it  is  the  same  as  in  Eussia. 

The  intlnence  of  tlrese  different  systems  of  taxation  on  the  manage- 
ment of  sugar  works,  and  even  on  the  culture  of  the  beet,  is  surprising. 
In  the  ZoUverein,  where  eighteen  cents  must  be  x>iiitl  to  the  govern- 
ment for  every  centner  of  beets  worked,  a  gi'eat  deal  of  attention  is  paid 
to  the  production  of  rich  beets,  by  reason  of  which  the  quabty  has 
been  steadily  improving.  Beets  are  seldom  raised  on  newly  manured 
l;.ud;  as  a  general  rule  the  mannre  is  applied  to  a  graiu  crop,  as  barley, 
wheat,  or  rye ;  after  these  crops  are  taken  off  beets  are  raised  with- 
out any  manure,  and  after  beets  such  crops,  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  land,  as  will  pay  best.  Beets  are,  therefore,  raised  in  rotation, 
on  an  average  once  in  four  years.  The  system  of  maniuiug  and  of  pro- 
ducing theuianmehas  not  only  been  studied  as  a  science,  but  is  pnKticed 
as  an  art.  If  it  can  be  said  of  any  country  that  the  more  beets  and  beet 
sugar  it  produces,  the  more  gi'ain  it  will  yield,  it  can  be  said  of  the  ZoU- 
verein; and  it  is  much  to  be  regietted  that  we  have  not  so  complete  and 
correct  official  statistics  of  the  increase  of  gi-aiu  as  wt?  have  of  sugar. 
As  the  i)roduction  of  sugar  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  amount  of  rev- 
enue, there  is  no  objection  to  giving  correct  figui'es,  either  to  the  gov- 
ernment or  to  individuals :  and  the  manufacturers  are  left  entirely  tree 
to  work  with  any  kind  of  machinery,  in  any  way  they  i>lease,  to  change 
it  at  will,  and  to  make  as  many  experiments  as  they  like.  The  part  to 
which  sugar  nmnufacturers  pay  most  attention  in  the  com*seof  the  work, 
whether  t  hey  raise  the  beets  or  buy  them,  is  to  have  the  beet  as  rich  in  sugar 
as  possible,  and  to  take  out  all  the  juice  that  c;ni  possibiy  be  expressed; 
the  revenue  tax  being  the  same,  whether  seventy-tive  per  cent,  or  ninety 
per  cent,  of  the  juice  is  extracted,  and  whether  the  juice  contains  ten 
per  cent,  or  fifteen  per  cent,  of  sugar.  It  cannot  be  denied,  therefore, 
that  the  system  followed  in  the  Zoilvereiu  is  the  most  scientific  and  the 
most  rational  of  any,  and  the  official  tigm-es  obtained  in  relation  to  it 
the  most  reliable. 

Li  France  government  supervision  commences  with  the  exti'action  ot 
the  juice ;  the  raw  beets  being  under  no  control,  and  the  quality  being 


REPORT  ON  BEET  SUGAR  IN  EUROPE.  163 

considered  immaterial,  they  axe  not  near  so  rich  as  those  grown  in 
the  ZoUverein,  ami  are  mostly  raised  ou  newly  mauurod  land,  the 
gr<?,yt  aim  being  to  produce  a  large  crop,  or,  in  other  words,  to  raise  as 
many  beets  on  an  acre  as  possible.  As  a  natural  consequence,  grain  crops 
are  not  so  large  as  they  might  be,  the  limit  of  manure  production  being 
al  ways  the  natural  limit  of  Itrtdity.  Statistics,  ^vith  the  exception  of 
the  actual  sugar  production  and  consumption,  are  less  reliable  and  com- 
plete than  those  of  the  ZoUverein,  the  tax  in  Austria  beiug  varied  on 
tbc  uumber  of  juice-producing  machines,  and  their  capacity  according 
to  official  classification.  A  press,  or  other  juice-rendering  machine,  can 
p.'ork  as  many  beets  of  rich  quality  as  of  inferior ;  and,  as  the  tax  is  the 
Kame  of  either,  it  is  essential  to  work  as  rich  beets  as  possible;  there- 
fore, the  beets  raised  there  are  generally  of  a  quality  superior  to  those 
iTi  France.  The  juice  is  never  so  perfectly  extracted  as  hi  the  Zollverein, 
:;! though  double  pressing  is  never  resorted  to. 

In  Russia,  where  the  sugar  factories  work  on  trial,  under  government 
super\isors,  for  a  short  time  only,  and  are  taxed  according  to  the  result 
obtained,  no  statistics  can  be  procured,  or,  if  so,  they  are  uni-eliable ;  but 
it  is  estimated  that  Russian  factories  work  twice  the  amount  reached  by 
government  taxation. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  figures  given  by  the  revenue  oificers  of  the  ZoU- 
verein are  the  most  comi^lete,  and  the  most  reliable,  and  that  the  method 
of  worktug  ui  the  factories  is  the  most  rational,  because  it  opens  the  way 
for  improvement,  and  every  method  of  working  is  judged  by  its  own 
merits,  as  no  outside  matters  need  be  considered. 

During  the  season  of  1867-'G8,  there  were  three  hundred  beet-sugar 
factories  in  operation  ia  the  ZoUverein ;  in  France,  four  hundred  and 
seventy-one ;  in  Belgium,  one  hundred  and  eleven ;  in  HoUand,  eighteen ; 
in  Austria,  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight;  iu  Russia,  four  hundred  and 
thu'ty-nine,  (of  these  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine  were  not  in  operation ;) 
in  Poland,  forty ;  in  Sweden,  one ;  and  in  the  United  States,  one.  The  num- 
ber of  all  known  beet-sugar  factories  in  the  world  is  thirteen  hundred  and 
ninety.*  The  quantity  of  beet  sugar  produced  amounted  in  1828  to  7,700 
tons ;  iu  1851  to  192,500  tons,  and  in  1865  to  581,350  tons.  In  France 
17,000,000  hectares  t  of  land  are  required  in  beet  culture  to  keep  the 
factories  employed,  which  is  about  one-sixth  of  all  her  land  fit  for  culti- 
vation ;  the  same  proportions  applying  to  Belgium  and  Holland. 

The  government  estimates  are  that  in  the  ZoUverein  the  average 
quantity  of  raw  sugar  obtained  from  beets  during  the  season  of  1845-'46 
was  five  per  cent.;  from  that  time  to  1854-'55,  sis  and  two-thirds  per 
cent.;  and  since  that  time  eight  per  cent.;  or,  in  other  words,  up  to  1845 
it  requked  a  ton  of  beets  to  procluce  one  huncked  pounds  of  sugar ;  from 
1846  to  1854  it  required  three-fourths  of  a  ton  of  beets  to  one  hundred 
pounds  of  sugar,  and  since  then  five-eighths  of  a  ton  to  one  hundred 
pounds  of  sugar.  The  increased  product  is  partly  due  to  improved 
machinery,  and  partly  to  the  improved  quaUty  of  the  beets  raised. 

*  Tlie  recent  report  of  W.  WadsAvorth,  agent  of  the  Sacramento  Beet  Sugar  Couipauy 
of  California,  states  that  "  the  niunher  of  bect-sngar  factories  in  the  diHerent  countries 
of  Europe  is  as  follows  :  France,  three  hundred  and  sixty-four  ;  Belgium,  thirty-six ; 
Prussia,  oiie  hundred  and  forty-six  ;  Austria,  one  huudrcd'and  twenty-tive ;  in  the  rest 
of  Germany,  forty-eight ;  Poland,  thirty-one  ;  and  iu  Russia,  four  hundred  and  forty- 
one  ;  making  in  all  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  ninety-one  -without  counting  those 
smaller  concerns  that  are  found  here  and  there  in  very  many  of  the  smaller  isolated 
agricultural  districts,  and  distinguished  from  the  larger  fa/Ctories  by  their  motive  power 
being  the  animals  of  the  farm,  and  their  cost,  generally,  not  exceeding  five  thousand 
dollars.  If,  however,  these  are  counted  in,  there  are  then  over  six  hundred  beet-sugar 
factories  in  France  alone,  all  of  which  axe  visited  regularly  by  government  o^ciaJs. 
who  collect  the  duties  imposed  on  the  sugar  produced." — Ed.  Report. 

^  JJfftr.rf.,  2.4711  acres. 


164  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

In  Germauy  aud  France  it  was  formerly  easy  for  sugar  manufacturers 
to  procure  supplies  of  the  beet,  and  the  business  was  looked  upon  as  a 
])urely  mauuiactming  one ;  but  of  late  years  many  factories  have  been 
compelled  to  discontinue  work,  because  it  is  impossible  to  procure  beets. 
These  factories  are  mostly  located  near  large  cities,  where  farmers 
brought  their  beets.  Sugar  production  is  now  considered  an  agricul- 
tural business,  and  no  factories  have  been  built  of  late  without  sufficient 
land  at  command. 

The  local  institutions  of  different  countries,  especially  as  relating  to 
the  divisions  and  o^vllcrship  of  lands,  greatly  atfect  the  establishment 
aud  prosperity  of  beet-sugar  works.  In  Rnissia,  of  all  the  sugar  factories 
t'orty-five  per  cent,  belong  to  the  nobility,  and  fifty-five  per  cent,  to  large 
hmded  proprietors,  no  joint  stock  companies  existing.  In  Austria  only 
thirty-eight  per  cent,  are  in  the  hands  of  the  nobility ;  thirty-six  per  cent, 
in  those  of  land  proprietors,  and  there  are  twenty-six  joint  stock  com- 
panies. In  France  the  greater  portion  of  these  establishments  belongs 
to  private  partnerships.  In  the  ZoUverein  sixty-five  cent,  belong  either 
to  private  parties  or  to  private  partnerships,  while  fifty-five  per  cent, 
are  joint  stock  companies.  Both  an  France  and  the  ZoUverein  the  sugar 
works  owned  by  the  nobility  are  few  in  number,  probably  not  five  per 
cent,  of  the  whole.  The  prosperity  of  these  establishments,  and  their 
progress  in  perfecting  the  method  of  manufacturing,  are  in  reverse  pro- 
portion as  they  are  owued  by  the  nobility ;  ZoUverein,  Austria,  and 
France  having,  x>erhai)s,  equal  chances  for  progress  during  the  last  fifteen 
years. 

The  capacity  of  the  largest  beet-sugar  factory  known  is  sixty-six  thou- 
sand tons  per  annum.  It  is  located  in  Waghausel,  grand  duchy  ot 
Baden,  and  works  the  beets  complete  into  white  loaf  sugar.  One  of  the 
smallest  has  a  capacity  of  nineteen  hundred  tons  per  annum,  and  is 
located  at  Klehtendorf,  in  Silesia;  the  former  working  summer  and  win- 
ter ;  the  latter  only  in  winter. 

Looking  back  forty  years,  it  is  surprising  to  see  the  regular  and  steady 
increase  of  sugar  consumption.  JFrom  an  article  of  luxury  or  medicine  it 
has  become  a  necessity  of  every-day  consumption.  Every  civilized  country 
has  exerted  itself  to  secure  emancipation  from  slave-grown  cane  sugar, 
and  to  stop  the  flow  of  money  to  a  few  colonies.  Without  the  United 
States  as  a  regular  customer,  Cuba  and  Brazil  might  as  well  give  up 
growing  sugar,  and  direct  their  attention  to  a  more  healthy  occupation. 

The  United  States  is  among  the  largest  sugar-consuming  and  import- 
ing nations  in  the  world,  while  protlucing  little ;  and  whatever  can  bo 
said  of  other  nations,  regarding  the  necessity 'of  becoming  independent 
as  to  their  supply  of  sugar,  applies  with  greater  force  to  this  coiui- 
try.  In  1840  the  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  ZoUverein  amounted 
per  capita  to  4.67  pounds;  in  18G6  it  amounted  to  10  pounds  per 
head,  an  increase  of  over  one  hundred  per  cent,  in  twenty-five  years. 
In  1840  the  quantity  of  sugar  consumed  in  Austria  was  1.68  pounds  per 
head ;  in  18613  it  reached  5.1  pounds,  or  nearly  three  hundred  per  cent, 
increase.  As  the  consumi)tion  of  sugar  keeps  pace  with  a  nation's  pros- 
perity and  progress  in  civilization,  is  there  any  reason  to  doubt  that  the 
consumption  of  sugar  in  the  United  States  will  increase  in  a  ratio  at 
least  equal  to  that  in  Austria  and  the  ZoUverein. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  BEET-SUGAR. 

The  operation  of  manufacturing  beet  sugar  may  be  divided  into  three 
distinct  parts :  1,  the  extraction  of  juice;  2,  the  purification  of  the  same; 


REPORT  ON  BEET  SUGAR  IN  EUROPE.  165 

and  3,  reducing  tlie  purified  juice  to  crystals.  The  principles  on  which 
tbe  different  establishments  work  are  everywhere  the  same;  but  the 
means  employed  to  reach  the  same  end  vary  considerably.  The  mode 
of  extracting  the. juice  varies  more  than  anything  else,  the  great  aim 
being  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  quantity  with  the  least  foreign 
matter.  Beets  contain,  besides  fiber,  sugar  and  water,  vegetable  albu- 
men, organic  acids  and  alkalies,  in  combination  with  organic  and  inor- 
ganic acids. 

The  extraction  of  juice  is  done  by  the  following  process :  hydraulic 
presses,  centrifugal  machines,  green  maceration,  dry  maceration,  and 
diffusion.  To  these  five  methods  may  be  added  the  system  of  double- 
pressing  with  hydraulic  presses,  and  centrifugal  machines  in  combina- 
tion with  hydraulic  presses.  These  different  methods  are  in  regular 
practical  use;  others  have  been  employed  by  way  of  experiment.  They 
are  all  old,  with  the  exception  of  "  diffusion ; "  all  have  their  advantages, 
and  all  are  open  to  objections.  The  use  of  hydraulic  presses  is  the  most 
extended,  and  probably  three-fourths  of  ail  the  su^ar  made  has  passed 
through  the  press  process. 

In  the  early  history  of  beet  sugar  it  was  considered  essential  to  add 
sulphuric  acid,  to  prevent  the  juice  from  deteriorating,  but  this  system 
was  discarded  long  ago,  giving  place  to  the  opposite  principle.  The 
juice,  after  its  extraction,  is  clarified  with  lime,  in  which  great  progress 
has  been  made.  In  the  early  days  of  beet-sugar  manufacture,  after  the 
addition  of  acids  was  discontinued,  lime  was  employed  in  limited 
quantities  to  pmify  the  beet  juice,  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  one 
per  cent.,  beginning  with  the  opening  of  the  reason  at  the  lower  figure 
working  up  to  the  higher  as  the  season  advanced  and  the  beets  dete- 
riorated. With  improved  machinery,  however,  lime  is  emj^loyed  almost 
without  limit;  and  it  is  hot  uncommon  to  use  three  per  cent,  of  lime 
In  purifying  beet  juice  three  distinct  processes  are  in  use,  although  in 
each  the  agent  used  is  heat  in  combination  with  lime.  These  processes 
are  mostly  named  after  their  inventors.  The  oldest  and  simplest  pro- 
cess, and  which  is  still  found  in  many  sugar- works,  is  the  simple  heat- 
ing of  beet  juice  to  about  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  degrees,  adding,  at 
that  temperature,  one-half  to  three-fourths  per  cent,  of  newly  slaked 
lime,  and  raising  the  heat,  as  fast  as  possible,  to  the  boiling  point. 
The  action  of  lime  and  heat  coagulates  the  vegetable  albumen,  and 
changes  many  of  the  organic  combinations.  Lime  and  impurities  form 
a  heavy,  tough  scum,  which  covers  the  surface,  while  the  bright  and 
clear  juice  can  be  drawn  from  under  it.  This  bright  juice,  mixed  with 
other  foreign  matter,  contains  considerable  lime  in  solution.  In  former 
years  animal  bone  coal  was  the  only  ingredient  employed  to  separate 
the  lime  from  the  juice.  Many  factories  may  be  foimd,  up  to  this  day, 
which  work  by  this  simple  process;  but  the  greatest  nurnber  employ 
carbonic  acid  to  precipitate  the  lime,  in  the  form  of  carbonate  of  lime. 
The  carbonic  acid  emjiloyed  for  that  purpose  is  generated  simply  by  the 
burning  of  coke,  drawn  into  the  juice  by  a  mixture  of  carbonic  acid  and 
carbonic  oxide  gas,  the  former  combining  with  the  lime,  and  forming  a 
carbonate,  the  latter  passing  through  the  juice  without  any  eflect. 

Another  and  newer  method  was  invented  by  Frey  and  lelirick,  and 
consists  in  beginning  the  carbonization  as  soon  as  the  juice  runs  into 
the  pan,  the  slaked  lime  being  plaeed  in  the  pan  before  the  juice  enters. 
Three  per  cent.,  or  sometimes  more,  of  lime  is  employed  by  this  process, 
which  is,  no  doubt,  most  advantageous  when  working  inferior  or  deteri- 
orated beets.  A  third  i)rocess  is  the  one  by  Perier  and  Pozzos,  who 
I'epeat  the  treatment  of  beet  juice  with  lime  and  carbonic  acid  several 


IGC  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

tunes,  aiiniag  at  the  saving  of  a  greater  part  of  animal  cliarcoaL  Wlieu 
large  qnantities  of  lime  are  employed,  as  in  the  Frey  and  lelirick  process, 
and  the  Perier  and  Pozzos,  the  carbonic  acid  is  obtained  from  the  burn- 
ing of  limestone  in  limekilns,  bnilt  expressly  for  the  pnri^ose.  All  these 
different  methods  have  their  advantages,  and  all  are  open  to  obje<itions.' 
i?o  one  method  is  adopted  in  any  locality,  nor  is  it  possible  to  say  \rhicii 
is  the  best.  It  generally,  and  with  rare  exceptions,  depends  ui)ou  local 
matters.  If  lime  is  not  easily  obtained,  or  is  impure,  it  is  used  more 
sparingly;  if  bone-black  can  be  cheaply  procured,  the  emjjloyment  of 
carbonic  acid  is  not  so  essential;  the  question  of  fuel  is  an  item  in  the 
calculations. 

The  reason  why  it  is  impossible  to  agre^  upon  any  one  method  oi 
working  is  the  variation  in  the  quality  of  the  beets  in  different  years,  as 
well  as  in  the  beets  grown  the  same  year  in  different  soils  and  weather. 
Factories  may  be  found  belonging  to  one  owner,  working  according  to 
different  systems,  and  so  operating  for  years  without  solving  the 
problem  as  to  which ^s  the  best  method  under  any  or  aU  circumstances. 
Only  by  the  statistical  tables  can  the  steady  advance  and  progress  be 
observed. 

In  comparing  the  different  systems  and  methods  of  working  in  the 
beet- sugar  manufactories  of  Eiu-ope,  with  a  view  of  finding  the  best  for 
the  United  Stares,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  ciicnmstances  under 
which  they  work.  It  will  be  observed  on  page  170,  which  gives  a  specified 
accoui^t  of  a  whole  season's  work,  as  it  has  taken  p]ace,  that  the  internal 
revenue  is  the  highest  item  of  expense — even  higher  than  the  whole 
cost  of  the  raw  beet.  FiieJ  and  wages,  each  amounts  to  only  one-third  of 
either  the  internal  revenue  or  the  co.st  of  beets,  while  the  interest  and 
discount  are  fignred  lower  than  either  fuel  or  wages.  Where  kind  is 
expensive  and  difiicult  to  be  procnred,  beets  will  always  command  a 
high  piic^,  and  the  longer  the  season  the  higher  will  be  the  price  of 
beets.  Fuel  will  always  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  working 
days,  making  it  immaterial  whether  the  work  is  extended  over  the  whole 
season  or  only  over  a  part.  Wages  are  exnemely  low  already,  and  they 
cannot  be  exiiectetl  to  change  much  if  the  working  season  is  extended. 
The  iutei-est  and  discount  would  be  ch;inged  but  little  if  a  working  sear 
son  were  extended  fi'om  one  hundred  and  twenty  to  two  hundred  and 
forty  days  or  more,  while  aU  the  advantages  to  be  gained  might  be  more 
than  counterbalanced  by  the  increased  price  of  beets. 

It  is  readily  imderstood,  therefore,  why  the  sugar  manufactories  lay 
so  little  stress  on  working  the  whole  year.  Attempts  to  do  so  have  been 
made,  and  a  few  establishments  are  stiU  at  work  with  dry  beets;  but 
they  do  not  fiud  many  followers.  When  the  process  of  drA,-ing  beets  and 
working  them  the  whole  year  was  suggested  and  put  into  execution,  it  was 
with  a  \iew  of  obtaining  the  juice  in  a  pure  state.  By  diying  the  sliced  beet 
and  exi>osing  it  to  a  temperature  of  boiling  water,  the  vegetable  albu- 
men contained  in  the  beet  coagulates,  and  becomes  insoluble  in  water; 
but  still  the  >uice  obtained  is  no  pui-er — other  changes  taking  place. 
The  hope  of  obtaining  a  better  juice  thereby  has  not  been  realized,  and  the 
advantage  of  working  the  whole  yeai-  has  been  counterbalanced  by  seve- 
ral ilisad vantages;  one,  and  not  the  least,  being  the  worthlessuess  of  the 
refuse  as  feed  for  stock.  The  tlry  beet  being  treated  with  lime,  retains 
large  portions  of  it,  which  makes  it  unfit  for  use.  The  "fuel  consumed 
makes  a  hea^'y  item  of  exiiense,  and  is  not  coimterbalanced  by  the  saving 
of  interest  on  the  investment  or  anything  else. 

A  third  objection  is  the  tax.  WTi'erever  there  is  any  doubt,  the  revenue 
bureau  construes  in  its  owa  favor.    Formerly  one  ton  of  dried  beets  was 


REPORT  ON  BEET  SUGAR  IN  EUROPE.  167 

counted  an  equivalent  for  four  aud  three-quarters  tons  of  green  or  fresli 
beets,  but  the  proportion  is  now  two  to  one  iu  calculating  the  taxes. 
This  proportion  may  be  correct,  when  beets  are  perfectly  dry,  and  of 
inferior  quality  -when  fresh;  but  very  rich  beets  will  not  require  five  tons 
to  produce  one  of  tMed  ones.  It  is,  there^re,  more  advantageous  to  work 
dry  beets  iu  bad  seasons  than  iu  good  ones.  In  a  very  wet  season,  and 
where  dry  beets  have  to  be  ti'ansported  a  great  distance,  they  absorb  a 
great  deal  of  water,  which  is  weighed  with,  and  coimted  for,  beets,  and 
has  to  pay  revenue.  But  the  gTcatcst  difficulty  is  to  procui'e  land  enough 
in  the  vicinity  for  growing  beets,  and  to  produce  manure  .enough  to  keep 
the  laud  in  its  strength. 

The  piincipal  objections  to  the  system  of  working  the  whole  year 
either  dried,  beets  continuously,  or  fresh  beets  in  fall  and  winter,  and 
dried  in  spring  aud  summer,  may  be  stated  as  follows :  Scarcity  of 
land;  the  oppressive  system  of  taxation;  high  price  of  land  com- 
pared with  the  low  price  of  labor;  impossibility  of  producing  manure 
to  keep  up  the  productiveness  erf  the  laud,  if  the  refuse  of  the  beet  can- 
not be  used  for  cattle-feed,  and  the  low  price  of  capital  invested  in 
sugar  works. 

Kot  one  of  aU  these  objections  would  apply  to  sugar  works,  and  the 
system  of  working  diied  beets  in  tlie  United  States.  Land  is  neither 
scarce  nor  high  in  price;  taxation,  if  resorted  to,  would  not  be  oppres- 
sive; fael  is  very  low,  while  labor  is  i)roportiouaUy  high;  cattle-feed 
can  readily  be  produced,  when  farmers  see  the  absolute  necessity  of  a 
regular  system  of  manure  production ;  and  finally  the  price  which  capi- 
tal commands  is,  at  least,  double  that  of  any  Eiu'opeau  country. 

The  process  of  obtaiuuig  the  beet  juice  by  '*  diffusion  "  is  almost  the 
same,  whether  applied  to  green  beets  or  to  dried.  The  machinery  is  the 
same  and  can  be  used  for  either,  and  the  a^ctual  labor  to  be  performed 
in  extracting  the  juice  is  considerably  less,  and  iu  character  less  objec- 
tionable. A  ±acto»y  working  by  this  system  in  the  juice-rendering  pro- 
cess thirty-five  and  three-fifths  tons  every  ten  hours,  employs  eighteen 
men.  A  factory  rendering  the  juice  by  pressing  with  hydraulic  presses 
(singly)  requires  forty-two  men ;  working  with  centrifugal  machines,  nine- 
teen men ;  with  gi'eeu  maceration,  eighteen  men ;  with  double  hydi'aulic 
presses,  tweuty-tive  men;  while  a  factory  working  with  centrifugal 
machines,  and  pressing  afterw^irds  with  hydraulic  machines,  requires 
forty-one  men.  The  excess  of  hand  labor,  requii-ed  in  the  press  process, 
cannot  be  said  to  be  counterbalanced  by  a  juice  obtained  of.  one  to  one 
and  a  half  degree  more  density. 

The  auuexed  tables  give  the  complete  figures  taken  from  the  books  of 
the  various  establishiueuts,  and  the  question  is  natural,  if  sugar  can 
be  produced  at  those  figures  iu  nearly  every  coimtry  in  Euiope,  why  has 
the  largest  sugar-consuming  nation  iu  "the  world  to  rely  on  its  supply 
from  abroad  ?  Why  has  not  beet  sugar  long  ago  been  produced  iu  the 
United  States? 

The  system  of  farming,  if  the  agricultural  labor  in  the  United  States 
can  be  so  designated,  has  beeu  tlifferent  from  that  of  any  other  country, 
and,  with  rare  exceptions,  has  never  paid ;  hence,  the  first  requirement 
for  beet-sugar  iudustiy,  well-cultivated  land,  cannot  be  readily  obtained. 
Deep  or  thorough  cultivation  is  but  little  known,  and  money,  as  an 
investment  in  farming,  has  seldom  i^roved  remimerative.  But  the 
same  causes  will  ultimately  produce  the  same  effects;  in  order  to  make 
our  lauds  as  productive  as  they  ought  to  be,  a  rotation  of  grain  and 
root  crops  will  have  to  be  resorted  to.  As  soon  as  a  reg'ular  rotation 
of  crops  is  introduced  into  the  United  States,  farming,  as  such,  will  pay, 


168 


AGRICULTURAIi   REPORT. 


and  tbe  raw  material  for  beet-sugar  fac^tories  can  be  readily  produced; 
until  then  sugar  works  will  have  to  do  their  own  farming.  "When  beet 
sugar  was  lirst  manufactured  in  Europe  there  was  no  diificultv  in  pro- 
curing the  raw  material,  and  aU  eflbrts  to  produce  sugar  could,  there 
fore.,  be  directed  toward  the  wprking  of  beets,  not  to  their  production. 

Comparatively  little  lias  l)ee&  done  in  the  United  States  to  pave  the 
way  for  sugar  production.  While  in  Europe,  Heniy  Clay  took  p'eat 
interest  in  the  beet-sugar  production  of  France;  and,  in  speeches 
made  in  Congress,  he  predicted  great  results  from  its  introduction. 
More  than  twenty-five  years  ago  the  lii'st  efibrt  to  introtluce  this 
branch  of  industry  into  the  United  States  was  made,  but  there  exivSts  no 
authentic  record  of  the  results  obtained.  Thei'C  is  nothing  to  indicate 
what  variety  of  beet  was  raised;  the  quantity  obtained  from  a  given  area 
of  land;  what  percentage  of  sugar,  and  what  percentage  of  foreign  mat- 
ter these  beets  contained;  the  kind  of  soil  they  were  raised  in,  or  how 
the  season  com])ared,  in  respect  to  temperature  and  raiu-fall,  with  an 
average  one.  Hence  the  experiment  in  Northampton,  Massachusetts, 
costly  as  it  may  have  been,  has  not  benefited  anybody,  nor  advanced 
beet  production. 

Since  then  numbers  of  experiments  have  been  made  to  raise  sugar 
beets  by  private  parties;  but  no  regular  systems  were  adopted,  and  all 
being  detached,  we  are  as  much  in  the  dark  to-day  as  to  what  beets  to 
raise,  and  how  and  in  what  locality  to  raise  them,  as  we  were  twenty-five 
years  ago.  In  May,  1867,  the  Agi-icultural  Department  at  Washington 
sent  nine  dilferent  varieties  of  beet  seeds  to  Chatsworth,  Illinois,  for 
trial  and  comparison  with  the  beets  i)roduced  in  countries  where  they 
are  grown  for  sugar  production.  The  following  are  the  results  obtained, 
compared  witli  tht;  beets  used  for  sugar  making  in  several  establishments, 
from  the  books  of  which  we  have  been  kindlv  furnished  with  extracts : 


Specific  gravity  I  Polarization  of 
of  jiiice.  aiig^. 


Forei^  matter. 


No.  1. 
No.  2. 
N0.-3. 
No.  4. 
N*o.  5. 
No.  6. 
NO.  7. 
No.  8. 
No.  9. 


Average 

Average  polarization  in  Einbeck  Factory,  vyorkingby  the 
«Ji  ffuiiion   Hysloni 

Of  310  polarizations  made  during  the  season  ISCe-'CT,  at 
BroiBtedt  Factory,  working  with  hydi'aiUic  presses 

Of  122  polarizations,  narae  factory,  18'i7-'(JS 

Of  the  seaHon  l.'62-'63,  at  sugar  factory,  working  with 
hydraulic  presses 


14.75 
13.00 
14.25 
14.25 

13.  ra 
15.  e2 

14.12 
15.87 
15.12 


14.50 


11.90 
10. 95 
12. 59 
12.21 
11.57 
13.52 
11.  9tj 
13.67 
13.25 


12.40 
11.42 


11.09 
12.05 


11.21 


2.65 
2.05 

i.oe 

2.04 
1.93 
2. 10 
2.14 
2.20 
1.87 


.2.09 


2. 86 
2.30 


1.68 


These  figures,  taken  from  the  records  kept  by  factories  during  the  work- 
ing season,  show  conclusively  that  the  average  quality  of  those  nine 
varieties  of  the  beet,  raised  irom  seeds  furnished  by  the  Department, 
was  superior,  but  it  remains  to  be  proved  what  particular  variety  is  best 
adapted  to  culture  in  the  United  States,  and  also  which  is  the  best  locaUty 
for  raising  beets  and  producing  sugar  from  them. 

The  following  figures  are  taken  from  a  report  made  by  Dr.  Grouven, 
chief  of  the  experimental  station  (Versuchs  Station)  in  'Salzmiinde,  on 
his  researches  in  tracing  the  iutiuence  of  manure,  soil,  and  weather  on  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  crops.    These  researches  were  conducted  ^rith 


REPORT  ON  BEET  SUGAR  IN  EUROPE.  169 

the  greatest  care,  at  an  enormous  expense,  and  with  a  most  efficient  staff 
of  assistants ;  many  estates  volunteered,  their  co-operation.  The  average 
of  beet  juice  from  twelve  estates,  each  fertilized  with  different  manure, 
showed  the  following  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  juice :  Estate  Tdlan,  12,26 ; 
Vrerau,  12.80;  Honingen,  13.21;,  Sudenbui'g,  9.29;  Jakowa,  11.70; 
Grutzka,  12.10 ;'Chako^\itz,  13.49;  Stifterhof,  12.70 ;  Rliineschauz,  12.60; 
Junngersdorf,  12.84;  Eoszla,  11.52 ;  Salzmiinde,  14.78;  average,  12.44. 

The  nine,  varieties  of  the  beet,  according  to  the  foregoing  statement, 
show  an  average  of  12.40  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  the  juice,  while  the  aver- 
age of  twelve  experimental  estates,  where  beets  were  raised  witK  the 
gi'eatest  care,  show  an  average  of  12.44  per  cent.,  or  very  nearly  the 
same,  which  would  seem  to  settle  the  question  as  to  whether  beets  raised 
in  the  United  States  are  as  rich  in  sugar  as  those  grown  in  Europe. 

The  lands  upon  which  these  beets  were  raised  are  as  different  in  geo- 
logical formation  and  phj'sical  condition  as  lands  cati  be,  which  proves 
that  it  does  not  require  a  peculiar  soil  to  produce  beets.  As  a  general 
rule,  soil  which  is  well  adapted  for  producing  barley  is  suited  to  beet 
culture.  The  soil  on  estate  Tillan  is  light-colored,  sandy  loam,  with 
very  sandy  subsoil,  almost  clear  sand ;  estate  Vrerau,  sandy  loam,  con- 
taining about  twenty  per  cent,  sand,  which  increases  in  the  subsoil  as 
one  goes  deeper  into  it ;  estate  Honingen,  tough  loam,  with  a  subsoil  from 
two  to, four  feet,  the  same  as  the  top  soil,  but  further  down  more  mixed 
with  sand;  estate  Sudenburg,  near  Magdebui'g,  mild  loamy  top  soil,  with 
a  subsoil  more  tough,  which  prevents  the  moisture  from  leaving  the  top 
'soil  too  freely ;  estates  Jakowa  and  Grutzka,  top  soil  a  black,  mellow  loam, 
two  feet  or  more  deep,  with  a  subsoil,  four  feet  deep,  of  yellow  loam  rich 
with  lime ;  estate  Chakowit^,  in  Bohemia,  heavy  clay  sod,  two  and  a  half 
feet  deep;  it  is  a  black  soil  containing  considerable  lime,  otherwise 
would  make  good  bricks,  subsod  four  feet,  yellow  loam ;  estate  Stifter- 
hof, in  Southern  Germany,  top  soil  sandy  marl,  active  and  tliy,  three 
and  a  half  feet:  the  subsoil  is  tough  clay,  almost  impenetrable  by 
water;  island  of  Rhineschauz,  a  sandy  loam  top  soil,  little  cohesive  and 
easily  worked,  with  a  subsoil,  the  deeper  the  sandier ;  estate  Junngers- 
dorf, mdd,  very  productive,  loamy  top  soil,  foiu"  feet  deep,  with  a  subsod 
containing  marl,  with  thiity  i^er  cent,  carbonate  of  lime;  estate  Roszla, 
near  the  Harz  Mountains,  red,  tolerably  heavy  loam  on  top,  with  a  sub- 
soil of  heavy  loam  tliroughout;  estate  Salzmiinde,  a  very  mild  loam, 
rich  in  lime  do^vii  eighteen  inches,  of  a  dark  humus  color,  with  yellowish 
white  subsod,  at  least  ten  feet  deej),  contaming  still  more  lime,  so  that 
it  might  almost  be  called  marl. 

In  cultivating  the  land  great  attention  is  paid  to  subsoding.  Without 
bringing  the  subsoil  on  the  top,  it  is  thoroughly  stirred  to  enable  it  to 
absorb  air  and  warmth,  to  Ciiriy  water  off"  more  freely  in  wet  seasons, 
and  to  kee])  more  moisture  in  dry  seasons.  This  system  of  working  the 
sod  so  deep  is  the  chief  reason  why  the  grain  crops  in  beet-sugar  dis- 
tricts are  so  much  larger  and  less  variable  than  in  other  i)laces.  The 
beet  crops  in  Europe  are  considered  as  certain  and  safe  as  any  other, 
but  not  more  so  ;  for  the  variations,  both  in  quality  and  quantity,  are 
the  same  as  in  grain  or  other  root  crops. 

The  following  statements  will  show  the  workings  of  different  factories, 
their  productiveness,  and  the  least  cost  of  producing  the  sugar  ready  for 
market : 

The  practical  working  of  the  beet-sugar  works,  Jerxheim,  during  the 
season  of  1807-'68,  is  as  follows  :  This  establishment  is  owned  by  a  joint 
ijtock  company,  every  shareholder  being  under  obligation  to  raise  or 
procure  a  certain  quantity  of  beets  annually ;  hence  every  stockholder  is 


I  in  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

a  fanner.  The  establishment  is  one  of  the  best  conducted  and  best 
•  iwying  in  the  Zollverein.  The  antiexed  fignres  are  taken  fi:x)m  the 
books  of  the  conjpany :  Total  quantity  of  beets  worked  from  the  1st  of 
October.  1307,  till  the  IGrh  of  February,  1868,  10,725  tons;  average 
quantity  of  beets  \roiked  i>er  da^,  88  tons ;  number  of  centrifu^rrU 
machines  employed  to  extract  the  juice,  li* :  number  of  tons  worked 
with  one  centrifugal  machine  each  day,  7^.  The  quality  of  the  beets 
during  the  whole  season  is  shown  by  the  iiolarization  of  the  juice,  as 
follows : 


Da;c. 


!  Sagar  in  jcicf . 

Foreign  flatter. 

Percent. 

Per  ctni. 

11.  $2 

2.65 

lil5 

2.6S 

11.  PI 

2.74 

12.15 

2.62 

ILBO 

2.59 

11.35 

2.36 

11.63 

2.84 

ILK 

2.614 

11.08 

2.55 

lasT 

2.47 

10.99 

2.45 

10.95 

2.45 

ias»6 

2.37 

10.53 

2.29 

10.55 

2.11 

10.  60 

1.97 

10.53 

2.04 

10. 4y 

1.98 

10.  Cl 

2.00 

U.  17 

2.43 

Oetober  1  to  October  6,  1967 

Oetober7MCrrr-?7  :T  :f~ 

Octob«14  

Octobers]  :  

OeSoberZE  :  

HorembeT  4  -"7 

Korember  1  ^^67 

Xovember  :  -  _     .-'77 

K0T«aber25  r:  Dc  .-r=:l-rr  1    1S67 

December  2  to  December  g,  ld67 

j>i-;— '-.^  1  ■'-,  ▼>=:.=— Vi^  2"^   !S57..... 

:  ""  '    :'.    -^e?!"! 

i.  1536. 


■.:r. -;        ■     r.    :-;>y  16,  1868. 
W-  .Texoge 


The  sugar  and  mola.s.ses  obtained  trom  the  juice  during  the  whole 
season  amounted  to  11.84  per  cent.  Of  this  yield  2,431,900  pounds  of 
sugar  were  produced  and  brought  into  the  market  in  the  following 
quantities:  first  product,  6.21  per  cent.:  second  product,  1.72  per  cent.; 
third  product,  0.59  i>er  cent.;  fourth  product,  0.28  i)er  cent.  The  total 
expenses  for  running  the  works  the  whole  year  of  1807-68,  and  workmg 
10,725  tons  of  beets,  were  per  ton  of  beets,  $3  31 ;  internal  rcTenue, 
$3  39  ;  fuel,  including  factory  and  horses  for  workmen,  68  cents  :  wood 
and  coal  for  blacksmith,  0.9  cents ;  coke  for  Imiekilns,  2.3  cents ;  wages, 
(total.)  summer  and  winter,  $1  05.5 ;  bone-black,  .5.4  cents ;  limestone, 
4-9  cents ;  cooperage.  14  cents ;  pai>er  for  lining  barrels,  2.1  cents ;  dis- 
count and  interest,  16  cents ;  cartage  of  sugar,  11|^  cents ;  repairs  on 
machinery  and  buildiDg,  o5.0  cents :  salary,  18.1  cents ;  gas  coal,  0.8 
cent ;  oil,  1.7  cent :  commission  for  selling  sugar,  0.8  cents :  insurance, 
G.l  cents;  sinking  fund,  2.7  cents:  sundries,  46-3  cents;  total  exi^enses 
for  one  ton  of  beets,  worked,  $10  39. 

According  to  the  foregoing  account  the  yield  of  raw  sugar  was  8.8 
I>er  cent.,  or  170  ]>ounds  of  sugar  to  each  tbn  of  beets,  the  10,725  tons 
worked  yielding  188.700  pounds  of  sugar.  The  total  receipts  for  sugar 
and  mohisses  amounted  to  8140,678  30^  The  cost  of  production  was  5.9 
cents  i»er  pound  in  gold,  making  a  total  of  $101,368  40  for  the  aggregate 
production  of  the  season,  and  leaving  a  net  profit  of  $39,309  90. 

The  number  of  workmen  employed  ranged  from  207  to  210,  inclu<iing 
men.  woinen,  and  children,  being' 110  for  day  and  100  for  night  work. 
Wages  were  paid  at  the  following  rates :  For  carrying  beets :  1  man,  at 
3U  cents,  and  5  at  30J  cents,  •*!  8:3| :  the  same' for  night  work.  For 
centrifugal  machine:  1  man,  at  37i  cents;  same  for  night.  For  topping 
and  trimming  beets :  12  girls,  at  19  cents,  $2  28 ;  same  for  night.    For 


REPORT  ON  BEET  SUGAR  IN  EUROPE. 


171 


internal  revenue  scale :  1  man,  at  35  cents  j  same  for  night.  For  grating 
beets :  -4  boys,  at  19  cents,  76  cents ;  same  for  niglit.  For  pnlp  wagon : 
2  boys,  at  21  cents,  42  cents ;  same  for  night.  For  centrifugal  macliine 
li(;uoring :  4  men,  at  28  cents,  81  12 ;  same  for  nig^t.  For  taking  out 
the  pulp  :  4  men,  at  26  cents,  $1  04 ;  same  for  night.  For  carrying  the 
pulp  away  :  2  men,  at  26  cents,  52  cents ;  same  fortnight.  For  starting 
centrifugal  machine  :  2  boys,  at  23  cents,  46  cents  ;*  same  for  night.  For 
juice  gutter :  2  boys,  at  23  cents,  46  cents ;  same  for  night.  For  first 
carbonizing  juice :  1  man,  at  37^  cents,  1  at  30^  cents,  1  at  28  cents, 
and  1  at  46^  cents,  $1  42^- ;  same  for  night.  For  "scum  presses :  1  man, 
at  31^  cents,  and  2  at  29^  cents,  90^  cents  ,•  same  for  night.  For  steam 
syphon :  1  man,  at  28  cents,  and  1  ait  25  cents,  53  cents ;  same  for  night. 
For  second  carbonizing  juice :  1  man,  at  30  cents,  1  at  29  cents,  and  1  at 
25  cents,  84  cents  ;  same  for  night.  For  bone-black  filter :  1  man,  at  35 
cents,  and  2  at  25i  cents,  86  cents.  Same  for  night.  For  Eoberts's 
apparatus :  1  man,  at  37J  cents ;  same  for  night.  For  sugar  floors :  1 
man,  at  42  cents,  1  at  37^  cents,  9  at  35  cents,  and  1  boy  at  25  cents, 
$4  19  J ;  none  on  at  night.  For  limekiln :  1  man,  at  35  cents,  and  1  at  30 
cents,  65  cents ;  for  night,  1  man,  at  35  cents.  For  lime  station :  1  man, 
at  30  cents,  and  1  at  20  cents,  56  cents ;  same  for  night.  For  washing 
wire  cloth :  2  girls,  at  22  cents,  44  cents ;  same  for  niglit.  For  engineers : 
1  man,  at  37^  cents,  and  1  at  35  cents,  72  J  cents ;  Ibr  night,  1  man,  at  35 
cents,  and  1  at  32  cents,  67  cents.  For  firemen :  1  man  at  37^  cents,  2 
at  35  cents,  and  .1  at  28  cents,  81  35.J ;  for  night,  1  man,  at  37^  cents, 
and  2  at  35  cents,  $1  07^.  For  carting  coal :  3  men,  at  32^  cents,  97^ 
cents ;  same  for  night.  For  fermenting  bone-black :  1  man,  at  37=V  cents, 
6  at  32^  cents,  and  3  at  30  cents,  83  22J ;  same  for  night.  For^diying 
bone-black :  1  man,  at  32J  cents,  and  1  boy  at  25  cents,  57i  cents ;  same 
for  night.  For  bone-black  furnace :  2  men,  at  31.J  cents,  63  cents;  same 
for  night.  For  gas  furnace :  1  man,  at  374  cents;  same  for  night.  For 
mechanics,  &c. :  1  coppersmith,  47  cents  ;  carpenter,  44  cents ;  black- 
smith, 43  cents ;  blacksmith,  32  cents ;  harness-maker,  37^  cents ;  wire- 
cloth-maker,  32  cents ;  nurse  for  hospital,  35  cents ;  housekeeper,  35 
cents ;  porter,  35  cents,  83  40^.  For  yard  hands  :  1  man,  at  41  cents,  3 
at  35  cents,  3  at  28  cents,  3  at  25  cents,  and  7  boys  at  21  cents,  84  52. 
The  beet- sugar  works  in  the  proyince  of  Saxony  and  the  duchy  of 
Anhalt  number  as  follows : 


During  what  year. 

Total  No.  of 
factories. 

By  hydraulic 

presses. 

By  maceration. 

By  centiifugi.1 
machines. 

By  diifugion. 

1861  '62 

H9 
151 
157 
Ifij 
178 
176 

130 

i:52 

138 
150 
161 
159 

12 
12 

12 
9 
9 
9 

7 
7 

0 
6 
6 

186''-*G3 

1863-'64 

1864-'65              

1865-'66 

2 

1866-'C7 

2 

Hon.  H.  Capiio:^,  Commissioiier. 


THEODORE  GEiiTNERT. 


REPORT  UPON  THE  AGRICULTURAL  RESOURCES 

OF  ALASKA. 


Sir  :  Alaska  may  be  divided  a^'icultuially  into  three  districts,  eacli 
diliering  from  the  others  iu  its  climate,  vegetation,  and  physical  charac- 
teristics. 

The  first  aiyl  most  northern  district,  which  I  have  termed  the  Yonkon 
Territory,  is  hoimded  on  the  south  by  the  Alaskan  Mountains,  on  the 
east  by  the  British  boundary  line,  and  on  the  north  and  vrest  by  the 
Arctic  Ocean  and  Behring  Sea. 

The  second  or  middle  district,  which  might  be  called  the  Aleutian 
district,  includes  that  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  and  all  the 
islands,  west  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty-fifth  degree  of  longitude. 

The  third  or  southernmost,  which  may  be  named  the  Sitkan  district, 
includes  all  of  our  possessions  on  the  mainland  and  islands  south  and 
east  of  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska. 

THE  YOUKON  TEERITOKY. 

Surface. — The  character  of  the  country  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Youkon 
River  varies  from  rolling  and  somewhat  rocky  hills,  generally  low,  that 
is,  from  five  hundred  to  fifteen  hundred  feet,  and  easy  of  ascent,  to  broad 
and  marshy  plains,  extending  for  miles  on  either  side  of  the  river  near 
the  mouth.  There  are,  of  course,  no  roads  exce]>t  an  occasional  trail, 
hardly  noticeable  except  to  a  voyageur.  The  Youkon  and  its  tributaries 
form  the  great  highway  of  the  coimtry.  This  sti'eam — the  Missouri,  ae 
the  Mackenzie  is  the  Mississippi,  of  the  northwest — is  navigable  in  our 
territory  throughout  for  vessels  drawing  not  over  four  feet  of  water, 
and  for  many  hundred  miles  for  boats  needing  much  more  than  that. 
The  smaller  rivers  are  not  so  deep,  but  many  of  them  may  be  navigable 
for  considerable  distances.  There  are  no  high  mountains,  properly  so 
called. 

Sod. — The  underlying  rocks  in  great  part  are  azoic,  being  conglom- 
erate, syenite  and  quartzite.  The  south  shore  of  Norton  Sound,  and  por- 
tions of  the  Kaviak  Peninsula,  are  basalt  and  lava.  Trachytic  rocks 
are  found  at  several  points  on  the  Youkon.  There  are,  on  the  north- 
east shores  of  Norton  Sound,  abundance  of  sandstones,  and  clay  bods 
containing  bgnite.  Sandstone  is  abundant  also  on  the  Youkon,  alter- 
nating with  azoic  rocks.  Tiie  superincumbent  soil  differs  in  different 
places.  In  some  localities  it  is  clayey,  and  in  sucli  situations  quite  fre- 
quently covered  with  sphagmum,  which  always  impoverishes  the  soil 
immediately  below  it.  In  others  it  is  light  and  sandy,  and  over  a  large 
extent  of  country  it  is  the  richest  allu^'ial,  composed  of  very  fine  sand, 
mud,  and  vegetable  matter,  brought  down  by  the  river,  and  forming 
deposits  of  indefinite  depth. 

in  some  localities  fresh-water  marl  is  foand  in  abundance,  and  is  used 
for  mortar  or  plaster,  to  whiten  the  walls  of  log-houses. 

The  soil  is  usually  frozen  at  a  depth  of  three  or  four  feet  in  ordi- 
nary situations.  In  colder  ones,  it  remains  icy  to  within  eighteen 
inches  of  the  surface.    This  layer  of  iirozen  soil  is  six  or  eight  feet  thidi ; 


REPORT    UPON    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES    OF   ALASKA.      173 

below  that  depth  the  soil  is  destitnte  of  ice,  except  in  very  imnsnal  situ- 
ations. 

This  singular  phenomenon  appears  to  be  directly  traceable  to  want  of 
tlrainage,  combined  vrith  a  non-conductive  covering  of  moss,  which  pre- 
vents the  soil  from  being  warmed  by  the  scorching  sun  of  a  boreal  mid- 
sunimeE.  In  places  where  the  soil  is  well  di'ained,  and  is  not  covered 
with  moss,  as  in  the  lai'ge  alluvial  deposits  near  the  Toukon  mouth,  I 
have  noticed  that  the  frozen  layer  is  much  fmther  .below  the  surface, 
and  in  many  places  appeared  to  be  absent.  I  have  no  doubt  that  in 
favorable  situations,  by  draining  and  deep  plowing,  the  ice  could,  in 
the  course  of  time,  be  wholly  removed  from  the  soil. 

A  singular  phenomenon  on  the  shores  of  Kotzcbue  Sound  was  first 
observed  by  Kotzebue  and  Chamisso,  and  is  described  in  the  narrative 
of  the  voyage  of  the  Enrik.  and  afterward  bvBucldandin  the  appendix 
to  the  voyage  of  the  Herald.  This  consisced  oT  blulis  or  high  banks, 
(thirty  to  sixty  4eet.)  apparently  of  solid  ice,  covered  with  a  few  feet  of 
vegetable  matter  and  earth,  in  which  a  luxuriant  vegetation  was  flour- 
ishing. 

Kotzebue's  description  of  this  singiilaf  formation  is  highly  colored; 
but  the  main  facts  were  conlirmed  by  Dr.  Buck]  and  and  his  companions, 
who  made  a  careful  examination  of  the  locahty,  although  Capt.  .Beechy 
had  previously  reported  that  Kotzebue  had  been  deceived  by  snow  drifted 
against  the  face  of  the  banks  and  remaining,  while  that  in  other  localities 
had  melted  away. 

It  is  reported  by  Buckland  and  later  observers  that  the  formation  is 
rapidly  disappearing,  and  the  water  in  the  sound  is  becoming  shoaler 
every  day,  ft-om  the  faU  of  the  debris  which  covers  the  ice. 

2so  explanation  having  been  oljered  of  this  singular  phenomenon,  I 
venture  to  suggest  that  it  may  be  due  to  essentially  the  same  causes 
as  the  subterranean  ice  layer,  foimd  over  a  great  part  of  the  Youkon 
Territory. 

It  is  quite  possible  tu  conceive  of  a  locality  depressed,  and  so  deprived 
of  thainage,  that  the  annual  moistiu-e  derived  from  rain-fall  and  melting 
snow  would  collect  between  the  impervious  clayey  soil  and  its  sphag- 
uous  covering;  congeal  dui-ing  the  winter,  and  be  prevented  from  melting 
diu'ing  the  ensuing  summer  by  that  mossy  covering,  which  woidd  thus 
be  graduidly  raised;  the  i)rocess  annually  rejieated  for  an  indefinite 
period  would  form  an  ice  layer  which  might  well  deserve  the  appel- 
lation of  an  "■  ice  clift',"'  when  the  encroachments  of  the  sea  should  have 
worn  away  its  barriers,  and  laid  it  open  to  the  action  of  the  elements. 

The  lesson  that  the  agriculturist  may  leai-u  from  this  curious  forma- 
tion is,  that  a  healthy  and  luximant  vegetation  may  exist  in  immeiliate 
A-icinity  of  permanent  ice,  bearing  its  blossoms  and  matui'iug  its  seed  as 
readily  as  in  apparently  more  favored  situations ;  and  hence  that  a  lai'ge 
extent  of  northern  territory  long  considered  valueless  may  yet  ftirnish 
to  the  settler,  trader,  or  fisherman,  if  not  an  abimdaut  harvest,  at  least 
a  very  acceptable  and  not  inconsiderable  addition  to  his  annual  stock  of 
food,  besides  fish,  venison,  and  game. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  Youkon  Territory  in  the  interior  differs 
from  that  of  the  sea  coast,  even  in  localities  comparatively  adjacent. 
That  of  the  coast  is  tempered  by  the  influence  of  the  vast  b^ly  of  water 
contained  in  Behring's  Sea,  and  many  southern  cm-rents  bringing  wanner 
water  ft-om  the  Pacific ;  making  the  winter  climate  of  the  coast  much 
milder  than  that  of  the  country,  even  thii'ty  miles  into  the  interior. 
The  summers,  on  the  other  hand,  lu-e  colder  than  further  iidiind,  and  the 
quantity  of  rain  is  greater.    The  following  table  shows  the  iinnual  tern- 


171  AGBICULTURAL   REPORT. 

p«»n»tiire  at  St..  Michael's  Redoabt,  on  the  coast  of  Norton  Sound,  in 
f'iS^  28'  north :  at  the  mission  of  the  Kusso-Greek  church,  on  the 
iiiver.  one  hundre<l  :ind  titt\-  miles  trom  its  mouth,  in  latitude 
i'i  i7  north:  at  Niilato.  alx)ut  hlx  hundred  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  in  latitude  64^  4lK  north,  or  thereabouts :  and  at  Fort  Youkon, 
nreive  hundred  miles  trom  the  mouth  of  the  rirer,  and  al^out  latitude 
•j7"  ItV  north: 


SLMiduds. 

Mi8iH». 

^  Nolato.      '  *-    r    • 

o 
-i-29L3 
1-53.0 
+  96.3 

+  ae 

+  29.3 

-  35.05 

-  0.95  1 

+  36.46  j 

o 
+  2&.3     ' 

+  38.0?  i 
—  14.0     1 
+  27.8    , 

+  14."''" 

+  59.67 
+  17.37 
—  23.80 
+  16.92 

" ' 1 

file  mean  temi^eratiire  at  Unalaklik.  on  the  east  shore  of  Xorton  Sound, 
for  the  winter  of  ISGo-'GT  wa^s  p.  33^  :  but  for  that  of  lS67-*6Sit  wasonlv 
abont  +iP.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  Youkon  Territory  as 
a  whole  may  be  roughly  estimated  as  about  -|-25^.  The  greatest  degree 
of  cold  -  ever  known  in  the  territory  was  seventy  degrees  below  zero. 
( — TCP:)  but  such  cold  as  this  is  very  rare,  and  has  little  effect  on  the 
vegetation  covered  with  eight  or  ten  feet  of  snow.  Eumiing  water  may 
be  found  oixrn  on  all  the  rivers,  and  in  many  springs  throughout  the 
year. 

The  real  opi>oi*nmity  for  agriculture  in  a  cold  coimtrj-  cannot  be 
deduced  from  annual  mean  temj^eratures  alone,  but  is  dependent  on  the 
heat  of  the  summer  months  and  the  duration  of  the  summer. 

At  Fort  Youkon  I  have  seen  the  thermometer  at  noon,  not  in  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun.  standing  at  111'^ ;  and  I  was  informed  by  the  comman- 
der of  the  post  that  several  spirit  thermometers,  gi-aduated  ui\  to  120<^. 
had  burst  under  the  scorching  stm  of  the  arerie  midsummer,  which  can 
only  be  thoixnighJy  appreciated  by  one  who  has  endured  it.  In  midsum- 
mer, on  the  Upi>er  Youkon.  the  only  relief  from  the  intense  heat,  under 
which  the  vegetation  attains  an  almost  tropical  luxuriance,  is  the  two  or 
three  hours  while  the  sun  hovers  near  the  northern  horizon,  and  the 
weary  voyager  in  his  canoe  blesses  the  tran.<ient  coolness  of  the  mid- 
night air. 

The  amo^mt  of  rain-faD  cannot  be  correctly  estimated,  from  want  of 
data.  At  Xidato  the  fall  of  snow  from  [NTovemljer  to  AjirQ  will  average 
eight  feet,  but  often  reaches  twelve.  It  is  much  less  on  the  seaboard. 
Partly  on  this  account,  and  also  because  it  is  cbiven  seaward  by  the 
winds,  there  is  usually,  even  in  spring,  very  little  snow  on  the  coasts 
near  Norton  Sotmd. 

In  the  interior  there  is  less  wind;  and  the  snow  Mes  as  it  falls  among 
the  trees.  Towards  spring  the  smaU  ravines,  grullies,  and  bushes  are  well 
filled  or  covered  up,  and  ti-ansixjrtation  is  easy  and  i^leasant  with  a  good 
sled  and  team  of  dogs.  The  warm  sun  at  noon  melts  the  snow  a  little^ 
forming  a  hard  crust.  Over  this  the  dog-sleds  can  go  anywhere,  making 
from  thirty  to  fifty  miles  a  day,  carrying  full  one  himdred  pounds  to  a 
dog.  and  re^pii-ing  for  each  dog  only  one  dry  fish  i>er  diem,  which  weighs 
ab<»ut  a  pound  and  a  half,  and  which  you  can  buy  for  two  leaves  of 
tobacco.    Seven  dogs  are  the  usual  number  for  one  team. 

The  rain-fall,  as  has  previously  l>een  remarked,  is  much  greater  on  the 
oons't  than  in  the  interior.  Four  days  in  a  week  will  1>e  rainy  in  summer 
at  St.  Michael's,  although  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  part  of  July 


REPORT    UPON    AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES    OF    ALASKA.      175 

aboimtl  ill  suuny  weather.  The  last  part  of  July,  August,  and  mo^t  oC 
September  ;irc  "very  rauiy.  October  brings  a  change ;  the  windy,  usually 
from  the  southwest  from  .Iidy  to  the  latter  part  of  September,  now  are 
mostly  from  the  north,  and  though  cold,  bring  fine  weather. 

The  valley  of  the  Lower  Youkon  is  foggy  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sunj- 
mer,  but  as  we  go  up  the  river  the  climate  improves,  and  the  short 
summer  at  Fort  Youkon  is  dry,  hot,  and  pleasant,  only  varied  by  au 
occasional  shower.  The  great  pests  in  the  spring,  all  along  the  river, 
are  the  mosquitoes,  the  numbers  of  which. are  beyond  belief  j  but  they 
retire  about  the  midtUe  of  JiUy.  On  the  coast  they  are  not  so  numerous, 
but  linger  until  the  fall. 

InliaMtants. — The  native  inhabitants,  curiously  enough,  arc  divided  by 
the  same  invisible  boundary  that  marks  the  vegetation.  All  along  the 
treeless  coast  we  find  the  Esqiumaux  tribes ;  passing  a  few  miles  inland 
we  come  to  trees  and  Indian  lodges.  This  holds  good  all  over  the  You- 
kon Territory.  The  Esquimaux  extend  all  along  the  coast  and  ui)  the 
principal  rivers  as  far  as  there  are  no  trees.  The  Indians  populate  the 
interior,  but  seldom  pass  the  boundary  of  the  woods.  In  regard  to  hab- 
its, neither  perform  any  agricultural  labor  whatever,  and  the  onby^  vegeta- 
bles, besides  berries,  used  for  food,  are  the  roots  of  Hedysarum  Mackenzii, 
Polygonum  viviparum,  and  a  species  of  Archajigelica,  and  the  leaf  stalks  of 
a  species  of  Bheum  or  wild  rhubarb.  .    • 

A  great  delicacy  among  the  Esquimaux  is  the  stomach  of  the  reiu- 
deer,  distended  with  willow  sprigs,  well  masticated,  and  in  a  half-digested 
state.  This  "  gruesome  mass  "  is  dried  for  winter  use ;  when  it  is  mixed 
with  melted  suet,  oil,  and  snow,  and  regarded  by  the  consumers  much  as 
we  regard  caviar,  or  any  other  peculiar  dainty.  It  is,  no  doubt,  a  power- 
ful antiscorbutic.  The  Russian  settlements  in  the  Youkon  Territory 
were  few^  in  n  mnber.  There  were  four  on  the  Y^oukon ;  one  on  the  Kus- 
koquim  Eiver;  two  on  Norton  Sound  ;  and  one' on  Bristol  Bay.  All  of 
these  were  formerly  provided  with  gardens.  The  number  of  Russians  in 
the  territory  at  no  time  exceeded  forty,  with  douljle  the  number  of  halt- 
breeds,  assistants,  or  workmen.  They  were  all  in  the  employ  of  the 
Kussian  American  Company.  Many  of  them  left  tlio  country  after  the 
purchase,  but  the  gTeater  number  remain  in  the  employ  of  difterent 
American  trading  companies.  The  Eussian-boru  inhabitants  were  a 
very  degraded  class,  almost  without  exception  convicts  fi-om  Siberia  or 
elsewhere.  The  Creoles  or  half-breeds  are  a  more  intelligent  and  docile 
race,  but  lazy^  and  given  to  intoxication  whenever  stimulants  are  within 
their  reach. 

Natural  productions. — The  first  need  of  traveler,  hunter,  or  settler,  in 
any  country,  is  timber.  With  this  almost  all  parts  of  the  Youkon  Terri- 
tory are  well  supplied.  Even  the  treeless  coasts  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  caji 
hardly  be  said  to  be  an  exception,  as  they  are  bountifully  supplied  with 
driftwood,  bronght  down  by  the  Y^oukon,  Kuskoquim,  and  other  rivers, 
and  distributed  by  the  waves  and  ocean  currents. 

The  largest  and  most  valuable  tree  found  in  this  territory  is  the  white 
spruce,  (Abies  alba.j  This  beautiful  conifer  is  found  oyer  the  whole 
country,  but  it  is  largest  and  most  vigorous  in  the  vicinity  of  running 
^\"ater.  It  attains  not  unfi-equentlj'  the  height  of  sixty  to  one  hundred 
feet,  with  a  diameter  of  over  tJiree  feet  near  the  butt;  but  the  more  com- 
mon size  is  about  thirty  or  forty  feet  high,  and  about  eighteen  inches  at 
the  butt.  The  wood  of  this  tree  is  straight- grained,  easily- cut,  white 
and  compact,  and  while  very  light,  it  is  also  very  tough,  much  more 
so  than  the  wood  of  the  Oi-egon  piue,  (Abies  JDouglasii.)  For  spars 
it  has  no  superior,  but  it  is  rather  too  slender  for  large  masts.    The 


176  AGEICULTURAI.    REPORT. 

barl^  is  ui?ed  for  rootirig  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Compauy  at  Fort  Youkon, 
and  the  roote,  ]iroi)erly  prej^ared,  for  sev^-iug  their  birch  canoes  and 
dishes,  by  the  Indians.  I  liave  seen  log-houses  twenty  years  old,  in 
which  many  of  the  logs  were  quite  sound.  The  unsound  logs  were 
said  to  be  those  which  had  been  used  without  being  seasoned.  These 
trees  decrease  in  size  and  grow  more  sparingly  toward  Fort  You- 
kon, but  are  still  large  enough  for  most  ijuq^oses.  The  unexplored 
waters  of  the  Tananah  Kiver  bring  down  the  largest  logs  in  the  spring 
freshets.  The  number  which  are  annuaDy  discharged  Irom  the  mouth 
of  the  Y^oukon  is  truly  incalculable.  It  supplies  the  shores  of  Behring 
Sea,  the  islands;,  and  the  arctic  coasts ;  logs  of  all  sizes  lie  in  wiurows, 
where  they  are  thrown  u]>on  the  shore  by  the  October  south  westers. 

The  wood  is  put  to  manifold  uses:  houses^  Indian  lodges,  &c.,  are  all 
constructed  of  spruce.  Soft,  fine-giained,  and  easily  cut,  the  Indians  of 
the  Lower  Y'^oukou  spend  their  leisure,  dui'ing  the  short  winter  days,  in 
carving  dishes,  bowls,  and  other  utensils,  and  ornamenting  them  with 
red  oxide  of  iron,  in  patterns,  some  of  which,  though,  far  from  classical, 
are  very  neat. 

Sleds,  frames  for  skin  boats,  fishing  rods,  «S:c.,  are  made  by  the  Esqui- 
maux from  s])ruce,  and  aU  their  houses  and  casinos,  or  dance-houses,  are 
built  of  it.  One  of  these,  on  Xorton  Sound,  about  thirty  by  forty  feet 
^quare,  had  on  each  side  shelves  or  seats  formed  of  one  plank,  four  inches 
thick  and  thirty-eight  inches  wide  at  the  smaller  end.  These  enormous 
planks  took  six  years  to  make,  and  were  cut  out  of  single  logs  with  small 
stone  adzes. 

The  next  most  important  tree  is  the  birch,  (Betula  glandulosaj  This 
tree  rarely  grows  over  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  and  forty  feet  liigh ; 
on  one  occasion,  however,  1  saw  a  water- worn  log  about  fiiteen  feet  long, 
<juite  decorticated,  lying  on  the  river  bank  near  2suklukah\  et,  on  the 
L'pper  Youkon,  which  was  twenty-four  inches  in  diameter  at  one  end 
and  twenty-eight  at  the  other.  This  is  the  only  hardwood  tree  in  the 
Youkon  Territory,  and  is  put  to  a  multiplicity  of  uses.  Everything  need- 
ing a  hard  and  tough  wood  is  wmstructed  of  birch.  Sleds,  snow-shoes, 
standards  for  the  fish  traps,  and  frames  of  canoes,  which  are  afterwards 
covered  with  its  bark,  sewed  with  spruce  or  tamarack  (LarixJ  roots, 
and  the  seams  calked  with  spmce  gum.  The  black  birch  is  also  found 
there,  but  does  not  grow  so  large.  The  soft  new  wood  of  the  birch,  as 
weU  as  of  the  ix»plar,  ls  cut  very'  fine  and  mingled  with  his  tobacco  by 
the  economical  Indian.  The  squaws  at  certain  periods  wear  birchen 
hoops  around  their  necks ;  and  neck-rings  and  wiistlets  of  the  same  wood, 
with  fantastic  devices  scratched  ujjon  them,  are  worn  as  a  token  of 
mourning  for  dead  friends  by  the  Tananah  Indians. 

Several  s]>ecies  of  poplar  fFopulus  bahamifera  and  Fojyulus  tremu- 
loidesj  abound,  the  former  along  the  water-side,  and  the  latter  on  drier 
uplands.  The  first-mentioned  si>ecies  grows  to  a  very  large  size.  The 
trees  are  frequently  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter  and  from  forty  to 
sixt>-  feet  high.  The  timber  is  of  little  value,  but  the  Indians  make 
small  boards,  for  diflerent  purposes,  out  of  the  soft  wood,  and  use  the 
leathery  down  from  the  catkins  for  making  tinder,  by  rubbing  it  up 
with  iK>wdered  charcoal. 

Willows  are  the  most  abundant  of  trees.  They  are  of-  all  sizes,  from 
the  slender  variety  on  the  Lower  Youkon,  which  grows  seventy  or  eighty 
feet  high  whiie  only  six  inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt,  and  with  a  mere 
wisp  of  straggling  branches  at  the  extreme  tip,  to  the  dwarf  willow, 
crawling  under  the  moss,  with  a  stem  no  bigger  than  a  lead  pencil,  and 
throwing  up  shoots  a  few  inches  liigh.    Willows  are  almost  invariabl^\ 


REPOET    UPON   AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES    OF   ALASKA.      177 

rotten  at  the  heart,  and  are  only  good  for  fuel.  The  KutcMn  Indians 
make  bows  of  the  "wood  to  shoot  ducks  with ;  as  its  elasticity  is  not  in- 
jiu^ed  by  being  wet.  The  inner  bark  is  used  for  making  twine  for  nets 
and  seines  by  the  Indian  women,  and  the  Esquimaux  of  Behring  Straits 
use  willow  bark  to  color  and  tan  their  di'essed  deer-skins.  It  produces 
a  beautiful  red-brown,  somewhat  like  Eussia  leather.  The  inner  bark 
or  cambium  of  the  alder  fAhms  rubra)  is  used  for  the  same  puri)ose. 

The  other  species  rising  to  the  rank  of  trees  in  this  district  are  the 
larch  {Larix  clahuricaf),  which  is  found  on  rolling  prairies,  of  small  size ; 
a  small  hiich.  {Betula  nana,)  and  se\ eral  alders  {Alnus  viridis  und  incana,) 
a  species  of  Juniper  {Juniperus,)  and  numberless  willows,  (Salicae.)  A. 
species  of  pine  {Pinus  cemhra)  has  been  reported  from  Kotzebue  Sound, 
I  cannot  but  think  erroneously,  as  I  saw  no  true  pines  in  the  territory 
during  a  two  years'  exploration.  The  most  northern  point  touched  by 
the  Finns  contorfa,  at  the  junction  of  the  Lewis  and  the  Pelly  Eivers,  at 
Fort  Selkirk,  in  latitude  (jS^  north,  longitude  137°  west  (approximate.) 
The  Hudson  Bay  men  at  Fort  Youkon  call  the  white  spruce  "pine." 

Fodder. — The  treeless  coasts  of  the  Youkon  Territory  are  covered,  as 
weU  as  the  lowlands  of  the  Youkon,  with  a  most  luxuriant  growth  of 
grass  and  flowers.  Among  the  more  valuable  of  these  grasses  (of  which 
some  thirty  species  are  known  to  exist  in  the  Youkon  Territory)  is  the 
well  known  Kentucky  blue-gTass  {Poartratensis.)  which  gTows  luxuriantly 
as  far  north  as  Kotzebue  Sound,  and  perhaps  to  Point  Barrow.* 

The  wood  meadow-gxass  [Foa  nemoraJis)  is  also  abundant,  and  fur- 
nishes to  cattle  an  agxeeable  and  luxuriant  pasturage. 

The  blue-joint  grass  {Calamagrostis  Canadensis)  also  reaches  the  lati- 
tude of  Kotzebue  Sound,  and  gTows  on  the  coast  of  Xorton  Sound  with 
a  truly  surprising  luxuriance,  reaching  in  very  favorable  localities  four 
or  even  five  feet  in  height,  and  averaging  at  least  three.  Many  other 
grasses  enumerated  in  the  list  of  useful  plants  grow  abundantly,  and 
contribute  largely  to  the  whole  amount  of  herbage.  Two  species  of 
Elymus  almost  deceive  the  traveler  with  the  aspect  of  gTain  fields 
maturing  a  perceptible  kernel,  which  the  field-mice  lay  up  in  store. 

The  grasses  are  woven  into  mats,  dishes,  articles  of  clothing  for  sum- 
mer use,  such  as  socks,  mittens,  and  a  sort  of  hats,  by  all  the  Indians, 
and  more  especially  by  the  Esquimaux. 

In  winter  the  dry  grasses,  eoUected  in  simimer  for  the  purpose,  and 
neatly  tied  in  bunches,  are  shaped  to  correspond  with  the  foot,  and 
placed  between  the  foot  and  the  seal- skin  sole  of  the  winter  boots  worn 
in  that  country.  There  they  serve  as  a  non-conductor,  keeping  the  foot 
dry  and  warm,  and  protecting  it  fi^om  contusion  to  an  extent  which  the 
much-lauded  moccasins  of  the  Hudson  Bay  men  never  do.  In  fact,  I 
believe  the  latter  to  be,  without  exception,  the  worst,  most  imcomfort- 
able,  and  least  durable  covering  for  the  foot  worn  by  mortal  man. 

Grain  has  never  been  sown  on  a  large  scale  in  the  Yoidion  Territory. 
Barley,  I  was  informed,  had  once  or  twice  been  tried  at  Fort  Youkon,  in 
small  patches,  and  the  gTain  had  matiu"ed,  though  the  straw  was  very 
short.  The  experiments  were  never  carried  any  further,  however,  the 
traders  being  obhged  to  devote  all  their  energies  to  the  collection  of 
furs.  Xo  grain  had  ever  been  sown  by  the  Eussiaus  at  any  of  the  posts. 
In  the  fall  of  1SG7 1  shook  out  an  old  bag,  purchased  from  the  Eussiaus, 
which  contained  a  handful  of  mouse-eaten  gTain,  probably  wheat ;  the 

*For.tho  determination  of  the  species,  and  many  interesting  facts,  lam  indebted  to  Dr. 
J.  T.  Rothrocb,  professor  of  botany  in  the  Agricultural  College  of  Pennsylvania,  and  late 
botanist  to  the  scientific  corps  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company's  exploring  expe- 
dition.    His  report  on  the  flora  of  Alaska  will  bo  found  in  tho  Slnithsouian  report  for  18(57. 

12 


178  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

succeeclmg-  spring-,  on  examining-  the  locality,  quite  a  number  of  blades 
appeared,  and  when  I  left  Nulato,  June  2d,  they  were  two  or  three 
inches  high,  growing  rapidly.  As  I  did  not  return,  I  cannot  say  what 
the  result  was.  Turnips  and  radishes  always  flourished  extremely  well 
at  St.  Michael's,  and  the  same  is  said  of  Nidato  and  Fort  Youkou. 

Potatoes  succeeded  at  the  latter  place,  though  the  tubers  were  small-. 
They  were  reg-ularly  ])lanted  for  several  years,  until  the  seed  was  lost  by 
freezin g  dming  the  winter.  At  St.  Michael's  they  did  not  do  well.  Salad 
was  successful,  but  cabbages  would  not  head. 

The  white  round  turnips  gTown  at  St.  Michael's  were  the  best  I  ever 
saAv  anywliere,  and  very  large,  many  of  them  weigliing  five  or  six 
pounds.  They  were  crisp  and  sweet,  though  occasionally  a  very  large 
one  would  be  hoUow-hearted.  The  Russians  pi^eserved  the  tops  also  in 
vinegar  for  winter  use. 

Cattle. — I  see  no  reason  why  cattle  with  proper  winter  protection  ihight 
not  be  successfully  kept  in  most  parts  of  the  Youkon  Territory.  Fodder, 
as  previously  shown,  is  abundant.  The  wild  sheep,  moose,  and  reindeer 
abound,  and  find  no  want  of  food. 

A  bull  and  cow  were  once  sent  to  Fort  Youkon  by  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company.  They  did  well  for  some  time,  but  one  day,  while  the  cow  was 
gTazing  on  the  river  bank,  the  soil  gave  way  and  she  was  thrown  down 
and  killed.  Due  notice  was  given  of  the  fact,  but  for  a  year  or  two  the 
small  annual  supply  of  butter  in  the  provisions  for  Fort  Youkon  was 
withheld  on  the  ground  of  there  being  "  cattle"  (to  wit,  the  bull)  at  that 
post.  Finally  the  commander  killed  the  animal,  determined  that  if  he 
could  not  have  butter  he  would  at  least  have  beef.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  this  point  is  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  the  most  northern 
point  in  Alaska  inhabited  by  white  men. 

Fruits. — There  are,  as  might  be  supposed,  no  tree  fruits  in  thQ  Youkon 
Territory  suitable  for  food.  Small  fruits  are  there  in  the  greatest  pro- 
fusion. Among  them  may  be  notetl  red  and  black  currants,  gooseberries, 
cranberries,  raspberries,  thimble-berries,  salmon-berries,  bluebeiTies, 
killikinik  berries,  bearberries,  dewberries,  twinberries,  service  or  heath- 
berries,  mossbenies,  and  roseberries ;  the  latter,  the  fruit  of  the  Bosa 
cinnamomea,  when  touched  by  the  frost,  form  a  pleasant  addition  to  the 
table,  not  being  dry  and  woolly,  as  in  our  climate,  but  sweet  and  juicy. 

All  these  berries,  but  especially  the  salmon-berry  or  "  moroslni^^  of  the 
Eussians  {Ruhus  chamaemorus,)  are  excellent  anti-scorbutics.  They  are 
preserved  by  the  Esquimaux  in  large  wooden  dishes  or  vessels  holding 
five  gallons  or  more ;  covered  with  large  leaves,  they  undergo  a  slight 
fermentation,  and  freeze  solid  when  cold  weather  comes.  In  this  state 
they  may  be  kept  indefinitely ;  and  a  more  delicious  dish  than  a  plateful 
of  these  berries,  not  so  thoroughly  melted  as  to  lose  their  coolness,  and 
sprinlded  with  a  little  white  sugar,  it  would  be  impossible  to  conceive. 

The  Russians  also  prepare  a  very  luscious  conserve  from  these  and 
othea^  berries,  relieving  the  sameness  of  a  diet  of  fish,  bread,  and  tea, 
with  the  native  productions  of  the  country. 

ALEUTIAN  DISTRICT. 

This  comprises  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  part  of  the  peninsula  of 
Aliaska,  with  the  islands  about  it.  Kadiak  and  the  islands  immediately 
adjoining  it,  however,  belong  more  properly  to  the  Sitkan  district. 

These  islands  are  merely  the  prolongation  of  the  Alaskan  range  of 
mountains.    Many  of  them  contain  volcanic  peaks,  some  still  in  a  state 


REPORT   UPON   AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES   OF   ALASKA. 


79 


of  moderate  activity.  Slight  shocks  of  earthquake  are  common,  but 
many  years  have  elapsed  since  any  material  damage  was  done  to  life  or 
pioperty  by  volcanic  action.  Most  of  the  islands  have  harbors,  many 
of  them  safe  and  commodious.  The  soil  is  much  of  it  ricij,  consisting 
of  vegetable  mold  and  dark-colored  clays,  with  here  an^l  there  light 
calcareous  loam,  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  tertiary  strata  rich  in 
fossils.  In  many  places  the  gi'owth  of  spJiaguum,  indicating  want  oi 
drainage,  prevails  over  the  perennial  grasses  natural  to  the  soil,  but  the 
remedy  is  self  evident. 

On  some  places  the  soil  is  formed  of  decomposed  volcanic  products, 
•■■it-h  as  ash  and  pumice.    Much  of  this  is  rich  and  productive. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  islands  is  moist  and  warm.  The  great- 
est cold  recorded  in  five  years  by  Father  Veniamingf  in  Unalaska  was 
zero  of  Fahrenheit.  This  occurred  only  once.  The  greatest  height  of 
the  mercury  was  seventy-seven  degrees  of  Fahrenheit.  The  following 
table  will  show  the  range  of  the  thermometer  and  the  relative  frequency 
of  good  and  bad  weather : 

Tliermomeier. 


Year. 


1830 

1831 

1832 

1833 

Average  five  years 


35° 
36 
39 
38 


37 


1  p.  m. 


38° 
40 
42 
41 


40.5 


9  p.  m. 


Extreme 
heat. 


34° 
34 
38 
36 


36 


73-0 
64 
77 
76 


Extreme 
cold. 


Kange. 


0   ! 


77 
57 
70 
71 


JVeatltei 

,  are 

•age 

of  seven  years. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June 

July. 

Aug. 

1 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

TotaL 

11 
111 

95 

9 
86 

103 

3 
112 

102 

4 

104 

102 

2 
105 
104 

6 
95 

109 

0 
118 

99 

5 
106 

106 

2 
107 
101 

2 

115 

100 

3 

68 

119 

6 
116 

95 

53 
1263 

1235 

Days  half  clear,  half  cloudy 

Days  all  clondy  or  foggy,  -vvith  } 
or  without  snow,  rain,  or  hail,  i 

These  observations  were  taken  in  Iliouluk  by  Eev.  Father  Innoceutius 
Yeniaminof,  now  or  lately  bishop  of  Kamchatka.  He  notices  that,  from 
October  to  April,  the  prevalent  winds  are  north  and  west;  and  from 
April  to  October,  south  and  west.  The  thermometer  is  lowest  in  Janu- 
ary and  March,  and  highest  in  July  and  August,  At  this  point  it  may 
not  be  superfluous  to  insert,  as  a  means  of  comparison,  a  few  statistics 
in  regard  to  a  very  similar  country,  which  has,  however,  been  under  cul- 
tivation for  centuiies.  It  will  serve  to  show  what  human  industry  and 
careful  application  of  experience  may  do  with  a  coimtry  colder  and 
more  barren  and  nearly  as  rainy  as  the  Aleutian  and  northern  Sitkan 
distiicts  of  Alaska.  I  refer  to  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  and  the  Heb- 
rides, whose  "  Scotch  mists"  have  become  proverbial. 

Aiton*  has  ascribed  the  more  rainy  and  cold  chmate  of  Scotland  to 
the  accumulations  of  sphagnum  :  "  Thirty-two  and  a  half  ounces  of  dry 
moss  soil  will  retain  without  fluidity  eighteen  ounces  of  water ;  while 
thirty-nine  ounces  of  the  richest  garden  mould  will  only  retain  eighteen 
aud  a  half  ounces.    Moss  is  also  more  retentive  of  cold  than  anv  other 


*  Treatise  on  Peat-moss,  &c.    See  EdinTjurgh  Encyclopedia,  p.  738,  vol.  xvi. 


180 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


soil.  Frost  is  often  found  to  continue  in  deep  mosses  (in  Scotland)  until 
after  the  middle  of  summer.  Hence  the  effect  of  mossy  accumulations 
in  rendering  the  climate  colder." 

Dr.  Graham,  of  Alx-rfoyle,  referring  to  the  ^vestern  district  of  Scot- 
laud,  says  that  Ayrshire  is  very  moist  and  damp,  with  a  mild  and  tem- 
perate climate. 

Kenlrewshire  is  visited  with  frequent  and  hea%'j-  rains.  Dimt>arton- 
shire  has  the  same  character.  Argjleshire is  considered  the  most  rainy 
coimty  of  Scotland. 

'•  The  vapors  of  the  ocean  are  attracted  by  its  lofty  mountains,  and 
the  clouds  discharge  themselves  in  torrents  on  the  valleys.-"*  "■  The 
-printers  are  for  the  most  iiart  mild  and  temperate,  but  the  summers  are 
frequently  rainy  and  cold.  The  climate  of  the  Zetland  Isles  resembles 
in  most  respects  that  of  the  Orkneys.  Though  the  sky  is  inclement  and 
the  air  moist,  it  is  far  from  unhealthy.  The  rain  continues  not  only  for 
hours  but  for  days :  nay,  even  for  weeks  if  the  wind  blow  from  the  west," 
&c.  Substitute  Alaska  for  Scotland,  and  the  description  would  be 
equally  accurate. 

Mean  temperature  of  InrerneasA 


igui. 

1B22. 


47.83 

43.02 


Winer.     [      Spring.         Scminer. 


39.59 
39.44 


44.93 
47.22 


Fall. 


55.34 
57.79 


49.90 
47.59 


At  Drymen,  in  Stirlingshire,  the  average  for  fouiteen  years  was 
two  hundred  and  five  days,  more  or  less  rainy,  jier  annum ;  the  average 
on  the  island  of  Unalaska  was  one  hundred  and  fifty  for  seven  years, 
according  to  Veniaminof.  The  average  rain-fall  in  Stirlingshire  was 
about  forty-three  inchas ;  in  Unalaska,  was  forty-four  inches,  (approxi- 
mate.) 

Let  us  now  examine  the  productions  of  this  country,  so  nearly  agi-ee- 
iug  in  temperature  and  rain-fall  with  vrhat  we  know  of  the  Aleutian  dis- 
trict. It  may  reasonably  prove  an  approximate  index  to  what  time  ma^ 
bring  to  pass  in  our  new  Territory,  t 

Agricultural  statistics  oftlte  Riglilands  of  Scotland,  and  islands,  i:i  1854  and  1866. 


OcnpantB. 

Bushels  of  wheat. 

BneheU  of  barley. 

Bushels  of  oalA. 

1855. 

185*. 

IR.'i.'t. 

1654. 

1855. 

1854. 

1855. 

1,630 
1S2 

rm 

740 
262) 
39i 
673 
141 

7,315 

4,373 

4,644 

47.573 

180 

230.179 
10.  K3 

13.  .-^^ 
4.683 
5.607 

37.814 

393 

233.018 
8.e8'> 

56.795 
1.974 
9,549 

93,100 

5,727 

264,112 
51,936 

46,819 

619 

7.«)9 

64,957 

2,746 

204,417 
35,739 

806,395 

49,139 

748,215 

437,584 

238,728 

620,035 
93,637 

7a5, 375 
42  154 

Pjutfii)f-t« 

613  7^ 

363.176 

Orkney 

Zetland 

2.58, 78^ 

493, 042 
80, 1.-J0 

SntiMTland   

TolaL 

4,340 

294,447 

303.799 

483, 193 

362,726 

2,993,733 

o  557  j(7j 

•  Edinbnrgli  Encyclopedia,  vol.  xvi,  p.  739. 
t  Lat,  57-  30' — Kudiak  is  precisely  the  same. 

»  These  statistics  are  official,  from  the  Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultnral 
Society  of  Scotland,  vol.  xv,  1856. 


REPORT   UPON   AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES    OF    ALASKA.      181 
Agricultural  statistics  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotle.7id,  Sec — Continued. 


Argyle 

Arran 

Caithness .'. 

Inverness 

Orkney ^ 

Zetland 3 

Rosa  and  Cromarty 

Sutherland 

Total 


Bushels  of  rye. 


1854. 


G5, 144 

7,086 

98,  924 

23, 068 

108, 168 

4,604 
1,065 


308,  059 


1855. 


59, 093 

4,655 

56, 292 

22, 20G 

105,  525 

C,  167 
2,693 


256,  631 


Bush,  of  beans 
and  peas. 


1854. 


1855. 


,147 
,403  I 

,'572' I 
342 
,273 


21,641 
3,523 

"'5,227 


21, 834 

114 


30,  737     52,  339 


Cwt.  of  turnips. 


Cwt.of  potatoen. 


185-1. 


1855. 


1854. 


84, 

143, 

64, 


ICO, 
32, 


103, 444 

4,344 

120,  787 

73,  948 

42, 536 

163,  834 

29, 707 


10,  504 

671 

8,310 

6,519 

6,532 

17, 281 
1,540 


1855. 


2G,  412 
1,493 
.5,  931 

12,176 

6;  261 

20,876 
1,633 


-  551, 231  I     528,  600  I  51,  357  I    74, ' 


Acres  of  Swedish 
turuip.s. 

Acres  of  carrots. 

Acres  of  cabbage. 

Acres  of  flax. 

1854. 

185.3. 

1854. 

1855. 

1854. 

1855. 

1854. 

18.5.5. 

28  !             33 
22  '              H) 

24 
4^ 

X 

4 
4 
1 
4 
0 

17 
4 

23 

7 

10 

35 

30 

C 

9 

3 

28 

r 

9 
20 
35 

7 

26 
12^ 
7 
2 
1 

15 

28 
10 

15 

17 

0 
4 
1 

1 
4 

.3 

1 

Zetland 

Ross  and  Cromarty 

Sutherland 



23  1             15 

3 

1 
1 

Total 

111  1             77 

43J 

33 

123  1            117 

49i 

36 

/ 

Argyle 

Arran 

Caithness 

Inverness 

Orkney 

Zetland 

Ross  and  Cromarty. 
.Sutherland 


Total. 


Acres  of  grass  and  hay. 


1854. 


1855. 


Horses. 


1855. 


151 

002 
043 
313 
954 
232 
641 
936 


40, 303 

2,588 

13  076 

14  226 
8,297 

535 

20, 491 

4,446 


Cows  and 
oxen. 


Sheep. 


8,  512 
2, 367    1 

801 
3, 485 

2, 437, 1 

4,414 
914 


102,; 


108, 962  I        22,  930 


1855. 


60,  378 
3,010 

14, 659 

24, 061 
8, 128 
1,250 

16, 190 
3, 642 


1855. 


814,  029 
25, 630 
60, 447 

567, 694 
10,815 
5,845 

288,  015 

200, 553 


131,318 


1, 973, 028 


Swine. 


1855. 


3,458 

360 

1, 149 

1,667 

1,337 

50 

4,  557 

550 


13,128 


It  "vvill  be  noted  from  tliese  statistics  that  tlie  quantity  of  potatoes  and 
also  the  quantity  of  wheat  is  small,  when  compared  with  the  other  root 
crops  or  cereals. 

The  small  Highland  cattle  are  well  known,  and,  like  the  small  Siberian 
.stock,  admirably  suited  to  such  a  climate  and  country.  They  produce 
tender,  well-llavored  beef,  and  extremely  rich  cream  and  butter. 

The  climate  of  Scotland  furnishes  a  very  complete  parallel  with  that 
of  the  Aleutian  district  of  Alaska.  (The  eastern  coast,  defended  from 
the  vapors  of  the  Atlantic  ciu'reuts  by  its  sheltering  mountains,  is  much 
drier,  and  the  extremes  of  temperature  are  greater  than  on  the  western 
coast  and  the  islands,  resembling  the  eastern  part  of  Cook's  Inlet  in 
this  respect,  and  the  interior  of  Alaska  generally. 

Veniaminof  states  that  in  Uualaska  the  greatest  number  of  perfectly 
clear  days  are  in  January,  February,  and  Jiuie,  and  usually  follow  ii 
northerly  wind.    The  barometer  ranges  from  27.415  inches'  to  29.437 


182  •  AGRICULTI'EAL   REPORT. 

inches,  and,  on  the  average,  is  highest  iu  December  and  lowest  in  July : 
rising  with  a  north  and  falling  with  a  south  wind. 

Inhabitant. — The  inhabitants  of  these  islands  are  the  Aleuts;  true 
Esquimaux  l)y  descent,  but  altered  by  an  insular  life,  isolated  from  other 
tribes,  and  clianged  by  long  contact  with  the  Russians.  They  all  nom- 
inally belong  to  the  Greek  Catholic  faith,  and  practice  the  rites  of  that 
rcligiou.  !^iany  can  read  and  write  the  ecclesiastical  or  old  Slavoni<- 
(baracters,  which  they  have  been  taught  by  the  priests. 

They  arc  faithiiil,  docile,  enduring,  hardy,  but  lazy,  phlegmatic,  auil 
great  drunkards.  They  make  good  sailors  Init  poorlarmers.  andchietly 
occupy  themselves  iu  hunting  and  lishing.  There  are.  perhaps,  iu  ail, 
lifteen  hundred  of  them,  male  and  female;  and  it  can  l>e  said,  to  their 
credit,  that  for  honesty  they  far  suipass  the  majority  of  civilized  com- 
munities. 

Vegetation. — There  is  no  timber  of  any  kind  larger  than  a  shnib  on 
these  islands,  but  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  good  reason  why  trees, 
if  properly  planted  and  drained,  should  not  flourish.  A  few  spnices 
were,  in  1805,  transplanted  from  Sitka,  or  Kadiak,  to  Uualaska.  They 
lived,  but  were  not  cared  for,  or  the  situation  was  unfavorable,  as  they 
have  increased  very  little  in  size  since  that  time,  according  to  Chamisso. 
The  grasses  in  this  climate,  warmer  than  that  of  the  Youkon  territory 
and  drier  than  the  Sitkan  district,  attain  an  unwonted  luxuriance.  For 
example,  Uualaska,*  in  the  vicinity  of  Captains'  Harbor,  abounds  in 
grasses,  with  a  climate  better  adapted  for  haying  than  that  of  the  coast 
of  Oregon.  The  cattle  were  remarkably  fat,  and  the  beef  very  tender 
and  delicate ;  rarely  surpassed  by  any  well-fed  stock.  Milk  was  abund- 
ant. The  good  and  available  arable  land  lies  chiefly  near  the  coast, 
formed  by  the  meeting  and  mingling  of  the  detritus  from  mountain  and 
valley  with  the  sea-sand,  which  formed  a  remarkably  rich  and  genial 
soil,  well  suited  for  garden  and  root  crop  culture.  It  occurs  to  us  that 
many  choice  sunny  hillsides  here  would  produce  good  crops  under  the 
thrifty  hand  of  enterprise.  They  are  already  cleared  for  the  plow. 
"VMiere  gi-ain-like  grasses  grow  and  mature  well,  it  seems  fair  to  infer 
that  oats  and  barley  would  thrive,  provided  they  were  fall-sown,  like  the 
native  grasses.  This  is  abundantly  verified  by  reference  to  the  collec- 
tions. Several  of  these  grasses  had  already  (September)  matured  and 
cast  their  seed  before  we  arrived,  showing'  sutiicient  length  of  season. 
Indeed  no  gi^ain  will  yield  more  than  half  a  crop  of  poor  quality,  (on  the 
Pacific  slope,)  when  spring-sown,  whether  north  or  south. 

The  Russians  alfirm,  with  confirmation  by  later  visitors,  that  potatoes 
are  cultivated  iu  almost  every  Aleutian  village ;  and  Yeniaminof  states 
that  at  the  village  in  Isanotsky  Strait,  they  have  raised  them  and 
preserved  the  seed  for  planting,  since  the  beginning  of  this  century; 
the  inhabitants  of  this  village  by  so  doing  having  escaped  the  efiects  of 
several  severe  famines,  which  visited  their  less  provident  and  industri- 
ous neighbors. 

"Wild  peas  giow  in  gi-eat  luxuriamce  near  Uualaska  Bav,  and,  accord- 
ing to  :\Ir.  Davidson,  might  be  advantageouslv  cultivated.  This  spe^i'ies. 
the,  Latlnjn'smaritimus  of  botanists,  grows  and  flourishes  as  far  north  as 
latitude  04°.  The  productions  of  all  the  islands  to  the  westward  resemble 
those  of  Uualaska. 

In  September,  says  Dr.  Kellogg,  the  turnips  hexe  were  large  and  of 
excellent  quality ;  carrots,  parsnips,  and  cabbages  lacked  careful' atteu- 


*Se«  report  of  Dr.  A.  Kellocg  on  the  Botanv  of  Alaska,  U.  Ex.  Doc.  177,  40th 
tiongress,  second  session,  page  218. 


REPORT   UPON  AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES   OF   ALASKA.      183 

tion,  but  were  good,  "Wild  parsnips  are  abundant  and  edible  tbrougli 
all  these  islands.  At  tlie  height  of  two  thousand  four  Iiundped  and  fifty 
feet  above  the  sea  most  vegetation  ceases. 

From  the  reports  of  Dr.  Kellogg  and  others,  there  appears  to  be  no 
doubt  that  cattle  can  be  advantageously  kept  in  the  Aleutian  district, 
provided  competent  farmers  will  take  the  matter  in  hand. 

The  winter  climate  is  as  mild  as  that  of  the  highlands  of  Scotland  oi^ 
the  Orkneys,  where  stock  has  been  successfully  kept  from  time  imme- 
morial. Golovin  states  that,  at  one  time,  the  company  projiosed  to  furnish 
the  Aleuts  with  stock,  gratis,  in  order  to  promote  agriculture,  and  pre- 
vent the  femines  caused  by  taking  them  off  to  hunt  sea  otter  duiing  the 
fishing  season.  The  Aleuts,  totally  ignorant  of  the  management  of 
cattle,  did  not  succeed  very  well.  The  cows,  which  they  contiued  at 
night  in  the  low  buildings  where  their  drj^  fish  is  hung  up,  knocked  it 
down  and  trami)led  on  it ;  they  did  not  know  how  to  milk  them ;  the 
hogs  rooted  up  their  garden  patches ;  and  the  goats  had  a  fancy  for 
jumping  over  the  tents  in  which  they  slept  in  simimer,  and  knocking 
them  down,  to  the  gTeat  discomfort  of  the  family,  so  they  were  very  glad 
to  get  rid  of  them.  In  Cook's  Inlet  the  natives  were  more  intelligent, 
or  had  more  experience,  and  their  catttle  did  much  better. 

Hogs  were  placed  on  the  island  near  the  Churnobourreef  in  1825,  and 
multiplied  exceedingly,  living  on  the  wild  parsnips  and  other  native 
plants,  but  were  destroyed  during  the  eruption  of  the  volcano  on  the 
neighboring  island  of  Ounimak  in  1827,  by  the  tidal  waves  accompany- 
ing that  phenomenon. 

THE  SITKAN  DISTRICT. 

This  district  extends  from  the  southern  boundary  to  the  peninsula  of 
Aliaska,  including  the  island  of  Kadiak. 

The  surface  of  this  portion  of  the  Territory  is  rugged  and  mountain- 
ous in  the  extreme,  the  northern  part  only  affording  any  appreciable 
amount  of  level  and  arable  lands  suitable  for  cultivation.  Small  patches 
occur  here  and  there  where  small  farms  might  be  located,  but,  as  a  rule, 
the  mountains  descend  precipitously  into  the  sea,  with  their  flanks 
covered  with  dense  and  almost  impenetrable  forests.  These  rise  to  the 
level  of  about  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  Here  and  there  a 
bare  streak  shows  where  an  avalanche  has  cut  its  way  from  the  mountain 
top  to  the  waterside ;  and  occasionally  the  shining  fi'ont  of  a  glacier 
occupies  some  deep  ravine,  contrasting  curiously  with  the  dense  foliage 
on  either  side. 

The  canals  and  channels  of  the  Alexander  Archipelago  form  the  high- 
ways of  the  country,  and  so  intricate  and  tortuous  are  they,  that  they 
afford  access  to  almost  every  part  of  it,  without  setting  foot  on  shore. 

Soil. — The  soil  is  principally  decayed  vegetable  mold,  with  substrata 
of  gravel  or  dark-colored  clay. 

The  soil  of  Kadiak  and  Cook's  Inlet  is  of  a  similar  character,  but  from 
an  admixture  of  volcanic  sand  thrown  up  by  the  waves,  and  abundant 
sandstone  sti'ata,  it  is  lighter,  drier,  and  better  adapted  for  cultivation. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  southern  portion  of  this  district  is  intol- 
erably rainy.  The  annual  rain -fall  at  Sitka  varies  from  sixty  to  ninety- 
five  inches,  and  the  annual  number  of  more  or  less  rainy  days  varies 
from  one  hundi'cd  and  ninety  to  two  hundred  and  eighty-five.  In  Una- 
laska  the  annual  nimiber  of  rainy  days  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty, 
and  the  annual  fall  of  rain  (and  melted  snow)  is  about  forty-four  inches. 
This  last  estimate  is  probably  not  too  low  for  the  island  of  Kadiak  and 


184 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


tlie  eastern  part  of  Cook's  lulet.  The  annual  means  of  the  temperature 
about  Sitka  are  by  no  means  low,  in  spite  of  the  rainy  summers.  The 
followiuy:  table  will  indicate  the  m'eans  lor  tlie  several  seasons  during 
the  year  ending  October  31,  1SG8,  from  the  United  States  Coast  Survey 
observations : 


SHJca  meieorological  abstract 


Soa8on. 

Mean 
Temp. 

Rain- 
lall. 

F.air 
duvB. 

Cloudy 
d;iyn. 

Rainy 

dayo. 

Sflowy 
day«. 

•Spring 

Fahr. 
4i6 
.'■).-).  7 
45.9 
31.9 

Inches. 
14.  G4 
10.14 
28.70 
14.59 

22 
21 
19 
44 

70 
71 

47 

33 
3G 
44 
21 

15 
0 

5 

Wiuter :... 

6 

Year 

44. 07 

C3.07 

106 

2G0 

134 

2C 

Minimum  temperature  11"^,  maximum  temperature  71°,  for  the  year. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  average  temperature  of  the  winter  is  hardly 
below  the  freezing  point,  the  greatest  degree  of  cold  being  eleven  above 
z<',ro.  The  average  of  main^  years'  observation  places  the  mean  winter 
t<*mperatnre  about  +3^'^  Fahr.,  which  is  about  that  of  ]\Ianheim,  on  the 
lihiiie,  and  warmer  than  Munich,  Vienna,  or  Berlin ;  and  about  the  same 
as  that  of  Washington  (one  thousand  and  ninety-five  miles  further 
south,)  and  warmer  than  New  York,  Philadelphia,  or  Baltimore.*  The 
cloudiness  and  rain  of  the  summer  season,  however,  prevents  it  from 
l)eing  nearly  as  warm  as  at  any  of  the  places  above  mentioned.  Very 
little  ice  is  made  at  Sitka  5  the  harbor  is  always  open,  and  the  island 
is  noted  for  the  abundance  of  a  small  species  of  humming  bird. 

InhabitanU. — These  are  principally  Indians  in  the  Alexander  Archi- 
I)clago.  Treated  with  lirmness  and  decision,  they  are  harmless  5  but  if 
vacillation  or  weakness  mark  the  dealings  of  Americans,  as  they  did  the 
policy  of  the  Russian  American  Company,  massacres  and  other  exhibi- 
tions of  Indian  virtue  and  coiu-age  will  be  the  ine^itable  result.  North 
of  the  archipelago,  on  the  shores  of  Prince  William  Sound,  and  the  north 
shore  of  Cook's  Inlet,  and  on  the  whole  of  Aliaska  Peninsula  and  the 
islands  south  of  it,  the  inhabitants  are  of  tlbe  Esquimaux  stock,  intel- 
ligent, ingenious  and  docile.  ( 

Nutxiral  productions. — In  the  southern  part  of  this  district,  fi'om  an 
agricultnral  point  of  view,  there  is  little  beside  the  timber.  iSTear  Fort 
Simpson,  Dr.  Kellogg  describes  timothy,  white  clover,  and  medick,  or 
l)m'r  clover,  as  flourishing  with  great  luxuriance.  Dr.  Eothrock  says 
the  same  of  the  native  grasses  in  the  interior.  But  sonth  of  Prince  Wil- 
liam Sound  there  is  so  litle  low  land,  or  prairie,  that  there  is  no  good 
opportunity  for  raising  fodder,  and  the  climate  would  render  its  pre- 
servation extremely  precarious.  The  character  of  the  country  is  so 
nigged  that  it  would  hardly  be  advisable  to  keep  many  cattle;  and 
grain-raising,  on  account  of  the  moisture,  is  not  to  be  thought  of.  At 
Sitka  some  vegetables  do  very  well.  Turnips,  beaiis,  peas,  carrots, 
beets,  lettuce,  and  radishes  succeed  well.  Potatoes  are  small  and  watery 
IVom  want  of  sun  and  excess  of  moisture.  Cabbages  are  luxuriant,  but 
will  not  head.  Cereals  fail.  The  milk  and  cream  fi-om  a  few  cows  are  very 
good.    Pork  has  a  disagreeable  flavor  from  being  fed  on  fish  entrails,  &c. 

''S*^o  report  of  Lorin  Blodsctt,  in  Rep.  No.  37,  Com.  ou  Foreign  Aflfaixs,  fortieth  Con- 
gress, 2d  bcssLoji,  page  ',HJ. 


REPORT  UPON  AGRICULTURAL  RESOURCES  OF  ALASKA.   185 

There  was  iu  18G5  one  old  horse,  which  had  evidently  seen  better  days. 
Poultry  does  not  succeed  well.  Lntke  says  that  the  crows  eat  up  all 
the  young-  chickens,  and  also  deprive  the  sucking-  pigs  of  their  tails  ! 

To  the  "northern  portion  of  this  district  the  above  remarks  do  not 
apply.  Kadiak  and  Cook's  Inlet,  northeast  of  Fort  Alexander,  have 
comparatively  colder  winters  and  drier  and  warmer  summers  than  the 
islands  and  coast  to  the  west  or  south  of  them.  Haying  can  be  successfully 
carried  on,  the  native  grasses  being  valuable  for  fodder,  green  or  dry, 
while  the  cultivated  gi^isses  succeed  very  well.  Barley  and  oats  have 
been  successfidly  raised  near  the  settlement  of  St.  Nicholas,  on  Cook's 
Inlet.  There  is  no  want  of  wood:  while  it  does  not  encroach  on  the 
lowland,  which  is  clear  of  trees  and  underbrush.  Dr.  Kellogg  says  of 
Kadiak,  '•  various  herbs  and  grasses  clothe  the  mountains  to  their  sum- 
mits. The  summer  climate  here,  unlike  Sitka,  is  sufficiently  foir  for 
Imying.  We  saw  many  mown  valleys  fi'om  which  a  good  supply  of  hay 
from  the  native  grasses  had  been  secured.  The  cattle  were  fat,  and  milk 
abundant.  The  butter  was  yellow  and  appeared  remarkably  rich,  though 
of  a  disagreeable  Havor.  which  might  be  owing  to  the  manner  of  making." 
The  potatoes  are  better  than  at  Sitka,  but  do  not  attain  a  very  large 
size.  It  has  been  mentioned  that  the  cattle  distributed  to  the  natives 
by  the  Eussian  American  Company  did  very  well  iu  Cook's  Inlet. 

'  Timber. — The  agricidtm-al  staple  of  the  southern  Sitkan  tlistrict  is 
timber.  I  name  the  forest  trees  iu  the  order  of  their  value.  The  yeUow 
cedar  (C  Xutlrensis,  Spach.)  is  the  most  valuable  wood  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  It  combines  a  fine,  close  textiu-e  with  considerable  hardness, 
extreme  durability,  and  pleasant  fragrance.  For  boat-building  it  is 
unsurpassed,  iu  addition  to  its  lightness,  toughness,  ease  of  workman- 
.ship  and  gvent  durability.* 

After  ascending  some  distance  the  mountain  sides  of  the  island  of  Sitka, 
the  wood,  which  appears  in  increased  denseness  before  us,  consists 
particularly  of  a  noble  Thuja  fT.  exceJsa,  C.  Xutkcvnsis.J  This  is  the 
timber  most  valued  here.  It  occurs  frequently  further  down,  but  the 
more  predominant  spruce  ti-ees  conceal  it  from  view  ;  but  here  it  con- 
stitutes almost  the  entire  timber.t  From  its  agreeable  jierfume.  it  is 
known  to  the  Eussians  as  duslini]:,  or  scented  wood.  This  is  the  wood 
formerly  exported  to  China,  and  returned  to  us  as  ••  camphor  wood,"  &c., 
famous  for  excluding  moths.  In  repairing  old  Fort  Simpson,  a  stick  of 
tliis  wood,  among  the  pine  timbers  used  for  underpinning,  was  found  to 
be  the  only  sound  log  after  twenty-one  years'  trial.  A  wreck  on  the 
beach  at  Sitka,  originally  constructed  of  this  timber,  was  found  thirty- 
two  years  after  as  sound  as  the  day  it  was  built ;  even  the  iron  bolts 
were  not  corroded. 

Sitka  spruce,  or  white  piue  (Abies  SitTxcmis.)  This  tree,  well  known 
in  the  lumber  trade  of  the  coast,  attains  a  large  size,  and  is  noteworthy 
from  its  invariably  straight  and  slowly  tapering  trunk.  The  wood  is 
not  so  diu'able  as  the  last  species,  but  is  available  for  many  purposes. 
Hendock  {Abies  Mertemiana.  Bong.)  This  species  is  often  confoimded 
with  the  white  pine  by  lumber  dealers,  who  style  them  both  '•  Sitka 
piue."  It  is  much  larger  in  its  gTOwth  than  the  next  species,  but  some 
botanists  consider  it  a  variety  of  the  balsam.  Balsam  fir  {Abies  Cana- 
densis, Mich.)  The  wood  of  this  species  is  almost  valueless,  but  the 
bark,  as  well  as  the  bark  of  the  last  named,  is  used  in  tanning.  Scrub 
pine  {Pimis  contorta,  Dougl.)    This  species  seldom  grows  more  than 

*  See  Kellogc:,  Rep.  Bot.  Alaska. 

t  ilertens,  letter  from,  in  Hookers  Bot.  ilisc,  vol.  iii. 


IHC)  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

forty  feet  clear  trunk  aud  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  It  passes  as  far 
north  as  the  juncture  of  the  Lewis  and  the  Pelly  rivers  in  the  interior, 
but  no  fiuther. 

Other  trees,  such  as  the  little  juniper,  wild  pear,  and  the  like,  may 
be  of  some  use,  but  from  their  small  size  or  scarcity  are  of  little 
economical  value. 

In  Kadiak  Dr.  Kellogg  found  the  growth  of  timber  {Ahies  Sii1ccnsi>>) 
contiued  to  the  eastern  valleys  and  slopes  of  the  island.  The  largest 
seen  were  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  ninety  to  one  huntlied  feet  high. 
In  the  governor's  yard  were  masts  and  spars  over  one  hundred  feet  in 
length,  scarcely  tapering  two  inches  in  thiity  or  forty  feet.  These  were 
from  Kadiak ;  but  many  are  brought  in  rafts  from  Spruce  Island,  ten  or 
fifteen  miles  off. 

The  wooded  district  comprises  the  whole  Alexander  Archipelago,  and 
the  mainland  north  to  Lituya  Bay;  from  this  point  to  Prince  ^Viiliam 
Sound  little  is  known  of  the  character  of  the  timber :  but  in  the  latter 
locahty  fine  timber  abounds,  and  also  in  the  interior. 

ge:seeal  su^diaey. 

While  in  the  Youkou  tenitory  we  cannot  look  for  self-supporting  ag- 
ricultural districts,  nor  reasonably -expect  any  one  to  obtain  a  sustenance 
by  farming  alone,  still  the  settler  called  there  to  develop  the  resources 
of  the  country,  be  they  lumber,  fish,  or  furs,  may  have  milk  in  his  tea, 
and  many  vegetables  on  his  table,  if  he  possess  the  energy  and  knowl- 
edge to  make  the  most  of  his  opportunities.  It  will  not  be  necessary 
for  him  to  rely  on  the  products  of  the  chase  alone,  if  he  will  but  take 
the  necessaiy  care  to  provide  shelter  for  his  cattle,  and  to  cut  the  peren- 
niai  grasses  which  cover  the  prairies  and  lowlands  for  their  fodder  during 
the  T\inter. 

In  the  Aleutian  distiict  is  situated  the  larger  proportion  of  arable  lands, 
and  in  this  and  the  northern  part  of  the  Sitkan  district  the  climatic  con- 
ditions are  the  most  favorable  in  the  territory.  Their  resemblance  to 
the  conditions  which  prevail  in  Northwestern  Scotland  and  its  islands 
has  been  already  demonstrated  at  length ;  and  the  capability  of  this 
district  for  agricidture  may  therefore  be  reasonably  inferred.  Oats  and 
barley,  possibly  wheat  and  rye,  may  succeed  on  these  islands.  Their 
abundant  capacity  for  pEoduciug  root  crops  of  good  quality,  except  pos- 
sibly potatoes,  may  be  considered  as  settled.  That  cattle  will  do  well 
there  is  no  doubt ;  and  the  Pacific  coast  may  yet  derive  its  best  butter 
and  cheese  from  the  Aleutian  and  IN'orthern  Sitkan  district.  Sheep, 
goats  and  swine  have  not  been  thoroughly  tried  as  yet,  but  the  inference 
is  that  they  also  would  succeed. 

Most  of  the  berries  found  in  the  Youkon  territory  are  common  to  the 
Aleutian  district,  and  the  climate,  except  fiom  its  moistm-e,  presents  no 
obstacles  to  the  success  of  some  kinds  of  fmit  trees.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  some  one  will  try  the  experiment.  These  islands,  with  the  country 
around  Cook's  Inlet,  are  unquestionably  the  best  agricidtural  region  in 
our  new  possessions. 

The  resources  of  the  southern  Sitkan  district  lie  apparently  entirely 
in  its  timber.  This  is  unquestionably  needed  on  the  Pacific  slope,  and 
is  a  most  valuable  acquisition.  2^o  better  lumbering  district  coidd  be  im- 
agined Mith  water  transportation  everywhere,  and  mountain  sides  so 
steep  that  a  slide,  easily  made  of  comparatively  worthless  timber,  will 
conduct  the  more  \  aluable  logs  directly  to  the  water  side. 

Some  vegetables  wiU  be  raised  in  the  future  a,s  in  the  past  j  and  some 


REPOET   UPON   AGEICULTUEAL   RES0UECE3    OF   ALASKA.      187 

stock  vrill  be  kept  in  this  part  of  Alaska,  but  expectations  slionld  be 
moderate.  To  the  northern  part  of  this  district  the  remarks  on  thi 
Aleutian  district  will  apply. 

Many  reports  may  be  found  in  cuTiilation,  even  in  official  documents, 
in  regard  to  Alaska,  which  hare  very  lirtle  foundation.  It  is  believed 
that  in  tills  report  nothing  is  asserted  which  is  not  susceptible  of  easy 
proof.  It  may  Ije  said  thatMassachusetts  has  never  exported  any  native 
productions  except  granite  and  ice.  Alaska,  on  the  contrary,  if  wo  dis- 
mi.^s  the  fabidous  stories  of  fossil  ivory,  and  gold  and  sdver,  may  be 
abl^'  ill  coirrse  of  time  to  give  not  only  ice,  marble,  coal,  and  ship  tim- 
ber, but  butter  and  cheese,  mutton  and  beef.  Perhaps  more  palatable 
liuit  may  take  the  place  of  the  cranberries,  which  have  already  fomid 
their  way  to  San  Francisco  markets. 

The  diustrations  accompanying  the  report  are  reduced  from  the  botan- 
ical dlustrations  of  Baron  KittUtz,  by  Hie  well-known  aitist  Aliss  E.  B. 
Greene,  and  represent  a  characteristic  scene,  iHastratiug  the  vegetation 
of  each  of  the  three  districts  mentioned  in  this  report. 

In  the  compilation  of  the  following  list  of  useful  plants  indigenous  to 
Alaska  I  am  indebted  for  assistance  to  T.Ir.  TTright,  of  the  botanical 
garden  at  Cambridge,  Dr.  Eothrock,  and  Dr.  C.  C.  Parry.  It  is  short, 
containing  only  one  hundred  and  eighteen  species,  including  grasses. 

USEFrX  ESTDIGEXOrS  ALASKAN  PLAls'TS. 

Hepatica  trdoba,  Chaix. — Sitka. 

Coptis  tiifolia,  Sal. — Sitka. 

Coptis  asplemfolia,  Sal. — Sitka. 

Aconitum,  var.  delphinifohum. — Sitka  to  Point  Barrow. 

Nasturtium  palusti'e,  D.  C. — Youkon. 

Cochlearia  fenestrata,  B..  Br. — Norton  Sound. 

Liiium  perenne,  L. — ^Youkon. 

Trifolium  repens,  L. — Sitka. 

Lathyrus  maritimus.  Big. — Sitka. 

Redysarum  Mackeuzii.  Eich. — Toiikon. 

Paibus  spectabihs.  Pmsh. — Sitka.    Kadiak. 

E.  arcticus,  L. — Kotzebue  Sound. 

E.  pedatiis,  Sm. — Sitka. 

E.  chamcemorus,  L. — Sitka. 

E.  yutkanus,  Mog. — Sitka. 

Eosa  cinuamomea,  L. — Youkon. 

Pyras  rivularis.  Dougl. — Sitka. 

P.  sambuciiblia.  Cham. — Sitka. 

Eibcs  rubrum.  L.  Youkon. 

E.  Hudsonianuui,  Eich. — Youkon. 

E.  prostratum,  L.  Herb. — Sitka. 

E.  l3racteosum,  Dougl. — Sitka. 

E.  lacustre,  Pursh. — Pt.  Barrow :  fruit  poor. 

Archangelica  officinalis,  Hoff. — Sitka.  &c. 

A.  Gmelini,  D.  C— Sitka,  islands,  &c. 

Panax  horridum.  Smith. — Sitka. 

Sambucus  pubens,  Michx. — Sitka. 

Valeriana  tlioica,  L. — Norton  Sound. 

Vaceinimn  vitis  idoea,  L. — Sitka,  Youkon. 

V.  myrtilloides,  Hooker. — Sitka. 

Y.  myitillus,  L. — Sitka. 

V.  Chamissonis,  Bong. — Sitka  and  Unalaska. 


188  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

V.  ovalifoliiuu,  Smitli.— Sitka, 

V.  parvifolimn,  Smitli. — Sitka. 

V.  salicinum,  Cham. — Uualaska. 

V.  cajspitosum,  Miclix. — Sitka. 

V.  ulig^inosum,  L.— Sitka  and  uortliwarrt. 

Viburnum  A-iilo-ari.s,  L.— Sitka  aud  northward. 

Arctostaphylois  alpina,  Spr.— Sitka  and  northward. 

A.  uva  ursi,  Spr. — Unalaska  and  northward. 

(ientiana  amarolla.  L. — Sitka. 

Oxyria  renilormis,  Hook. — Sitka  and  northward. 

Euraex  salicitblius,  Weium. — Sitka. 

It.  acetosa,  L. — Kotzebue  Sound. 

It.  domesticus,  ETartm. — Sitka,  northward. 

i^olygonum  viviparnm. — Sitka,  northward. 

Empetrum  nij^um,  L. — Sitka,  northward. 

Myrica  Gale,  L. — Sitka. 

Abies  Canadensis,  Michx. — Sitka. 

A..  ]\Iertensiana,  Bong. — Sitka. 

A.  Sitkensi,s,  Bonjj. — Sitka. 

A.  alba,  Michx. — Youkon. 
Pinus  contorta,  Doufjl. — Sitka. 

Larix  Dahurica,  IMert. — Kadiak  ?  Youkon. 

Cnpressus  Xutkfeusis,  Spach. — Sitka. 

.hmipenis  communis,  var.  aljuna. — Sitka. 

Initillaria  Kamtsehatkensis,  Fisch.— Sitka,  nortliwarii- 

Allium  schoenoprasum,  L. — Youkon. 

Veratrum  Escholtzii,  Gray. — Sitlca. 

Ilordeum  pratense,  L. — Sitka. 

fl.  jubatum,  L. — Youkon. 

Elymus  Sibiricus,  L. — Sitka. 

1*].  arenarius,  L. — Xorton  Sound. 

K.  mollis,  Trill. — Sitka,  northward. 

Ti'iticum  repens,  L. — Kotzebue  Sound. 

J^'estuca  ovina,  L. — Kotzebue  Sound. 

F.  rubra,  IJ. — Sitka  aud  northward. 

F.  subulata,  Bon^r. — Sitka. 
Bromus  ciliatus,  L. — Kotzebue. 

B.  subulatus.  Led. — Unalaska. 
B.  Aleutensis,  Trin. — Unalaska. 

B.  Sitkensis,  13onij. — Sitka. 
Poa  stenantha,  Trin. — Unalaska. 
P.  flavicans,  Sed. — Unalaska. 

P.  arctica,  It.  Br. — Sitka  to  Kotzebue. 

P.  cenisia.  All. — Sitka  to  Kotzebue. 

P.  rotundata,  Trin. — Uualaska. 

I*,  nemoralis,  L. — Kotzebue. 

P.  annua,  L. — Sitka. 

P.  pratcnsis,  L. — Kotzebue. 

Colpodium  liilvum.  Led. — Kotzebue. 

Dupontia  psilosantha,  Piupr. — Kotzebue. 

Catabrosa  aquatica,  Bcauv. — Sitka,  Kotzehua 

C.  algida.  Fries, — Kotzebue. 
Atropis  maritima,  Led. — Sitka. 
A.  angustata.  Led, — Kotzebue. 
Glyceria  aquatica.  Smith. — Sitka, 

G.  glumaris.  Led. — Sitka,  Kotzebue. 


REPORT   UPON    AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES    OF    ALASKA.       189 

HierocMoa  "borealis,  E.  &  S. — Kotzeltue. 

H.  alpina,  E.  &  S.— Kotzebue. 

Trisetum  subspicatmn,  Trin. — Kotzebue 

T.  sesquiflonim,  Trin. — Unalaska. 

T.  cemumn,  Trin. — Sitka. 

Aira  ccespitosa,  Trin. — Unalaska. 

Aira,  var  Bottnica,  Trin. — Sitka. 

A.  arctica,  Trin. — Sitka,  Unalaska. 

A.  atropurpurea,  Scheele. — Sitka,  Unakiska. 

Calamagrostis  Aleutica,  Trin. — Sitka,  Unalaska. 

C.  pnrpurescens,  E.  Br. — Youkon. 

C.  strigosa,  Walil. — Sitka. 

C.  Laponnica,  Trin. — Unalaska. 

C.  neglecta,  Gaert. — Kotzebne  SoudcI. 

C.  Canadensis,  Beany. — Kotzebue  Sound. 

C.  Langsdorfii,  Trin. — Kotzebue  Sound. 

Arctagrostis  latifolia,  Led. — Kotzebue  Souud. 

Cinna  latifolia,  Led. — Sitka. 

Agrostis  sequivalris,  Trin. — Sitka. 

A.  esarata,  Trin. — Sitka. 

A.  geminata,  Trin. — Unalaska. 

A.  laxiflora,  E.  Br. — L'nalaska. 

PMeum  pratense,  L. — Sitka,  Fort  Simpson. 

P.  alpinum,  L. — Kotzebue,  Sitka. 

Alopecurus  alpinus,  Trin. — Kotzebue. 

Other  species  will  no  doubt  be  added  to  this  list  upon  more  careful 
and  extensive  exploration. 

WILLIA3I  H.  BALL. 

Hon.  Horace  Oapeon,  Conunissionei'. 


REPORT  OF  THE  EDITOR. 


Sir.  :  Tbc  abaudouineut  oftlie  long-coutinucd  usage  of  atlmittmg  volii- 
iniiioiis  and  desultory  essays  into  the  annual  report  of  tlie  Department, 
v.hich  was  coutemplatcd  and  in  part  accomplished,  in  the  volume  for 
1S(>7,  is  made  complete  in  the  present  issue.  It  was  difficult  to  recognize 
the  propriety  of  competing  with  private  publishers  in  the  presentation  of 
exhaustive  treatises  upon  special  topics,  written  by  private  individuals, 
anii  ill  no  sense  oflicial,  however  valuable  or  complete  the  information 
presented. 

While  the  domain  of  book-making  and  newspaper  enterprise  was 
invaded,  the  matter  itself  was  not  always  of  the  kind  contemplated  by 
tlie  organic  act  requiring  reports  upon  agiicultural  progTcss  and  investi- 
gation. The  essay  was  the  work  of  a  single  mind,  covering  a  limited 
field  of  observation,  and  prepared  with  the  aid  of  private  resources  only. 
It  was  not  a  statement  of  results  of  Department  labor  and  investigation. 
It  was  not  legitimately  an  official  report. 

It  is  believed  that  the  present  system  -will  command  the  approbation 
and  appreciation  of  intelligent  agricidturists.  The  annual  report  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  wiU  consist  of  the  reports  of  the  Commis- 
sioner and  of  division  ofiicers  and  special  agents  of  the  Department,  in- 
cluding, imdcr  the  report  of  the  editor  of  the  annual,  digests  of  the 
researches  of  the  office,  upon  special  and  timely  topics,  demanded  by 
the  exigencies  of  the  hour,  and  illustrative  of  the  direction  of  rural  effort 
and  of  the  progress  of  the  time.  Such  investigations  may  be  made  with 
the  aid  of  a  large  corps  of  regidar  and  special  correspondents,  of  the 
State  and  local  societies  representing  agriculture  and  horticulture, 
and  of  the  diplomatic  representatives  of  this  country  abroad,  (who  are 
extremely  courteous  in  forwarding  voluntary  information  and  in  respond- 
ing to  special  inquiries,)  as  well  as  of  experts  in  any  line  of  research 
desired,  who  may  be  employed  to  compile  and  enlarge  the  matter  in  pos- 
session of  the  Department.  Thus  the  work  may  not  be  deprived  of  the 
skill  of  individuals  learned  in  some  specialty,  while  its  unity  and  con- 
sistency are  not  marred  by  views  from  many  standpoints  and  irreconcil- 
able ditferences  in  statements  of  fact  and  of  opinion. 

In  this  connection  it  is  proper  to  state  that  the  statistics  of  this  office 
upon  Roads  and  Road  Laws  were  digested  and  the  subject  reviewed,  as 
presented  in  these  pages,  by  John  Wilkinson,  of  Baltimore,  landscape 
gardener  and  civil  engineer.  To  Dr.  Lee,  of  Tennessee,  the  Department  is 
indebted  for  information  presented  in  Concentrated  Fertilizers  in  the 
southern  States ;  to  Thomas  S.  Pleasants,  of  Virginia,  for  matter  con- 
cerning the  Mmeral  Resources  of  Virginia;  to  W.  S.  Clark,  president 
of  th(»  Massachusetts  College,  for  the  history  of  that  institution  ;  to  G. 
S.  Wagner,  of  the  13ee  Journal,  for  analysis  of  Department  statistics 
ii]>on  bee-keeping;  and  to  John  S.  Ilittell,  of  California,  for  the  matter 
relating  to  silk  culture  in  that  State.  The  Department  is  also  indebted 
to  thousands  of  rc^idar  and  volunteer  correspondents,  who  labor  without 
reward  lor  the  advancement  of  their  favorite  calling,  and  whose  records 
of  ex])erience  and*  statenuMits  of  fact  are  embodied  m  tJie  matter  pre- 
sented in  tbe  following  pages,  as  (wnpiled  by  the  editor  of  tliis  volume 
and  his  assistants. 

J.  R.  DODGE. 

Uon.  IIORACE  C APRON,  Commissioner. 


■sO 


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DEPARTMENT  BUILDING  AND  GROUNDS. 


The  new  bidldiug  of  the  Department  of  AgTiciiltuie  is  one  himdred  and 
seventy  feet  long  by  sixty-one  feet  deep,  and  consists  of  a  finished  base- 
ment, three  full  stories,  and  Mansard  roof.  Designed  in  the  renaissance 
st^ie  of  architecture,  the  ti'ont  i^resents  a  center  building  with  main  en- 
trance, flanked  by  two  projecting  wings.  The  material  is  pressed  brick, 
with  brownston'e  base,  belts,  trimmings,  and  cornices.  Walking  over  a 
flight  of  swelled  granite  steps,  the  visitor  passes  thi'ongh  the  main  door, 
of  "oak  and  ash  wood,  into  an  octagonal  vestibule  of  twenty  feet  square 
and  sixteen  feet  high,  the  floor  of  which  is  laid  with  rosettes  and  bor- 
ders of  encaustic  tiles,  and  the  sides  paneled  in  encaustic  paiiit.  The 
ceiling  is  decorated  with  £i"esco  work,  around  a  centA",  representing  an 
arbor  of  vine  foliage,  and  held  by  American  eagles  with  spread  wings ; 
arabesque  ornaments  are  sprung  with  four  medallions  illustrating  in 
turn,  by  landscape,  light  effect,  and  luunau  figures,  spring,  morning, 
and  childhood ;  summer,  noon,  and  youth  j  autumn,  evening,  and  mature 
age;  winter,  night,  and  old  age. 

Around  a  wide  corridor,  similarly  finished,  but  in  plain  style,  are 
grouped  oflice  rooms  of  twenty  by  twenty  feet  in  size.  The  reception 
room  is  chastely  decorated,  while  the  chief  clerk's  room  is  finished  with 
an  apparently  solid  molded  and  paneled  wainscot  in  curly  walnut, 
mahogany,  and  maple,  covering  the  height  of  side  walls,  surmounted  by 
frescoed  stucco  corniee  and  a  ceiling  in  complementary  colors.  This 
wainscot  is  a  specimen  of  the  "American  vrood-hanging,"  which  is  an 
apphcation  of  wood  to  the  plastered  walls.  The  wood  is  prej^ared  in 
strips  of  difierent  lengths,  of  about  the  thickness  of  paper,  and  is  placed 
upon  the  walls  by  paper-hangers.  The  adjoining  ofiice  of  the  Com- 
missioner is  done  in  the  same  material,  but  in  a  higher  style  of  the  art, 
the  panels  of  rich  bird's  eye  maple  being  bordered  by  fiiezes  of  mahog- 
any and  blistered  walnut,  alternating  with  fancy  paneled  pilasters  in 
mahogany  and  satin  wood,  all  parted  by  curly  maple  and  set  off  by  gilt 
edges.  This  series  of  rooms  is  completed  by  the  private  office  of  the 
Commissioner,  finished  in  plain  library  style,  with  fiiezes  of  bkch,  bor- 
ders of  black  walnut,  and  i)anels  of  mountain  ash.  The  rooms  for  cler- 
ical purposes  are  fijiished  in  plain  encaustic  oil  paint,  with  frescoed 
ceilings — all  in  tlifferent  colors.  The  western  eiid  of  this  story  is  occu- 
pied by  the  library,  which  is  fm^nished  with  mahogany  cases;  and  a  suite 
of  rooms  on  the  ei^tern  terminus  is  devoted  to  laboratory  purposes,  where 
all  cimibersome  apparatus  is  dispensed  with;  and  an  lunple  supply  of 
gas  tumishes  the  modern  heating  power. 

A  double  flight  of  fire-proof  stairs,  of  wrought  and  cast  iron,  in  the 
center  of  the  building,  and  opposite  the  vestibule,  lit  by  a  grand  win- 
dow glazed  with  stained  glass,  leads  to  the  second  story,  the  main 
or  central  part  of  which  is  ai^propriated  to  the  Museum"^  of  Agricul- 
ture, a  hall  one  hundi\xl  and  two  feet  in  length,  filYy-two  feet  in  width, 
and  tweut3--seven  feet  high.  There  are  three  large  entrance  doors, 
of  six  by  twelve  feet,  of  artistic  design.  The  size  and  style  of  the  ten 
windows,  each  seven  by  sixteen  feet,  x>artake  of  the  character  of  the 
modern  exhibition  palaces.  The  hall  is  crowned  by  a  bold  coved  stucco 
cornice,  the  lines  of  which  are  broken  rhythmically  by  heavy  brackets, 
in  the  sculpture  of  which  colossal  Indian  busts  fonn  prominent  feat- 


192  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

urcs.  Tiie  gn^and  cove  itself  is  adorned  by  a  cliain  formed  of  festoons 
and  groups  of  tlowers  and  fruits  Avitli  medallion  shields,  into  -which  the 
escutcheons  of  the  United  States,  surrounded  by  those  of  the  thirty-seven 
States  of  the  Union  in  chronolo^cal  succession,  are  -worked.  The  ceil- 
ing is  divided  into  fifteen  heavily  molded  panels,  the  centers  of  -which 
are  oc«upied  by  rosettes  conforming  with  each  other  in  general  outline, 
but  each  ha\-ing  distinct  detads.  The  colors  of  the  hall  are  in  neutral 
tints,  -which  are  diversified  mainly  by  the  heraldic  colors  of  the  escutch 
eons.  The  furniture  of  the  hall  consists  of  elegant  glass  cases,  -with 
sohd,  dust-proof  "walnut  frames,  surmounted  by  architraves,  friezes,  and 
cornices,  beai'ing  carved  volutes  -with  intermediate  vases  and  busts. 
Perhaps  the  most  noticeable  piece  of  furnitui-e  is  the  redwood  table,  the 
top  of  -which,  seven  and  a  half  by  twelve  feet,  is  formed  of  the  largest 
plank  in  the  -wprld,  sent  to  the  Department  from  California. 

At  the  western  terminus  of  the  museum  are  located  the  -working  rooms 
of  the  entomologistn,  and  a  room  of  extra  size,  containing  in  walnut  cases 
a  valuable  herbarrum.  At  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  museum  are  the 
rooms  of  the  statistician. 

The  thiixl  story  of  the  building  contains  rooms  for  misceUaneotis  piu-- 
poses,  assorting  and  putting  up  seeds,  &c.,  and  is  in  direct  and  easy 
communication  -with  the  basement  by  means  of  a  large  elevator. 

The  whole  building  is  heated  by  steam,  two  boilers  thirteen  feet 
long  by  forty-eight  inches  diameter  being  located  in  a  fire-proof  apait- 
meut  of  the  basement.  Most  of  the  rooms  are  heated  by  circidated  air 
passing  from  outside  through  coils  of  steam  pipes  in  the  basement,  and 
ascencbng  in  tin^lined  flues,  which  feed  the  registers  in  the  rooms.  Each 
room  has  an  independent  heating  power. 

The  whole  work  has  been  executed  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr. 
Adolph  Cluss,  the  architect. 

GEOUXDS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

For  the  purpose  of  preventing  dampness  in  the  waUs,  a  water-tight 
concrete  walk  closely  surrounds  the  building;  opposite  the  principal 
front  this  concrete  surface  is  fifty  ieet  in  width  the  entire  length  of  the 
building,  thus  gi-dug  ample  room  for  the  approach  and  departiu-e  of  car- 
riages. The  space  in  the  immediate  front  is  laid  out  as  a  strictly  geo- 
metrical flower  garden  -with  architectural  appendages,  such  as  vases  and 
statuary.  It  is  divided  by  a  terrace  waU,  to  be  ornamented  with  stone 
balusters  and  pediments  for  the  reception  of  plant  Vases;  communica- 
tion with  the  lower  garden  bemg  pro\'ided  by  stone  steps,  the  whole 
forming  a  jiroper  arrangement  for  the  harmonious  connection  of  the 
building  and  its  surroundings.  This  connection  is  maintained  at  the 
ends  by  large  growing  trees,  but  the  immediate  front  will  be  kept  open, 
thiLS  avoiding  the  common  error  of  preveiiting  the  budding  from  being 
viewed  as  an  architectural  design,  a  fault  painfidly  apparent  in  many 
fine  structures,  in  which  beauty  of  their  architectural  featiu'es  is  wholly 
lost  by  dense  growths  of  trees  and  shrubbery. 

The  plant  houses  are  located  west  of  the  Department.  The  design 
includes  a  range  of  glass  structures  -with  a  frout  three  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  in  length  by  thirty  feet  in  width.  These  include  apartments  for 
the  cidtme  of  exotic  fi-uits,  of  which  a  collection  is  being  formed  for  a 
complete  series  of  the  citrus  family,  a  class  of  fruits  now  extensively 
produced  in  Florida  and  other  southern  States,  of  w  hich  family  several 
fineVarieties  of  oranges  and  lemons  have  ah-eady  been  introduced  and 
propagated  for  trial  in  this  coimtry,  and  for  an  extensive  collection  of 


!2i!2i^    S 


Ct  ■—  VT      X 


^35 


DEPARTMENT    BUILDING    AXD    GROUNDS.  193 

medical  plants,  also  those  furnisliing-  textile  libers,  useful  gums,  sugars, 
and  dyes.  Structures  for  orchard  houses,  cold  graperies,  and  other  piu-- 
poses,  are  to  be  extended  in  the  rear ;  the  entire  design  forming  a  com- 
pact and  economic  arrangement  specially  adapted  to  the  various  purposes 
contemplated  in  its  erection. 

The  largest  portion  of  the  inclosed  area  upon  ^hich  the  building  is 
located  vnM  be  appropriated  to  an  arboretimi  or  a  collection  of  hardy 
trees  and  shrubs.  While  these  are  planted  in  accordance  -with  a  botani- 
cal system,  each  order  and  tribe  of  plants  being  united,  yet  the  landscape 
effect  has  been  carefirlly  studied,  thus  producing  a  combination  altogether 
novel,  that  of  forming  pleasure-ground  scenery,  and  retaining  a  strict 
sj'stematic  classification  of  the  trees  and  shmbs  emi:)loyed  in  producing  it. 

About  ten  acres  are  set  apart  for  experimental  purposes,  for  testing 
varieties  of  small  fruits,  seeds,  and  for  the  propagation  and  culture  of 
hardy  plants. 

13 


HINTS  IX  HORTICULTURE. 


HEDGES  AXD  HEDGE  PLA2fTS. 

Live  fences,  as  they  are  very  properly  termed,  have  long  been  held  in 
high  estimation  for  inclosureswheu  plants  suitable  for  the  purpose  could  be 
secured.  The  maintenance  of  efficient  fencing  is  a  hea^.'y  rax  upon  all 
•who  occupy  land,  and  the  cost  is  greatly  increased  when  the  materials 
are  difficult  to  i^rocure,  and  require  frequent  repairs.  If  the  chronologi- 
cal history  of  fences  shoukl  ever  be  ^\Titteu.  it  might  be  divided  into  three 
epocns :  the  temporary,  the  equivocal,  and  the  permanent ;  or  the  period 
of  the  wooden  fence,  the  live  fence,  (possibly  including  the  vrire  fence.) 
and  the  fence  of  stone.  To  obtain  a  good  hedge  requires  a  suitable 
plant,  care  in  its  formaJ;iou,  and  proper  keeping  afterwards,  ^veglectof 
any  one  of  these  essentials  will  prove  fatal  to  the  object  in  view,  whether 
as  a  protection  against  depredators  or  as  a  shelter  for  ameliorating 
local  climates. 

For  farm  hedges  there  are  only  two  plants  which  can  be  considered  as 
being  perfectly  satisfactory.  These  are  the  Osage  orange  and  the  honey 
locust.  The  Osage  orange  (Madura  auraniiacaj  is  perhaps  to  be  pre- 
ferred in  localities  where  it  is  sufficiently  hardy.  It  is  cheaply  produced, 
of  rapid  growth,  thickens  its  branches  fieely  when  pruned,  has  formida- 
ble thorns,  is  not  liable  to  insect  injuries,  not  eaten  by  cattle,  and  will 
grow  in  any  soil  of  ordinary  fertility.  The  honey  locust  (GlediUchia 
triacanthosj  is  a  good  plant  in  more  northern  localities,  where  the  Osage 
orange  is  destroyed  by  cold.  It  is  also  well  supplied  with  thorns,  is  ot 
rapid  gi^owth,  and  %nll  make  a  fence  as  soon  as  the  other.  It  has  very 
beautiful  and  delicate  foliage,  and  is  more  robust,  but  less  dense,  than 
the  Osage — which  is  rather  an  advantage  than  otherwise  for  a  strong 
fence.    Some  of  the  best  hedges  in  the  country  are  of  this  plant. 

Seeds  or  ]>lants  of  either  of  the  preceding  are  easily  obtained :  but, 
where  time  is  a  matter  of  consideration,  it  will  be  advisable  to  procure 
plants,  which  are  now  i)roduced  in  large  quantities  by  nurserymen,  and 
sold  at  prices  much  less  than  the  cost  of  growing  them  on  a  small  scale. 
It  is  scarcely  possible  to  form  a  good  hedge  by  sowing  the  seed  on  the 
position  which  the  hedge  is  to  occupy.  The  casualties  of  growth  will 
certainly  produce  many  weak  plants  that  will  be  eventually  destroyed  by 
their  stronger  neighbors,  leaving  unsightly  blanks,  and  greatly  diminish- 
ing the  uniform  efficiency  of  the  hedge.  When  the  plants  are  properly 
assorted  as  to  size  before  setting,  an  equality  of  gi'owth  is  at  once 
established. 

In  preparing  the  soil  for  a  hedge-row,  a  breadth  of  three  to  four  feet 
\vill  be  amply  sufficient.  If  i)lowed.  the  ridges  should  be  thrown  towai-d 
the  center,  forming  a  slightly  mounded  finish.  In  stiff  soils  this  can  be 
done  to  a  greater  advantage  in  autumn  by  throwing  the  furrows  on  each 
side  from  the  center  of  the  hedge  line,  sothat  the  frosts  of  winter  may 
penetrate  and  loosen  the  subsoil ;  and  then  throwing  them  together  m 
si)ring,  to  be  ready  for  planting. 

Tlie  best  distance  to  set  plants  is  from  ten  to  fourteen  inches  apart, 
and  in  a  single  row.  On  poor  soUs,  or  for  a  mere  ornamental  dividing 
hedge,  the  closer, distance  may  be  adopted  ;  and  for  a  strong  fence,  or 
on  rich  soils,  the  wider  will  not  be  too  gi-eat.    Thev  mav  be  set  either  in 


HINTS  IN   HOETICULTUEE.  195 

fall  or  spring,  according  to  the  location.  If  tlie  position  is  elevated,  and 
the  soil  natm-ally  dry,  fall  planting  is  to  be  preferred  ;  in  lovr  positions, 
or  in  wet  soil,  spring  planting  is  safer,  as  the  plants  are  liable,  in  such 
soils,  to  be  throAvn  out  of  the  gTound  during  winter.  Even  in  wet  soils, 
however,  the  practice  of  planting  in  the  fall  has  of  late  been  adopted, 
and  with  j)erfect  success,  by  placing  the  plants  in  a  slanting  position, 
instead  of  an  upright  one,  and  covering  them  slightly  with  litter.  Xo 
hedge  will  be  perfectly  satisfactory  in  soils  saturated  with  water  during 
winter. 

The  perfection  of  a  hedge,  even  with  the  best  plants,  depends  alto- 
gether upon  the  treatment  it  receives  in  its  early  gTOwth.  ISI'egieet  in 
pruning,  during  this  period,  can  seldom  be  remedied  in  after  years ; 
and  to  this,  more  than  to  any  other  cause,  failures  in  forming  good 
hedges  may  be  attributed.  A  brief  stiatement  of  the  principles  involved 
iu  forming  them  will,  therefore,  be  given. 

The  only  form  in  which  a  hedge  can  be  kept,  to  be  of  service  as  a 
fence,  is  that  of  a  pyramid.  When  it  has  attained  a  height  of  five  feet, 
it  should  be  at  least  three  feet  wide  at  the  base  or  surface  of  the 
ground.  All  pruning  must  be  directed  with  a  ^iew  to  secui'ing  this 
form.  When  the  plants  are  first  set  out,  they  shoidd  be  pruned  back 
to  within  three  inches  of  the  gTound,  and  allowed  to  grow  undisturbed 
during  the  first  season,  their  growth  in  the  meantime  beiug  encouraged 
by  judicious  cultivation.  At  the  termination  of  tiie  yearly  gTO^Nlh,  "the 
plants  should  again  be  pruned  down  to  within  foiu-  inches  of  the  first 
priming,  and  the  side  shoots  below  this  point  also  be  removed  to  within, 
an  inch  of  the  main  stem.  This  severe  pruning  of  the  branches  will 
give  to  the  roots  a  vigorous  gi'owth;  and,  when  the  buds  burst  in  spring, 
strong  shoots  will  immediately  follow.  During  this  second  year's  growth 
the  hedge  may  be  partially  shaped  by  repressing  the  gTowth  of  the 
strongest  i^erpendicular  shoots,  and  encouraging  those  of  horizontal 
tendency.  Practically  this  is  accomplished  by  going  over  the  plants 
about  the  end  of  June,  and  cutting  all  upright  shoots  back  to  a  point 
about  eight  inches  above  the  previous  winter  pruning,  taking  care  not 
to  disturb  a  shoot  or  leaf  on  the  side  branches  below  that  point.  In 
thus  cutting  back  the  upright  shoots,  the  side  gTowth  will  be  increased, 
and  a  breadth  of  base  secured,  which,  at  this  stage  of  growth,  is  the 
most  important  point  of  all.  In  the  following  winter  the  hedge,  if  it 
has  progressed  at  all  favorably,  may  be  pruned  down  to  fouiteen  inches 
in  height  from  the  ground  surface,  with  the  horizontal  branches  extend- 
ing from  nine  to  twelve  inches  on  each  side.  The  principles  of  pruning 
are,  that  gTowth  is  repressed  by  simimer  trimmiag,  and  encouraged  by 
prunuig  after  the  leaves  have  fallen.  By  keeping  these  facts  in  mind, 
and  practiciag  accordingly,  the  shaping  of  a  hedge  is  onlv  a  work  of 
time.  The  lower  branches  can  always  be  retained  as  healthy,  and  pro- 
duce as  umch  density  of  fohage  as  the  upright  portion  of  the  plants, 
if  the  pyramidal  form  is  strictly  maintained:  but  if,  at  any  time,  the 
upright  gi'owth  predominates,  the  lower  limbs  will  proportionately  lose 
vigor.  The  upright  shoots  should,  therefore,  be  pruned  dining  summer, 
in  order  to  weaken  the  growth  at  that  point,  and  to  strengthen  and 
keep  the  base  of  the  hedge  vigoi-ous  and  close.  The  principal  pruning 
of  the  lower  branches  should  be  performed  during  Riuter. 

This  is  the  only  way  in  which  a  hedge  can  be  m.ade  that  will  be 
effective  as  a  fence ;  and  the  neglect  of  the  principles  here  suggested  is 
generally  the  origin  of  the  conflicting  opinions  with  regard  to  the  value 
and  efiiciency  of  hedges  as  farm  fences.  They  may  receive  some  atten- 
tion for  ^  year  or  twO,  but  when  it  becomes  thoroughly  understood  that 


196  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

they  caunot  be  nreserved  unless  taiinmed  during  summer,  when  attention 
is  ■uholly  given  to  ordinary  crops,  farmers  are  not  always  disposed  to 
give  hedges  the  attention  necc  .s>;iry  to  keep  them  in  good  condition :  and 
therefore  they  fail  to  be  of  service.  It  should,  however,  be  remembered 
that,  as  the  hedge  becomes  perfect,  the  yearly  labor  to  keep  it  in 
order  gradually  becomes  less ;  and  at  no  time  does  it  require  so  much 
labor  as  that  recjuired  to  keep  a  common  wooden  fence  in  good  repair. 

For  purposes  of  protCH^-tion  and  shelter  to  gardens,  or  as  dividing  lines 
in  the  groimds  of  couutrv-  and  suburban  residences,  hetiges  are  of  the 
greatest  utility.  For  these  purjwses  there  is  an  extensive  choice  of 
plants,  both  evergreeu  and  deciduous.  A  vrell-grown  evergreen  hedge 
is  found  to  be  as  congenial  a  protection  for  the  garden  as  a  brick  wall. 
The  commercial  value  of  shelter,  in  accelerating  early  crops,  is  not  so 
generally  known  as  it  deserves  to  be ;  yet  it  is  fully  appreciated  and 
adopted  by  Einny  of  the  most  successful  cidtivatoi"S :  and,  as  a  means  of 
arresting  dning  winds  and  lessening  evaporation  in  level  tracts  desti- 
tute of  trees,  no  just  estimate  can  be  made  of  the  intrinsic  value  of 
dose-foliaged  hedges. 

Among  e\"ergreen  plants  the  Xorway  spruce  {Ahie^  exceUa)  is  the 
most  valuable  where  a  high,  strong  wind-break  is  necessary :  and,  for 
the  purjwses  of  sheltering  oix-hards  and  vineyards,  it  is  unsurpassed. 
It  will,  in  time,  form  a  very  close  and  compact  hedge  when  trimmed ; 
but  to  produce  an  effective  shelter  in  the  shortest  period,  the  i)lauts 
shoidd  be  set  fom-  to  six  feet  apart  in  the  row  or  line,  and  allowed  to 
grow  undisturbed,  so  far  as  praning  is  concerned,  until  the  leading  or 
top  shoot  reaches  the  required  height.  Then  by  merely  trimming  the 
top,  so  as  to  keep  it  at  this  height,  the  side  branches  will  spread  and 
interlace,  forming  a  screen  quite  as  effective  and  more  beautiful  than  a 
closely-chpped  hedge. 

For  general  purposes,  i>erhaps  the  most  iiseful  plant,  all  things  con- 
sidered, for  an  evergi-een  hedge,  is  the  American  arbor- vitfe  {Thuja 
occidoitalis.)  Its  habit  of  changing  to  a  dingj*  brown  color  during 
winter  is  a  fault  easily  overlooked,  and  more  than  comx>ensated  by  its 
numerous  gootl  qualities.  It  is  a  plant  of  tree  growth,  readily  trans- 
l>lante<l,  of  comparatively  small  cost,  and  gi'ows  well  in  any  good  soil, 
but  preferably  in  a  clayey  loam.  Plants  of  one  foot  in  height,  set 
twelve  to  fiiurteen  inches  apart,  will  roach  live  -feet  in  as  many  years. 
The  variety  Sibirica  is  more  compact  in  growth,  and  forms  a  i^ertect 
and  shaiK'ly  hedge,  without  any  trimming  whatever. 

The  most  beautiful  and  gi\iceful  hedges  are  formed  by  the  hemlock 
spruce  (Abies  Canadensis.)  Although  sometimes  of  slow  growth  after 
removal,  yet  it  develoj^s  rapidly  when  once  fairly  established.  Nothing 
can  exceed  the  Ijeauty  of  its  i)endant  branches  of  delicate  foliage ;  and 
no  other  plant  will  admit  of  shearing  into  so  dense  a  wall  of  green  as 
this.  For  a  di\idiRg  line  in  the  pleasure  ground  or  flower  garden  it  is 
most  admirably  suited, 

WTieu  such  beautiful,  hardy  evergreens  as  Ciqiressus  Laicsoniaim  and 
Cuprcssm  Xutkaensis  become  more  plentiful,  and  can  be  procured  in 
quantities  at  reasonable  prices,  they  will  be  largely  employed  as  hedge 
plants  of  the  most  select  and  choice  kinds. 

There  is  a  gieat  variety  of  deciduous  plants  well  adapted  for  inside 
hedges,  such  as  may  be  planted  for  protection  of  crops,  or  as  ornamental 
dividing  lines  in  gardens,  but  which  will  not  be  suitable  as  fences  for 
stock ;  of  these  a  few  of  the  best  may  l>e  mentioned : 

The  Buckthorn  {Rhamnus  catharticus.)  although  of  slender  growth, 
forms  a  tolerably  good  hedge.    It  has  a  glossy  and  lively  green  foliage, 


HINTS    IX    HORTICULTURE.  197 

which  it  retains  quite  into  \nuter.  thus  afibrdiij;[Cpr<)toctic:i  ior  a  leu^b- 
eued  period. 

A  very  beautiful  hedge  cau  he  produced  Iroui  the  common  English 
maple  {Acer  campestrc.)  This  small  tree  is  natiualiy  compact  in  its 
habit  of  growth,  and  requires  very  little  i)runiug  to  keep  it  in  fornj. 
For  a  shelter  belt,  when  a  smootldy-trimmed  hedge  may  not  be  desired, 
this  will  be  tomid  suitable.  It  has  small  foliage,  and  the  whole  plant 
is  eminently  neat,  hardy,  and  free  from  insects. 

The  European  hornbeam  {Car2)Oiiis  hctiihis)  is  a,  good  hedge piant.  Lt 
has  a  very  dense  foliage,  and  the  small  ovat;.*  leaves  are  closely  set  on 
the  branches.  It  is  rather  slow  in  growth,  but,  in  coiiscqueuee  of  not 
requiring  to  be  shortened  by  pruning,  as  is  the  case  vvith  luxuriant 
growing  plants,  the  growth  is  economized  and  a  hedge  soon  formed. 
In  ancient  gardening,  when  topiary  work  was  fashionable  and  plants 
were  trained  and  pruned  into  forms  of  birds,  vases,  &c.,  the  hornbeam 
was  largely  used  and  held  in  high  esteem. 

A  pleasing  variety  of  color  may  be  inti'oduced  by  forming  a  hedge  ot 
the  puri^le-leaved  berberry  [Berheris  vith/aris,  var.  purpurea.)  This  plant 
persistently  retains  its  color  throughout  the  summer,  and  VN'irh  care  can 
be  kept  in  good  shape  as  a  hedge. 

For  rapid  gTowth.  easy  propagation,  and  ample  foliage  of  shining 
deep-gTeen  color,  there  is  no  plant  superior  to  the  Japan  privet  {Ligus- 
trum  Japonicum.)  This  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  common  i^rivet, 
{Ligustrum  vidgare.)  a  small-leaved  and  much  inferior  plant.  Cuttings 
of  the  Japan  privet  may  be  inserted  at  once  where  the  hedge  is  to  be 
formed.  They  will  root  quite  as  speedily  as  the  easiest  rooting  willow 
twig.  A  splendid  shelter  or  screen,  eight  feet  in  height  and  four  feet  in 
width,  has  been  grown  in  live  years  from  the  time  of  inserting  the  cut- 
tings. It  is  almost  an  evergreen,  retaining  its  foliage  even  after  severe 
frost.  Twenty  degrees  of  fi'ost,  in  December,  has  no  etiect  on  the 
foliage,  and  for  at  least  nine  months  of  the  year  it  is  clothed  with  the 
richest  verdui^e. 

For  sheltering  orchards,  vineyards,  or  fields,  a  free-growing  plant,  of 
compact  habit,  should  be  selected.  Such  are  the  Osage  orange,  white 
birch,  English  bird-cherry,  honey  locust,  English  maple,  Eiu-opean  larch, 
English  alder,  many  of  the  willows,  and  the  Lombardy  poplar.  Any  of 
these  vrill,  in  a  few  years,  aftbrd  an  efficient  shelter.  They  may'  be 
planted  fi-om  four  to  six  feet  apart,  and  allowed  to  take  their  natural 
habit  of  growth  until  they  reach  a  height  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet.  If  the 
tops  are  then  removed  or  checked,  so  as  to  repress  upward  elongation, 
they  will  spread  and  interlace  their  lower  branches,  forming  a  thick 
shelter,  without  the  trim,  formal  appearance  of  a  regularly  cut  hedge. 

It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  no  lengthened  period  of  uniform  suc- 
cess in  Iruit  culture  can  be  realized  in  exposed  situations,  unless  a  sys- 
tematic plan  of  sheltering  by  belts  or  hedge  rows  is  introduced ;  and 
the  time  is  fast  appi-oaching  when  no  person  will  think  of  planting  fruit 
trees,  or  raising  fine  fruits  of  any  kind,  without  first  preparing  for  them 
a  thoroughly  protected  situation. 

PECULIARITIES  AXD  ADAPTATION  OF  TREES. 

Trees  for  street  planting. — The  silver  maple  {Acer  dasycarpnm)  has 
always  been  held  in  high  repute  as  a  shade  tree :  and  although  from  its 
frequent  use  it  has,  in  some  sections,  come  to  be  considered  as  a  common 
tree,  its  selection  for  this  piu'pose  is  ^ery  appropriate.  It  possesses,  in 
a  high  degree,  the  qualities  usually  sought  for  by  those  in  treeless  local- 


198  AGBICULTUEAL   EEPOET. 

ities,  being  of  rapid  gix)"vrth,  easily  transplanted,  perfectly  hardy,  of  an 
upright  rather  than  a  spreading  habit  of  growth,  and  having  foliage 
not  so  dense  as  to  impede  a  free  circulation  of  air,  a  commendable  qual- 
ity, since  a  partial  shade  is  more  desirable  near  a  building  than  an 
impenetrable  mass  of  foliage,  Trhich  retards  evaporation  and  creates 
dampness.    It  i  .  ver.  a  healthy  tree,  not  subject  to  diseases; 

neither  is  it  ik»  reyed  upon  by  insects.    It  also  gi-ows  rapidly 

from  the  seed.  1l-j  ixuit  ripens  in  June;  and,  if  planted  immediately, 
\nll  produce,  in  good  soil,  plants  two  or  three  feet  in  height  the  same 
year:  neither  is  it  liable  to  produce  suckers,  an  objectionable  tendency 
peculiar  to  some  free-gi'owing  trees. 

The  sugar  maple  {Acer  saccliarinum)  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  or 
all  the  mai)les :  iudeed.  few  trees  of  any  species  can  equal  it  in  state- 
liness  and  graceful  habit :  and  if  to  the  oak  is  given  the  honor  of  being 
the  king  of  the  forest,  we  may  claim  for  the  sugar  maple  the  title  of  the 
queen,  ^o  other  tree  supports  an  equally  massive  head  of  foliage  by 
so  slender  a  stem.  It  is  more  compact  in  its  growth  than  the  preceding 
species,  with  a  greater  density  of  foliage ;  but  its  crowning  beauty  is 
the  superb  coloring  of  the  leaves  in  autumn.  For  promenades  or  street 
planting,  it  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  of  ornamental  trees.  Large 
trees  are  impatient  of  removal ;  therefore  small-sized  jihints  are  to  be 
preferred  for  transplanting. 

The  black  sugar  maple  {Acer  saccharinum,  var.  nigrum)  is  in  no  way 
inferior  to  the  preceding.  The  foliage  is  somewhat  hirger.  and  slightly 
downy  beneath,  changing  to  deep  orange  color  in  autumn. 

The  American  lime  or  linden  {Tilm  Americaiw)  is  a  lofty-growing 
tree,  well  adapted  to  planting  wide  avenues,  where  it  will  have  ample 
room  to  spread.  It  does  not  thrive  well  in  crowded  cities,  being  more 
healthy  in  submban  localities.  It  is  easily  transplanted,  and  makes 
rapil  growth  in  loamy  soils. 

The  English  linden  {TUw  Europcc^a)  is  a  conical-shaped  tree,  and 
therefore  well  fitted  for  street  shade.  The  flowers  are  very  sweet  and 
attractive  to  insects,  and  it  has  been  recommended  as  a  tree  of  interest 
to  bee  keepers.  This  species  of  linden  is,  in  some  localities,  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  borers ;  but,  notwithstanding  this  objection,  many  fine 
si>ecimens  may  be  seen  in  cities. 

The  ^>Lmerican  elci  {Ulmus  Amerk^ina)  has  been  in  high  repute  as  a 
street  tree :  but  its  liability  to  injury  from  insects,  which  destroy  the 
fobaire  durincr  summer,  greatly  diiaiuishes  its  value,  and  it  is  not  now 
so  -  "      '     ted  as  fonneriy.    llie  European  elm  ( Ulmm  eampestris) 

i*  '  2  growth  than  the  preceding,  but  neither  of  them  can 

^  '  '■  except  for  wide  avenues  and  localities  where  they  are 

ex( :  ]pf^f  i:isf»ft. 

The  1  of  all  the  fine  trees  of  this  family, 

^'^  ^^^^  ^  .  j;.    In  very  poor  soils  it  forms  a 

rounded  lit-ad;  bui  in  ibuse  which  are  rather  wet  than  dry  it  becomes 
erect  and  grows  with  considerable  rapidity.  It  is  easily  transpLinted, 
and  retains  its  loliage  until  very  late  in  autumn,  but  is  among  the  latest 
to  put  forth  i:i  s;n:;  /. 

The  tulij)  ,0)1  Udipifcra)  maybe  claimed  to  be  one  ot 

the  most  un;.,  .  ..al  of  deciduous  trees.    It  is  not  surpassed 

in  the  Ix^auty  (il  *  and  flowers,  in  the  columnar  massiveness  and 

elegance  of  -  .  ,,,   i lie  general  symmetiy  of  its  development.    In 

good  soil  it  \  ery  rapid  growth,  as  much  so  as  the  silver  maple : 

but  it  is  ratLvi  u^uj.riilt  to  transplant  suecessrullv.  To  insure  success  it 
should  be  prepared  by  frequent  removal  while  voung,  so  as  to  secure  a 


HINTS   IN   HORTICULTUEE.  199 

mass  of-  fibrous  roots  near  the  stem ;  or  it  may  be  planted  in  tlie  place 
desired  for  its  permanent  location  while  very  small.  In  either  case  it  is 
ad\isable  to  jn-iine  the  branches  close  back  at  the  time  of  removal.  In 
transplautino-  trees  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  or  more  in  height,  which 
have  not  nndergone  removal  from  the  seed  rows,  the  only  safe  mode  is 
to  cnt  oif  the  entire  stem  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  lifting  the  roots 
with  care.  Trees  treated  in  this  manner  have  gTown  to  a  height  of  ten 
feet  in  four  years  after  removal.  When  cut  down  as  directed  above,  a 
great  many  shoots  will  proceed  from  the  base.  The  most  promising  of 
these  should  be  selected  as  the  future  stem,  the  others  being  cut  away. 
This  flue  tree  is  not  injured  by  insects.  The  foliage  is  of  a  bright  green 
during  summer,  changing  to  a  bright  yellow  in  autumn. 

In  planting  a  line  of  trees  in  a  street  or  an  avenue  only  one  variety 
should  be  used.  A  mixture  of  kinds  in  such  positions  is  as  much  at 
variance  with  good  taste  as  the  mixture  of  orders  in  the  columns  of  a 
building.  As  taste  improves  we  may  expect  to  see  planting  as  much 
under  the  control  of  city  authorities  as  the  setting  of  curbstones  and 
the  paviug  of  sidewalks  are  at  the  present  time. 

Round-headed-  trees. — Trees  of  this  form  are  well  adapted  to  planting 
private  avenues,  and  short  entrance  roads  through  the  usually  limited 
lawns  of  suburban  ornamental  grounds,  combining  utility  of  shade  with 
beauty  of  development.  As  single  specimens  also  on  lawns,  where  they 
will  have  ample  space  for  growth,  their  individual  features  and  charac- 
teristics will  be  shown  to  advantage. 

The  Xorway  maple  {Acer  pJatanoides)  forms  an  extremely  dense  mass 
of  foliage,  of  a  very  dark  green  during  summer,  changing  to  yellow  in. 
autumn.  The  racemes  of  flowers  are  ornamental,  but  should  be  removed 
fi-om  young  trees  newly  transplanted,  as  their  growth  is  greatly  retarded 
when  tlie  flowers  are  allowed  to  remain.  The  effect  of  removal  frequently 
throws  the  plant  into  a  fruiting  state.  The  ]^orway  maple  is  not  of 
rapid  growth,  but  its  compact  habit  renders  it  very  tlesirable  for  plant- 
ing on  small-sized  lawns,  or  for  shading  walks  in  the  pleasure  garden. 

The  red  umple  {Acer  ruhrum)  is  a  well-known  tree  of  great  beauty, 
conspicuous  for  early  flowering,  enlivening  the  forest  with  scarlet  and 
crimson  blossoms  at  the  earliest  ap])roach  of  spring.  In  the  fall  the 
leaves  change  to  a  bright  scarlet,  forming  a  pleasing  contrast  with  the 
prevailing  yellow  colors  in  forest  scenery  at  that  season.  On  account 
of  its  uot  roothig  very  freely  when  it  is  large,  small  ])lants  should  be 
selected ;  and,  even  Avith  these  it  will  be  advantageous  to  prune  back 
the  branches  closely  at  the  time  of  removal. 

The  white  ash  {Fraxinus  A))iericana)  is  a  native  species,  and  forms  a 
noble  looking  tree,  in  general  ap[)earance  resembling  the  white  oak.  As 
an  isolated  specimen,  in  rich  soils  it  assumes  a  symmetrical  though  itot 
a  formal  outline.  To  attain  perfection  it  must  not  be  crowded  by  other 
plants ;  this  precaution,  however,  is  applicable  to  all  trees,  when  their 
individual  habits  and  natural  outline  of  growth  are  to  be  developed. 

Yellow  wood  {Cladrasti/i  tinctoria)  is  a  western  tree,  not  much  planted 
in  ornamental  collections,  although  few  plants  are  more  attractive  or  so 
deserving  of  attention.  It  is  one  of  the  most  unique  trees  for  neatly- 
planted  lawns  of  moderate  extent.  One  of  its  most  striking  pecuhari- 
ties  is  the  regularly  shaped  i)r()tuberance  formed  at  the  point  of  junc- 
tion of  the  branches  with  the  main  stem.  The  leaves  are  pinnated,  and 
change  to  yellow  in  autumn.  The  flowers  are  shaped  like  those  of  the 
pea,  of  a  yellowish  color,  and  in  general  aspect  resembling  the  yellow 
locust. 

The  horse-chestnut  {^sculiis  Hippocastanum)  is  a  tree  with  heavy  foli- 


200  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

age  and  of  SAiniuetrical  foiiu.  It  puts  forth  its  leaves  eaily  iu  sprilig, 
aud  is  distinguished  at  that  season  by  its  vivid  green  hue.  and  sniK^rb 
pyramidal  clusters  of  llowers.  This  is  a  poor  ti"ee  in  a  i)oor  sod,  showing 
a  feeble  growth,  and  losing  its  foliage  before  the  end  of  summer:  but 
iu  a  rich  aud  loamy  soil  it  is  one  of  our  best  ornamental  trees,  forming 
a  dense  shade,  and  on  that  account  should  not  be  planted  too  near  a 
vlwelling. 

The  chestnut  {Cutanea  resca)  is  a  well-knowTi  ti^ee,  famed  alike  for 
the  value  of  its  fruit  and  the  beauty  of  its  foliage.  It  is  admissible  ouly 
iu  extensive  lawms.  'VMien  the  soil  is  deep  and  rich  the  foliage  becomes 
large,  and  of  line,  glossy-green  ai)pearauce ;  but  notwithstanding  this, 
the  fruit  is  produced  earlier  on  poor  or  rocky  soil.  The  Spanish  chest- 
nut closely  resombles  the  native  si^ecies.  Both  the  foliage  aud  fruit  are 
larger,  but  the  latter  is  not  of  so  line  a  flavor  as  that  of  the  native 
plant. 

The  wild  cheriy  [Prv.nus  serotina)  is  a  fine  ornamental  tree,  of  a  some- 
what conical  shajK^  when  young,  but  usually  becomes  rounde<l  as  it 
attains  age  and  size.  Its  fruit  is  eageily  sought  by  birds,  and  the  plant 
is  occasionaDy  introduced  into  pleasui^  grounds  for  their  especial  grati- 
ficiition.  Its  merits  with  regard  to  foliage,  blossoms,  and  fiuit,  aix^  suf- 
ficient to  recommend  its  introduction  into  any  choice  collection  of  ti^ees. 

The  ash-leaved  maple  {ye{jundo  accroidcs)  is  one  of  the  finest  formed 
omamentid  trees  where  it  has  space  to  develop  its  natural  outline.  It 
is  also  of  very  rapid  growth,  and  therefore  valuable  as  a  shelter  to  trees 
which  mature  more  slowly.  Where  a  sheltering  belt  of  deciduous  trees 
is  speedily  desired,  the  negundo  may  be  largely  plante'd,  as  being  of  the 
most  rapid  gi-owth. 

The  Osage  orange  {Madura  auraniicica)  has  of  late  yeai-s  become  so 
widely  known  as  a  hedge  jdant  that  its  merits,  as  a  sjx^'imen  tree,  have 
been  paitly  overlooked.  It  is,  however,  one  of  the  most  gi-aceful  of  the 
round-headed  trees  that  can  be  idauted  on  a  lawn.  The  foliage  becomes 
large,  and  the  smooth,  hard  bark,  the  outward  drotjpiug  branches,  and 
the  hirge  fiiiit.  combine  to  render  it  a  desideratum  for  suburban  lawns 
or  ornamental  groups. 

The  Willow  oak  {Quercus plieltos)  and  the  Laurel  oak  {Quercus  imbri' 
caria)  are  two  desirable  lawn  trees,  not  often  seen  in  such  situations. 
When  growing  isolated  in  favorable  soil,  they  form  dense  heads,  and 
their  peculiarly  narrow,  willow-shaped  leaves  gives  pleasing  variety  in 
contrast  with  trees  having  broad  and  expansive  foliage. 

Large-leaved  trce^. — The  gre^t-leaved  magnolia  {Magnolia  macrophyUa) 
is  a  superb  tree  of  tropical  appeaniuce,  with  leaves  from  eighteen  inches 
to  two  feet  in  length,  bright  green  on  their  upi>er  surface,  and  sil 
very  beneath.  The  flowers  are  i.irge — often  eight  inches  across — aud 
fragrant.  This  choice  ornamental  tree,  like  others  of  its  family,  is  diffi- 
cult to  transplant,  therefore  small,  healthy  trees  should  invfu-iably  be 
selected. 

The  ciitalpa  {Cc-ialpa  lignonioides)  is  a  well-known  tree,  with  ample 
and  roundetl  foliage,  and  large  iianides  of  showy  white  flowei-s,  followed 
by  long  i>endant  pods.  A  spreading  tree,  w'ith  horizontally  twistcnl 
branches,  it  is  most  eflfective  when  planted  iu  groups  of  four  or  more 
trees. 

The  Pauloicnia  imperlalis  is  a  rapid-growing  tree,  somewhat  resem- 
bling the  preceding  in  general  appearance,  but  its  foliage  is  larger,  and 
the  flowers  are  lilac-colored.  In  the  north,  and  also  in  the  wanner  cli- 
mates, duiing  severe  winters  the  flower  buds  are  generally  destroyed- 

T}€€.8  with  2)innat€d  or  finely  dirided  foUage.—Tix^  Kentucky  coflee'tree 


HINTS    IN    HORTICULTURE.  201 

{Gymnodadus  Canadensis)  is  tall  and  of  close  liabit,  Tvitliliead  soniewliat 
spreading  in  old  specimens.  The  doubly-pinnate  leaves  have  a  fine 
effect  when  viewed  against  a  clear  sky,  having  the  appearance  of  delicate 
net-work.  When  in  a  young  state  it  is  not  very  attractive,  but  as  it 
increases  in  size  the  lateral  branches  become  smaller  and  more  numer- 
ous in  proportion ;  the  leaves  also  are  slightly  diminished  in  size,  which 
improves  their  appearance. 

Honey  locust  {Gleditschia  tyiacantJios.)  inconsequence  of  the  formid- 
able spines  vrhich  cover  the  main  stem  and  branches,  presents  an  aspect 
somewhat  repulsive :  but  its  airy,  acacia-like  foliage,  hanging  gTacefully 
on  the  young  shoots,  renders  it  one  of  the  most  attractive  plants  in  early 
summer. 

The  tree  of  heaven  {Ailanthiis  (/landulosa)  is  a  tree  with  some  good 
and  many  bad  qualilies,  according  to  public  opinion.  It  certainly  can 
claim  great  rapidity  of  growth,  and  when  fully  grown,  its  heavy  pin- 
nated foliage  strongly  retlects  its  oriental  origin.  The  female  plant  is 
free  fi-om  the  noisome  fragrance  of  the  male,  and  produces  fruit  which  is 
frequently  very  ornamental. 

The  black  walnut  {Juglans  nigra)  is  a  well-knovm  and  useful  tree  of 
the  largest  size,  with  large,  fragrant,  pinnated  foliage.  The  European 
walnut  is  well  worthy  of  attention  on  account  of  the  value  of  its  fruit. 
It  is  sulBciently  hardy,  although  young  plants  in  vigorous  gTowth  occa- 
sioimlly  lose  the  points  of  their  succideut  shoots  dming  a  severe  winter. 

The  Japan  Kolreuteria  {Kolreuteria  paniculata)  is  a  tree  of  medium 
size,  i)articularly  adapted  to  lawns,  producing  large  pannicles  of  yellow 
flowers,  succeeded  by  ornamental  capsules.  The  foliage  turns  to  yellow 
in  autumn,  and  at  all  seasons  the  plant  is  attractive. 

The  silk  tree  {Alhizziajulibrissin)  is  a  low-headed  spreading  tree,  pos- 
sessed of  the  most  graceful  foliage.  In  northern  latitudes  it  is  generally 
killed  to  the  ground  by  frost ;  but  when  spring  returns  it  sends  up 
branches  profuoe  with  tropical-looking  foliage.  It  flowers  freely  in  the 
latitude  of  Y\'ashington,  D.  C. 

The  Japan  sophora  {So]}hora  Japonica,)  yellow  locust  {Eohinia  pseuda- 
cacia,)  yelknv  wood  {Cladraatis  tinctoria,)  stag-horn  sumach  {Rhus 
ii/l^nina.)  and  the  whole  of  the  family  of  ashes,  may  be  placed  in  the  list 
of  pinuate-foliagcd  i)lants.  This  form  of  leaf  creates  a  pleasing  variety, 
and  contrasts  advantageously  with  the  heavy  masses  of  entire-leaved 
trees  in  ornamental  gTOuping.  The  preceding  list  embraces  some  of 
the  most  noteworthy  ornamental  plants  of  the  class.  There  are  many 
shrubs  with  leaves  of  this  description,  although  not  individually  worthy 
c:f  particular  notice. 

Trees  with  variegated  foliage. — These  are  mainly  varieties  of  species, 
and  are  more  or  less  liable,  under  a  bright  sun  and  dry  atmosphere,  to 
revert  to  tlieir  original  condition.  A  sheltered  and  shady  locality  will 
be  lavorable  to  the  permanence  of  their  colors.  The  follovring  list  em- 
braces some  of  the  most  available  and  distinctly  marked :  The  English 
maple  {Acer  camjyestre,  var.  raricgata;)  sycamore  maple  {Acer  pseudo- 
platanus.,  var.  variegata ;)  red  maple  [Acer  riihriim,  var.  rariegata ;) 
iiorse-cbestnut  {J^scidm  Hippocastanum,  var.  rariegata ;)  white  birch 
{Betiila  aiha,  vaw  rariegata;)  Eiu-opean  chestnut  {Castancii  resca,  var. 
variegata;)  English  ash  {Fraxinns  excelsior,  xnr.  variegata ;)  European 
heech  {Fa gits  sylvatiea,  xar.  variegata;)  European  moautain  ash  {Py- 
riis  aucupariu,  var.  variegata ;)  European  oak  {Querc2(s peduneidata.  var. 
variegata ;)  European  linden  {Tilia  Furojuca,  var.  variegata ;)  English 
elva.  {Ulmns  campestris,  var.  variegata;)  European  red-bud  (Cercis  sili- 
quastnim,  var.  variegata:)    English   bird-cherry    {Pninus  padus,  var. 


202  AGEICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

rarkgatfi;)  Gingko  tree  {Salishuria  adiantifoJia.  xar.  rarkgata  ;)  Tiilip 
tree  {Liriodendron  tuUpifera,  var.  variegata;)  Osage  orauge  {Madura 
aurantiaca.  var.  I'ariegata. 

Purple-foUaged  trees  and  shruhs. — European  beeeli  {Fagus  sylratica^ 
var.  purpurea;)  sycamore  maple  {Acer  j^seudo-jjlatanus.  tut.  purpurea :) 
English  elm  {tflmm  campestris,  var.  purpurea  ;)  English  filbert  {Corylus 
Arelhnia.  var.  rubra  ;)  berbeny  {Berberis  vulgaris,  var.  purpurea.) 

Trees  having  cut  or  laciniated  foliage. — White  birch  (Betula  alba.  var. 
laciniata). — Tliis  is  an  exceedingly  interesting  variety  of  the  white  birch, 
of  droopiug  habit :  a  choice  tree  for  the  lavru.  where  it  should  be  planted 
as  an  isolated  specimen :  its  peculiar  beauty  is  lost  when  grouped  with 
other  trees. 

European  alder  {Alnus  ghitinosa,  var.  laciniata.) — Grows  well  in  low 
situations,  or  in  localities  too  wet  or  damx^  for  many  other  trees.  It  is 
very-  marked  and  distinct. 

European  beech  {Fagus  splvatica.  var.  incisa.) — This  remarkable,  neat- 
foliaged  plant  is  seldom  seen  in  collections.  It  forms  a  compact  mass  of 
fern-like  foliage,  and  is  in  every  respect  one  of  the  best  plants  for  a  smaU 
lawn. 

European  mountain-ash  {Pyrus  aucuparia,  var.  quercifolia;)  sycamore 
maple  {Acer  p>seudo-2)latanus,  var.  laciniata  :)  horse-chestnut  {JEsculus 
Eippocastanum.  var.  laciniata;)  Em-opean  linden  {Tilia  Furopa^a.  var. 
laciniata;)  European  oak  {Quercus  pedunculata.  var.  laciniata;)  Euro- 
pean chestnut  {Castanea  resca,  var.  asplenifolia.) 

Bartram  oak  {Querciis  heterophjlla.  Miehaux.)  —  This  unique  plant 
forms  one  of  the  most  beautiful  as  well  as  the  most  interesting  of  aU 
the  oaks.  It  is  well  worthy  of  introduction  into  pleasure  lawns  and 
parks. 

Weeping  and  drooping  trees. — Babylonian  wi'ilow  {Salix  Babylonica.) — 
This  vxell-kjiown  tree  is  without  a  rival  in  its  particular  form  and  st\ie 
of  beauty:  of  rapid  gi'owth,  it  is  one  of  the  best  to  ]>lant  where  an  imme- 
diate effect  is  desirable.  As  a  backgiound  to  buildings,  or  a  foreground 
object  to  upright  growths,  it  is  equally  appropriate. 

Kilmarnock  AvilJow  {Halix  caprea.  var.  pendula.) — When  gi\afred  on  a 
good  stock  ten  to  tburteen  feet  in  height,  this  variety  becomes  one  of  the 
most  distinct  of  the  hardy  weeping  plants  which  we  possess.  It  is  fre- 
quently worked  on  low  stems,  and  in  consequence  much  of  its  beauty  is 
lost.  This  may  be  remedied  by  placing  a  stout  stick  to  the  plant,  select- 
ing an  appropriate  branch,  and  t\ing  it  up  as  it  extends.  Side  branches 
will  be  produced,  and,  as  they  dei>eud.  a  weeping.  p^Tamidal-shaped 
plant  will  be  secured,  much  moi'e  beautiful  than  one  with  a  rounded 
drooping  head,  as  is  usually  seen. 

Cauiperdowu  elm  {Cbnu.s  glabra,  xht. pendula.) — This  is  also  a  distinct 
weei)iug  variety,  retaining  its  drooping  habit,  and,  fi-om  its  fine  large 
foliage,  may  be  ranketl  among  tlie  best  of  it^  class. 

\Veei)ing  ash  {Fra,rinus  crcehior,  vnr.  pendula.) — When  gi'owing  lux- 
nriautjy,  this  variety  has  a  tendency  to  upright  gi'owth.  which  may  be 
obviated  by  cutting  out  all  the  buds  that  forin  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  highest-placed  shoots.  There  seem  to  be  two  varieties  having  the 
weeping  form,  one  producing  slender  branches  and  more  inclined  to  pend- 
ent growth  than  the  other. 

European  mountain  ash.  {Pyrus  aucuparia,  mr.  pendula.) 

Dwart'  cherry  {Prunus  pumila.)^\yhen  gi-afted  on  a  suitable  stock, 
this  i)lant  forms  a  neat,  drooi)iug,  ornamental  tree. 

There  are  many  trees  that  incline  to  a  pendent  growth,  the  points  of 
the  branches  depending  to  a  greater  or  less  degi-ee  as  they  attain  size. 


HINTS   IX   HOETICULTUEE.  203 

Among  the  most  conspicuous  of  tliese  may  he  noted  tlie  linden,  birch, 
several  elms,  poplar,  and  sophora. 

Trees  icith  conspicuous  or  fragrant  floicers. — The  dogrvood  {Coruiis 
Florida ;)  laburnum  {Lahurnum  rulgare;)  catalpa  [Catalpa  hignonioides ;) 
imperial  Paulownia  {Pauloicnia  imjjerialis ;)  red  maple  {Acer  rubrum  ;) 
yellow  locust  {Eohinia  jyseudacacia  :)  yello'vr-wood  {Cladrasus  tiiictoria ;) 
librse-chestuut  {JEsculus  Eippocastanutn :)  maguohas.  viz.,  Magnolia 
glaucoy  M.  macropliylla,  AT.  umbrella,  and  21.  grandifiora :  Japan  sophora 
{Sophora  Japonica ;)  Kolreuteria  {Kolreuteria  paniculaia  :)  Yirginia 
fringe-tree  {Chionanthus  Tirginica  ;)  many  of  the  hawthorns  [Crataegus;) 
silver  beU  {Halesia  dipiera  :)  tulip  tree  {Liriodendron  tulipifera ;)  red 
bud  {Cercis  Canadensis ;)  shad  bush  {Amelanchier  Canadensis :)  Ameri 
can  crab-apple  {Fyrus  coronaria :)  the  linden  (T/7/fl;)  sassafras  {Sassa- 
fras officinale:)  and  Mahaleb  Qheimix {Frunus  rnahaleb.)  for  their  fragrance; 
the  Eiu'opean  and  also  the  American  moiuitain-ash  for  their  ornamental 
fiuits  as  well  as  flowers:  and  the  double-flowering  varieties  of  the  peach 
and  cherry  form  a  select  list  of  the  most  conspicuous  hardy  flowering 
trees. 

HAEDY  LIGlSTEOrS   CLEMBES'G-PLATnTS. 

There  are  many  situations  in  smaE  gardens  where  it  is  essential  to  give 
variety  by  intricacy  of  parts,  and  where  the  limited  space  renders  its 
accomplishment  impracticable  by  the  ordinary  expedient  of  planting  a 
border  of  trees  and  shrubbery,  but  which  may  be  effectually  secured  by 
erecting  a  screen  of  trellis- work,  to  be  covered  with  climbing  plants. 

To  insure  some  degTee  of  permanency  in  trellis-work,  cedar  or  locust 
posts  should  be  used,  and  covered  with  laths  made  smooth  and  thor- 
oughly painted.  "U'hat  is  termed  rustic-work,  for  which  many  rural 
improvers  seem  to  have  a  groat  penchant,  is  a  very  expensive  ornament, 
requiring  constant  care  in  repairing,  varnishing.  «S:c. :  and,  after  all,  its 
rustic  beauty  is  hidden  by  the  twining  fohage,  which  is  trequently  an 
improvement  to  the  general  effect. 

Screens  of  trellis-work  for  climbing  plants  should  be  constructed  with 
a  view  to  a  recognition  of  architectiu-al  eflect  if  in  proximity  to  build 
ings,  divided  into  panels  by  projectuig  piers,  and  the  elevation  reheved 
by  moldings.  A  very  appropriate  diAisiou-wall  or  fence  between  the 
flower  and  vegetable  gardens,  or  for  the  purix)se  of  defining  any  other 
portions  of  garden  or  lawn,  may  be  formed  by  a  low  structure,  as 
indicated  above,  the  piers  bemg  cappod  and  surmounted  with  vases. 
Much  of  the  adaptability  and  propriety  of  this  arrangement  will  depend 
upon  its  position  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  connected  with  contign- 
ous  objects. 

The  following  Mst  comprises  the  best  of  hardy  climbing  plants,  with 
remarks  upon  their  peculiarities  and  habits  of  gTOwth : 

Trumpet  flower,  (Tccoma  radicans.J — This  is  a  robust  plant  and  fitted 
only  for  large  arbors  or  for  covering  walls.  It  is  well  adapted  to  plant 
against  old  or  mutilated  trees,  such  as  are  often  present  in  old  grounds; 
and  they  may  be  utilized  by  allowing  this  climljer  to  cover  then-  naked- 
ness, and  soften  their  rugged  points.  It  produces  a  profusion  of  dense 
clusters  of  flowers,  which  are  favorite  haunts  of  the  humming  bird :  and 
it  has  the  valuable  property  of  adhering  firmly  to  walls.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  occasionally  pruned,  or  it  will,  from  its  weight,  ultimately  break 
down  the  overhanging  branches. 

Golden  bignouia,  (Bignonia  capreolata.J — This  fine  flowering  climber 
is  not  so  commonly  planted  as  its  merits  deserve.    It  supj)orts  itself  by 


204  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

teiMlrils,  aud  lias  great  adhering  powers;  a  very  choice  plant,  nearly  an 
evergi'ecn. 

Viifriina  cix-QiieT,fAmpdGpsis  quiiiqi'.efoliajal&o  called  American  i^y. — 
A  >rell-kno\vn  plant  of  great  beauty  of  foliage,  more  especially  in  au- 
Tinnn.  At  this  season  it  assumes  a  crimson  shade  which  deepens  into 
•scarlet,  producing  a  striking  contrast  with  evergieeu  foliage,  as  may  be 
seer,  when  it  takes  possession  of  the  red  cedar,  a  tree  for  v^hich  it  seeiAs 
TO  have  a  natural  partiality.  It.^,  delicate  tendrils  clasp  veiy  minute 
]trqjections,  and  hence  it  may  frequently  be  seen  i^rofusely  covering  brick 
nails.  In  such  situations  it  is  very  liable  to  be  blo-^Ti  down  during 
storms,  unless  care  is  exercised  in  trimming,  and  keeping  the  branches 
close  to  their  support.  This  plant  is  eminently  cleanly  and  neat,  with 
i eaves  elegantly  formed  and  of  a  shining  green  color  during  summer. 
It  is  also  of  rapid  gi'owth,  quite  flexible,  and  rer.dily  trained  in  any  de- 
sirable position. 

The  Poison  ivy  (Ilhus  toxicodendron  J  in  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  Vir- 
ginia creeper,  but  they  can  be  easily  distinguished  by  the  leaf.  The 
poison  ivy  has  its  leaflets  in  threes^  and  the  Virginia  creeper  hi  Jives,  the 
leaves  of  the  latter  being  large,  and  the  leaflets  more  oblong. 

Carolina  jasmine,  fGelsemium  scmperrirens.J — Although  this  plant  is 
tender  north  of  Virginia,  yet  it  succeeds  in  sheltered  city  gardens  fur- 
ther north.  It  Is  one  of  the  most  attractive  plants,  with  large,  yellow, 
fragrant  blossoms.  In  cool  greenhouses  or  conservatories,  it  is  an  ad- 
mirable plant  for  twining  around  pillai's  and  other  supports. 

Pipe  vine,  ( Aristolochia  sipho.J — In  lich  soils  this  i)lant  will  make  a 
large  growth,  and  cover  a  great  extent  of  trellis  in  one  season,  produc- 
ing leaves  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  in  breadth,  and  of  a  vivid  green 
color.  In  poor  soil  it  is  less  beautifid  in  color,  as  well  as  diminished  in 
size.  It  is  liable  to  be  infested  by  a  large,  black  cateiiidlar,  easdy  de- 
stroyed, if  carefully  watched,  before  the  plant  is  disflg-ured.  The  pecu- 
liar shape  of  the  flowers  gives  it  the  name  of  the  Dutchman's  pipe,  to 
which  they  have  a  very  strong  and  remarkable  resemblance. 

The  climbing  bitter-sweet  (Cclasirus  scandensj  is  a  twining  i^lant  of 
much  beaut^-,  especially  in  autumn,  when  the  orange-colored  cajisules 
open,  and  show  the  scarlet  seed-covers,  the  raceme-like  clusters  hanging 
like  small  bunches  of  gi^pes.  It  should  not  be  planted  near,  or  at  least 
ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  twine  upon,  any  choice  ti'ee  or  plant.  Its 
tough,  twining  stem  clas]>s  so  closely  as  to  interfere  with  the  swelling 
of  the  bark ;  and  instances  have  been  observed,  where  young  trees  have 
been  so  fiir  cut  through  by  the  wiry  cod  of  this  climber,  as  to  kill  the 
plant. 

The  Japan  honeysuckle  (Lonicera  hracliypodaj  is  a  more  beautiftd 
vine  than  the  older  known  Chinese  evergTcen  (Lonicera  Japonita.J  The 
leaves  of  this  species  are  somewhat  larger,  of  a  bright,  shining,  or  glis- 
tening green  color:  flovrers  delicate  and  of  sweet  fragrance.  There  is  no 
hardy  trailing  or  climbing  plant  that  can  excel  this  as  a  covering  for 
veranda  jjillars,  arbors,  or  trellises.  One  of  the  most  agreeable  beds  in 
a  flower  garden  is  a  large,  oval  figure,  rounded  to  a  pyramid,  (by  filling 
up  with  soil  in  the  center,)  and  completely  covered  with  this  evergreen, 
for  in  such  a  position  it  is  truly  an  evergreen,  although  it  will  lose  its 
foliage  in  vdnter,  when  exjwsed  on  a  high  trellis.  In  order  to  produce 
the  best  effect  on  trellis  work,  it  shoidd  be  carefully  trained,  so  that  the 
branches  may  be  regularly  distributed  over  the  entire  surface  to  be  cov- 
ered. A  regular  system  of  winter  pruning,  which  consists  in  remo^'ing 
all  the  young  gi-owth  of  the  previous  year,  will  keep  a  neatly  covered 
surface.    This  surface  will  be  supplied  yearly  with  a  graceful  growth  of 


IIIXTS    IN    nOETICLXTUKE.  205 

yomig,  tli-oopiiig.",  v.iul  sieiider  shoots.  If  the  lower  Ijranolies  show 
diminishing-  vigor,  they  may  "be  .stnmgthened  by  pruning  the  upper  por- 
tions of  the  ])]ant  dm-iug'  summer, 

Chinese  AVistaria,  (Wistaria  sinensis. J — A  strong-growing,  woody 
climber,  adapted  for  large  trellises  or  to  twining:  upon  trees.  Its  ra- 
cemes of  tlowers  are  large  and  fragTant :  and  it  will  rapidly  cover  a  large 
surface,  if  planted  in  good  soil  and  favorable  situation. 

Cocculus,  (Cocculas  CaroUnus.J — A  native  climber,  with  ornamented 
fruit,  hanging  in  clusters  of  a  deep  red,  or  hearly  scarlet  color,  and  re- 
sembling a  bunch  of  the  common  red  cuirant. 

Moonseed.  flLenispermum  Canadaise.J — A  small- foliaged.  delicate 
climber;  producing  clusters  of  black  li'iut  in  autumn. 

For  covering-  a  large  trellis  or  an  arbor,  in  a  very  short  time,  oiu'  na- 
tive grapes  are  among  the  best  plants:  and  where  fruit  is  not  an  object 
of  particular  consideration,  any  of  the  varieties  of  the  frost  g-rape  fVitis 
cordifoliaj  will  be  preferable  to  those  of  the  larger  and  coarser  fox 
species. 

Ivy,  (Hedcra  Eelix.J — This  fine  evergreen  climber  requires  to  be 
planted  on  a  northern  aspect.  It  adheres  readily  to  a  tree  or  stone  wall, 
bnt  recjuires  a  slight  support  against  a  brick  structiu-e,  at  least  until  it 
becomes  well  established.  The  dryness  of  oiu'  climate  prevents  it  fi'om 
clasping-  to  walls  with  that  tenacity  for  which  it  is  famed  in  Europe. 
There  are  many  varieties  in  cultivariou.  having  gTeat  diversity  of  foli- 
age, the  most  beautiful  being  variegatetl  with  white  and  yellow. 

nAEDY  HEEBACEOrs  PEEEXXIAL  CLDIBEES. 

Everlasting'  pea,  (Latliyrus  lafifolius.J — A  very  desirable  summer 
climber,  very  profuse  in  liowers  ;  a  much-neglected  plant. 

Chinese  yam,  (Bioscorca  batatas. J — This  plant,  of  which  so  much  was 
expected  as  a  valuable  culinaiy  root,  has  had  the  misfortune  of  first 
being  overpraised,  and  then  greatly  underrated.  It  is,  however,  well 
worthy  of  notice  for  its  mere  ornamental  beauty,  as  a  covering  for  arbors, 
&:c.  It  spreads  with  great  vigor,  covering  a  large  sm'iace  in  a  few  weeks ; 
and,  while  the  roots  are  perfectly  hardy,  they  possess  the  additional 
merit  of  affording  nutritious  food.  A  plant  combining-  these  qualities 
merits  attention,  and  should  not  be  consigned  to  neglect. 

Virgin's  bower,  f  Clematis. J — There  are  many  species  and  varieties  of 
this  plant  in  cultivation :  some  of  them  Avith  biilliant  liowers,  mostly  of 
blue  color. 

Passion  fiower,  (Passiflora  incaniata.)  and  double  convolvulus  fCahj- 
stefjia  piCocscens.J — Both  of  these  climbers,  altliough  quite  desirable  in  a 
collection,  are  inclined  to  spread  and  send  up  suckers  from  the  roots,  so 
that  they  are  apt  to  become  troublesome  in  some  situations. 

Climbing  fumitory,  (Adhimia  cirrliosa.J — A  native  plant  of  very  deli- 
cate foliage ;  requires  to  be  grown  in  a  shaded  i)lace,  where  it  can  find 
support  on  a  low  trellis. 

CLDIBEN'G  AXNTALS  FOE  SO-I^IEE  DECOEATIOX. 

Climbing  cobani,  fCola'a  seandcns.J — A  rapid-gTowiug  vine,  of  gTeat 
value  where  immediate  shade  is  desked. 

Cypress  vine,  fCjuamoelit  vulgaris.  J — A  plant  with  elegant,  cypress-like 
foliage ;  slender  in  gTowth ;  requires  warm  soil  and  exposure  to  succeed 
well ;  fiowers  of  various  colors,  as  scarlet,  white,  and  rose. 

Morning-glory,  flpomcea  imrpurea.) — A  well-known  i)laut  of  much 


206  AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

beauty  and  great  variety ;  flowers  variously  colored,  but  blue  prevail 
in^r ;  more  or  less  striped  and  margined  with  wbite. 

Balloon  vine,  ( CardioHpermum  halicacahum.J — A  free-growing  plant 
climbiug  by  tendrils;  chiefly  ornamental  on  account  of  its  inflated  pods, 
which  give  to  it  its  common  name. 

CalampcUs  scahcr.—A  plant  of  rapid  extension;  foliage  thin  and 
scattered;  valuable  for  partial  shading;  flowers  tubular,  orange-colored. 

Lojyhospcrmian  scandcns. —Y.qnal  to  the  cobfea  in  rapidity  of  growth, 
and  valuable  where  a  large  siu'face  is  to  be  covered  in  a  short  time. 

.VflMrfr,vf/iai>rtr(?/fl?/rt;m.— -A  small-foliaged,  graceftil-gro wing  plant,  with 
trumpet  flowers  of  various  colors;  the  white  variety  very  delicately 
beautiful. 

Tlnnihcrd'ia  alata.—lwv'nih  soils  this  will  mnkeagood  display;  on  dry, 
jght  soils  "it  burns  out  in  dry  weather ;  flowers  orange,  white,  and  yellow, 
trith  dark  edge. 


GRAPE  CULTURE. 


Au  approximate  exhibit  of  the  extent,  progress,  and  other  peciihari- 
ties  connected  with  grape  cnlture  and  wine  production  has  been  a  long- 
felt  want.  Many  vague  and  loose  statements,  with  reference  to  extent 
of  land  planted,  and  amount  of  crop,  have  been  put  in  circulation. 

Equally  unsatisfactory  and  conflicting  opinions  are  held  as  to  the  com- 
parative value  of  certain  soils  and  locations,  the  best  varieties  of  the 
fruit,  and  the  adaptability  of  certain  kinds  to  particular  soils,  climates, 
and  localities. 

With  a  view  to  the  collection  of  statistical  information,  copies  of  a 
circular  containing  the  following  list  of  questions  wxre  distributed  among 
the  correspondents  of  this  Department  and  to  the  principal  grape- 
growers  throughout  the  country : 

1.  How  many  acres  of  vineyard  in  your  county  ? 

2.  How  many  acres  actually  in  bearing? 

3.  How  many  tons  of  grapes  were  produced  tlie  present  season  ? 

4.  How  many  pounds  were  sold  or  shipped  for  table  use? 

5.  How  many  gallons  of  wine  were  manufactured? 

6.  What  variety  is  most  popular  as  a  table  fruit? 

7.  What  variety  is  in  highest  repute  as  a  wiue  grape? 

8.  What  variety  is  priucipally  grown? 

9.  What  variety  gives  the  heaviest  must  on  the  sugar  scale? 

10.  What  varieties  are  most  subject  to  leaf  diseases,  and  to  what  extent  are  they  injured? 

11.  What  varieties  are  most  subject  to  rot,  and  to  what  extent? 

12.  What  effect  has  shelter  or  protection,  of  any  kind,  in  preventing  leaf  diseases  ? 
i:{.  What  effect  has  soil  in  reference  to  rot  in  the  berry? 

14.  What  soils,  chemically  considered,  are  most  favorable  to  health  and  vigor  of  plant,  and 
perfection  of  fruit  ? 

15.  What  effects  have  been  observed  from  mechanical  conditions  of  soils,  such  as  drainino-, 
subsoiling,  and  other  cultural  operations  ?  °' 

l(j.  What  effect  has  elevation  upon  the  health  of  the  vine  ?  Give  results  of  observations 
and  opinion  as  to  the  proper  height  above  valleys. 

17.  Has  any  variety  of  the  foreign  grape  proved  remunerative  in  vineyard  culture? 

18.  What  is  the  effect  of  summer  pruning,  and  what  method  of  winter  prunino-  is  best? 

19.  What  is  the  average  cost  per  acre  of  a  vineyard  three  years  old,  exclusive  of  "the  value 
of  the  land  ? 

20.  Average  yield  per  acre  ? 

21.  How  many  gallons  of  wine  per  acrr-,  on  an  average  of  five  years? 

22.  What  insects  are  most  injurious  to  the  vine,  and  what  is  the  extent  of  the  injury,  and 
what  remedies  have  proved  efficient  ? 

The  collated  information  froui  these  returns  is  herewith  presented.  It 
is  fragmentary,  furnishing  only  contributions  toward  a  complete  col- 
lection of  vineyard  statistics ;  but  perhaps  as  full  as  could  be  expected, 
from  the  difficidty  of  obtaining  accurate  aggregates  of  hsjures  never 
oflieialiy  collected  either  by  national  or  State  authorities,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  dependiug  mainly  upon  professional  vineyardists  instead  of  oiu- 
regular  corps  of  correspondents.  More  complete  returns  may  be  obtamed 
hereafter. 

From  some  States  the  reports  are  meager,  and  California,  the  heaviest 
producer  of  all,  is  not  represented.  It  Vvas  considered  expedient,  how- 
ever, to  include  all  that  have  been  rccei\-ed,  even  to  those  States  where 
only  one  county  has  sent  returns.  The  annexed  table  embraces  the  an- 
swers to  questions  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  10,  20,  and  21 : 


208 


AGEICULTUEAL   REPORT. 


Anstccrs  to  questions  1,  2,  'A,  4,  r>,  1?,  '20,  21. 


s 

o 

ja 

a 
o 

o 

CI 

< 

a 

•c 

a 

1 

< 

Tons  producod. 

Pounds  sold. 

■d 

t 

s 

c 

CS 

e 

s 

Average  cost  per  acre. 

Average  per  aero,  poun  l.<. 

1 

C 
c 

u> 

< 

0 

to 
c 

>      . 

If 

1° 

0 

1.  ■ 

45 

t\ 

"* 

4. 

5. 

19. 

20. 

20. 

31. 

COXXECTICUT. 
Elartford 

35 

=0 

lO.OOD 

15.0C0 

$300 

6.000    

250 

GEORGIA. 

10 

20 

ICO 
1,000 

1,500 
300 

20 

10 

3,  COO 

$100 

300 

Total 

30 

20 

10 

y.oco 

1,100 

100 

l.glW 

300 

IXDIAXA. 

14 
20 

5 

1 

2 
30 

5 

I 

1 
20* 
50 

.3 

5 

2C0 

§200 

7,  COO 

2 

50 

6,000 

Park    

2 

4 
o 

2 

6 

1,000 
4,000 

12 

503 

Porter 



Uipley 

200 

200 

300 

Scott 

1 
18 
50 

IhO 
6.  COO 

500 

400 

70 

250 
300 

"7,"  666' 

300 

41 

25 

5,000 



Total 

l-JPi 

104 

79 

10,000 

C,922 

1,370 

750 

20,000 

600 

IOWA. 
Dallas 

5 
25 
16 
10 

100 
20 

5 
23 
8 

7 

1 

CO 

1) 

10 
10 
2 

* 

4 

7,000 
3,000 
6,000 

Uubnque 

540 

MOO 
225 
400 
175 
400 

160 

10,000 

f 

Mitchell 

100 

Polk 

5,000 
4,000 

200 

2,  ceo 

.">,  000 
6,  COO 

' 

20U 

Van  Boren 

Total 

178 

111 

OJ 

10,000 

2,740 

1,600 

27,0C0 

360 

ILUNOIS. 
Adams 

80 

1 

SO 

18 

15 

97 

1 

7 

4 

10 
10 
25 
8 
1,562 
15 
20 
96 
40 
40 

60 

30* 
6 

:i 

77 
i 
4 
4 
5 
5 

13 
8 
SCO 
7 
7 

4U- 

25 
7 

t 

Alexander 

»•"    

Calhuiin 

5 
3J 

h" 

2,  COO 
5,000 
3,500 
2,000 
2,0C0 
4,000 

1,230 
500 

$200 

"""iso" 

Carroll 

3,000 

Champagne 

Clinton 

11,000 

Coles 

8,000 
6,000 

DeWitt 

20O 
200 
200 
200 

SCO 

300 

Edwards 

Edgar 

150 

Effingham 

6 
3 

8,000 
4,000 

100 

8,000 

Fayetie 

Greene 

275 
350 
400 
250 
335 
2.''.0 
500 

1,000 
3,000 

Hancock 

1.174 
11* 
12 
50 
15 

444,000 

158,600 

200 

50 

6,000 

1,C00 

1,000 

250 

Henrv 

Iroquoin 

10,000 
14,0C0 
26.000 
10,000 

f.OOO 
5,000 
1,300 

250 

Knox 

Kankakee 



*  Failure  from  grasih  uppers. 


t  From  wild  grapes. 


J  Injured  badly  by  hail. 


GRAPE    CULTURE.  209 

Ansiccrs  to  questions  ],  "2,  o,  4,  5,  ID,  20,  21—Continued. 


"3 
s 
o 

< 

1 

.S              -a 

•=       1       -a                  "3 

•—                              ^                                     ■» 

1 

3 

5 

d 

> 

< 

J. 

5 

o 
c 

a 

> 
< 

•J 

to 

> 
< 

1 

u 

5  2 

c  S 
.5  >• 

>  o 

> 

-a 

a  ^ 
S. 

1. 

2.      1      3. 

■i. 

5. 

1». 

20. 

30. 

21. 

ILLIKOIS— Cont'd. 
Lee 

fi 

1 

GO 
30 
50 
20 
23 
90 
40 
17.5 
10 
14 
oo 

3 

so 

CO 
6 

1 

I 

20 

$350 
200 

Logan  

Macon 

3     1            4,000 

100 
2,000 

6,000 

....i  .. 

Macoupin 

3 

6     !            10  0(10 

4,000 

10            1'^ 

20, 000 

8,000 

11,000 

40,  COO 

1,000 

225 

200 

McDonough 

15 

5 

45 

20 

130 

3 

7 

5 

7 

1 

10 

12 

3 

5 
10 
25 

McHeury 

50 

250 
100 
650 
300 
75 
300 
200 
400 

8,000 
6, 000 

McLean 

Mercer 

Monroe 

Montgomery 

h" 

8 

u 

12 

500 
6,000 

35, 000 

806' 

144 
2,000 
163 
100 
375 
425 

5,  COO 

300 

Pope 

300 

Rock  Island 

Scott 

8,500 

Shelby 

Tazewell 

300 
200 
650 

4,  000 

6,000 

500 

33 
5 

30,  OCO 
1,500 

550 
400 

Woodford 

Total 

2,736    1  1,4C0 

1, 420 

665, 500 

221,  912 

7,2C0 

91, 300 

200  1  2,500 

KANSAS. 
Leavenworth 

1 

i 
35            ?l     1        no 

1,000 
l.COO 

$300 
$1,  000 

3,000 

1 

1 

1                             X       ,    \J\J\J 

KEKTL'CKY. 
Jefferson 

•200 

190 

1,500 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Norfolk 

20 
71 

1                   1 
1                   1 

2,000 

.$400 

7,000 

700 

*             -^     •         —     ]          -".""" 

Total 

'•i-i            33             15     1          10,000 

2,  COO 

40O 

7,  000 

700 

mCHIGAN. 
JFoaroe  

3.-, 
10 

10              9 
3              3 

8,000 

1,  075 
500 

$107 

1 

Von  Buron 





Total 

5 

13    1        12    1           >!  no<i 

1,575 

H)7 

1 

\ * 

MINNESOTA. 
Kamsey 

i 

1                2 

1  rni) 

eo 

1 

—  ■ 

1 

MISSISSIPPI. 
Tishomingo 

Co    1 

15     ! 

1 

1 

MISSOUKI. 
Buchanan 

i                1 
1 

im            Co           IjO            150,000 
15            10    1         5               r,  (im 

11,000 

4,10 

60 

50 

100 

.$275 

500 

7,000 

Clark 

Clinton 

15               3     i           it 
W            5     1 

Cole 

?.-.i 

1 

Daveiss 

1 -■"  1 

1 

Da  Kalb 

650          650 

' ::::  :     i 

1 

Gasconade 

coo   1 

10.000  1 

95,000 

600 

350 

I 

5S0 

14 


210 


AGRICULTURAL  REPORT. 
Ansiccrs  to  questions  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  19,  20,  ii — Contincsd. 


4 

i 

2, 

a 

C3 

o 

& 

1. 

§ 

ts 

g 

£ 

3 

La 

.  3 

•g 

e 

. 

;3 

•s 

%m 

&  o 

3 

« 

O 

w 

^ 

•o 

c 

P 

£m 

'  *£"= 

c 

m 
o 

1 

1 

^ 

5 

o 

to 

c 

o 

< 

< 

E- 

^ 

C 

< 

< 

< 

c 

1. 

a. 

4. 

5. 

19. 

20. 

20. 

!21. 
1 

MISSOUKI-ContU 

Holt 

Howard 

JeffVrsoa 

Lewii 

Linn 

Montgomery 

Pb-lpB 

Pike 

Ray 

ScotUsd , 

St.  Lotus 

SnlliTjin 

Total 


14 
25 

375 
26 
15i 

100 
7 
20 
20 
10 

105 
20 


5 

12 
90 
12 

8 

75 

i 

8 
10 

8 
60 
10 


8D0 
3.500 

asoo 

l.&CO 

S4 

135 

e.000 

10 
........ 

8 

10,000 

781 

800 

50 

500 
14.0C0 
4.000 
1,0U) 



25 

$375 
150 

400 
130 

""260' 
C50 

12,  COO 
C,5C6 

"'266 
"760 

350 



450 
l-iO 

5Cp 

6.000 

530 



3,0G0 

500 

L,  5(*i         9iAi         C'44i 


e-37.OC!0        132, 9!6 


'A''J       2,  COO     34.000  '  1,450 


NEW   JEaSEY.       ) 
Burlin^.cn 50 


40 


KEW  TOES 

a'njtoE 3 

CbAatuDqtia 1,000 

Livintfotoa 90 

Nui^ra .  240 

Outario I,  SfX) 

Onu.ge !  3O0 

Strabea |  4,000 

UliaeT ;  250 

Wayne !  90 


2 

3 

350 

700 

30 

30 

5.1 

125 

l.OOO 
200 

200 

2. 5U0 

6.000 

2ra 

250 

5) 

30 

3  |. 
800.000  I 

16.090 
160,000 


30,000 

8O0 

4,000 


$275 


300,000 

1,  too,  000 

40 ',000 

40, 000 


5,000 
200,(00 

4,o;o 

450 


140 
2.7O 

soo 

400 

290 

75 


5.000 


6.000 
4,500 
1, »  0 

6,000 
5,  0(X) 
4,000 


350 

'560 


450 
400 
500 
303 


Total '7,473     '4,387        7.  33t 


KOBTU   CAEOLIX.\. 


.7!n,0C3       234,25(1        ] ,  ~J0     32.  000  ' 1  2.  5O0 


B««nf<'>n  . 
Craven... 


200 


Tottl 


4.000  1 700  ! I 

l.OJO  I        $40  I j I      450 

Z:OUil  I  iJ  T.U   : 450 


OHIO. 


Aihlacd 

CoiOnil'i&na 
Cnyiib"g«... 
IV-Uware  ... 

Erir  

Fnirfi-M  .  ... 

HamU'oD 

lligrbland  .... 
Jpffer»c-a  ... . 

LAke 

Lawrraoe 

Lncit* 

Mabooing  ... 

Mr-g. 

Monroe 

Mootgi'uieiy. 
Miudiiiigiua  . . 

Ponafe 

Setou 

Sbelby 


50 


5.600 
20 
2.000 
150 
1,200 
21) 
40 
192 
35 
75 
35 
3 
400 
50 
S5 
SO 


10 


4,000 

13 
1,500 
23 
1,200 
20 
30 
48 
25 
25 
12 


300 
50 
15 
10 


4,200 


SO 


4,800,000 


12,000 


300.000 


50.000 
L500 


1.500 


2.000 
1.000 


25.000 
LOOU 


100 

'466' 


$200 
300 
325 


210 
200 
300 
500 
4110 
400 
300 
3U0 
400 
ISO 
100 
185 


4.000 
2.  MO 


3,000 
4,000 


4,000 


94 

450 

200 


6,000 
4,000 
1.650 


200 


320 


200 


300 

300 

20 

75 


350 
300 


300 

COO 


200 
150 


250 
'266 


GRAPE   CULTUEE. 
Ansjcers  to  q7:estions  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  19,  20,  21— Continued. 


211 


a 

3 

8 

■§ 

a 
o 
a 

< 

Acres  in  bearing. 

•3 

o 

a 
o 
H 

Pounds  sold. 

■3 

£ 
s 

3 
ca 

g 

a 

"a 
O 

o 
u, 

cS 
o 

to 

> 
< 

4 

a 

1 

1- 

c 

i 
> 
< 

i 

Cio 

1 

e 

0. 
i> 
bo 

£ 

> 

< 

1 

h 

0 

1. 

.. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

S9. 

20. 

20. 

21. 

OHIO— Cont'd. 
Stark         

10 
54 
65 

8 
33 
55 

12 
20 

445 
642 
425 

$350 
'"'125' 



2,000 
3,200 

150 

1.700 

100 

Total 

10,069 

7,387 

4,  330i 

4, 815, 700 

384,  012 

5,479 

3-1, 350 

1,  600 

2,5D5 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

28 
15 
1,000 
10 
28 
10 

18 

8 

550 

5 

25 
6 

2,500 

100 
34, 000 

$130 
175 

Erie 

1,000 

1, 4C0, 000 

3,000 

200 

30 

115 

3,000 

1 



Total 

1,091 

612 

1,030 

1,  4;i2, 500 

34,100 

420 

6,000 

200 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

400 
100 

400 
75 

150 

JI50 

50 

1,000 

$100 

2,000 

400 

Total 

500 

475 

50 

1,000 

100 

2,000 

150 

550 

TENNESSEE. 
Maury 

500 

WISCONSIN. 

2 

8 

•28 

10 
3 

Total             .  ... 

13 

-■ '- 

The  retm^ns  to  questions  G,  7,  8,  9, 10,  11,  12,  13, 14, 15, 16,  17,  18,  and 
22,  are  in  substance  as  follows : 

Question  G.  V^hat  varieties  are  most popiclar  as  tahle  fruit  f — Arkansas: 
*Catawba,  Delaware, — Connecticut:  Concord,  Delaware. — Delaware: 
Concord.— Georgia :  Herbemoiit,  Scuppernong, — Dlinois  :  Concord,  Del- 
aware, Catawba,  Zona,  Hartford  Prolitic,  Isabella.  Diana. — Indiana: 
Concord,  Catawba,  Delaware,  Hartford  Prolific,  Isabella,  Diana. — Iowa: 
Concord,  Delaware,  Hartford  Prolific,  Clinton,  Creveling. — Kentucky: 
Concord,  Ives,  Delaware. — Kansas:  Delaware. — Missouri:  Concord,  Ca- 
tawba, Delaware,  Hartford  Prolific,  Isabella,  Diana,  loua. — Minnesota: 
Delaware, — Michigan :  Concord,  Delaware. — Massachusetts :  Concord, 
Delaware, — New  Jersey :  Concord,  Isabella,  Delaware. — North  Carolina: 
Scuppernong,  Catawba. — New  York  :  Delaware,  lona,  Catawba,  Isabella, 
Concord,  Salem,  Diana,  Adirondack,  Hartford  Prolific,  Eebccca,  Max- 


'  The  varieties  are  named,  in  order  accordincr  to  their  estimated  value. 


212  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

atawny. Oliio :  Concord,  Catawba,  Delaware,  Isabella,  lona,  Kogei-s's 

]S'o.   15. Peunsylvauia  :   CoDCord,  Isabella.   Catawba,  lona,  Hartford 

Prolitie,  Diana,  Israella. — South  Carolina :  Scnppernong,  Catawba,  Isa- 
bella, Lenoir. — Tennessee  :  Catawba,  Isabella,  Concord. 

Question  7.  What  varieties  are  in  highest  repute  as  icine  gra^yes  f—Con- 
necticnt :  Delaware,  Concord.— Georgia :  Scuppernong.— Illinois :  Con- 
cord, Norton's  A'irginia.  Catawba,  Clinton,  Delaware,  Ives,  lona,  Hart- 
ford Proline,  Herbemont.— Indiana :  Catawba,  Delaware.  Ives.  Con- 
cord, :5'orton'S  Virginia,  Isabella,  lona.  Clinton. — Iowa :  Concord,  Dela- 
ware, Clinton,  Catawba,  Norton's  Virginia,  Eogers's  Xo.  4. — Kentucky : 
Catawba,  (in  old  vineyards.)  Ives.  Delaware. — Kansas:  Delaware. — Mis- 
souri: ^'orton's  Virginia,  Concord,  Catawba,  Delaware,  Herbemont, 
Clinton,  Ives. — Minnesota  :  Concord. — Michigan :  Delaware.  Concord. — 
Massachusetts :  Concord,  Delaware. — Xew  Jersey :  Delaware,  Clinton. — 
North  Carolina:  Scnppernong. — New  York:  Delaware,  lona.  Catawba, 
Isabella,  Concord,  Clinton,  Oporto. — Ohio:  Catawba,  Delaware,  Con- 
cord, Ives.  Norton's  Vii-ginia,  Clinton. — Pennsylvania :  Catawba.  Del- 
aware, Isabella,  Concord,  Clinton.  lona,  Ives. — Sonth  Carolina :  Scnp- 
pernong, Clinton. — Tennessee:  Mamy,  Mauch. — Wisconsin:  Isabella, 
Catawba. 

Question  S.  What  varieties  are  j;;-/«c?j;rt?/?/  groirn  ? — Arkansas :  Ca- 
tawba, Concord. — Connecticut:  Hartford  Prolitie,  Concord. — Delaware: 
Concord. — Georgia:  Scnppernong. — Illinois:  Concord,  Catawba,  Clin- 
ton, Hartford  Prolific,  Delaware,  Norton's  Vii'ginia.  Isabella,  Herbe- 
mont, lona,  Diana,  Ives. — Indiana:  Concord,  Catawba,  Isabella.  Dela- 
ware, Ives,  Norton's  Virginia,  Clinton,  Diana.  Hartford  Prolific.  lona. — 
Iowa :  Concord,  Clinton.  Norton's  Virginia,  Catawba,  Eogers's  No.  4, 
Delaware. — Kentucky,  (old  vineyards.)  Catawba;  (new  vineyards.)  Ives, 
Concord,  Delaware,  Diana.  Norton's  Virginia. — Kansas:  Concord. — 
i^Iissom'i :  Concord,  Norton's  Virginia,  Catavrba,  Delaware,  Clinton, 
Herbemont,  Isabella,  lona. — ^Minnesota :  Concord,  Northern  Musca- 
dine.— Michigan:  Concord. — Massachusetts:  Concord. — New  Jersey: 
Concord,  Isabella. — North  Carolina :  Scnppernong. — New  York  :  Isa- 
bella, Delaware.  Concord,  Catawba,  Diana,  lona,  Clinton,  Salem,  Hart- 
ford Prohfic. — Ohio  :  Catawba,  Concord,  Isabella,  Delaware,  Ives.  Nor- 
ton's Virginia,  Clinton,  Hartford  Prolific,  Diana. — Pennsylvania:  Con- 
cord, Isabella,  Catawba.  lona,  Diana,  Haitford  Prolific,  Clinton.  Crev- 
eling. — South  Carolina  :  Scnppernong,  Catawba. — Tennessee  :  Cataw- 
ba.— Wisconsin  :  Concord.  Delaware. 

Question  0.  Whut  varieties  give  the  heaviest  must  on  the  sugar  scale? — 
Connecticut :  DelaAvare. — Georgia  :  Pauline,  (98,)  Herbemont,  (93.)  Ca- 
tawba, (85.)  Scnppernong,  (70.) — Illiuois:  Delaware,  Norton's  Virginia, 
Catawba,  Kulauder,  Concord,  Herbemont.  Clinton.— Indiana :  Catawba, 
Delaware,  Ives. Concord. — Iowa:  Delaware.  Norton's  Virginia.  Catawba, 
Concord,  Cliutoii. — Kentucky:  Norton's  Virginia. — Kansas:  Delaware. — 
Missouri :  Norton's  Virginia,  Delaware,  Concord.  Catawba. — Minnesota  : 
Delaware,  lona. — Michigan :  Delaware. — Massachusetts:  Delaware,  Clin- 
ton, Concord. — North  Carolina  :  Scnppernong. — New  York:  Delaware, 
(103,)  lona,  (101.)  Diana.  Clinton.— Ohio :  Delaware.  (110,)  Catawba,  (95,) 
Norton's  Viiginia.  (98,)  Concord,  (81.) — Pennsylvania  :  Delaware.  (100.) 
lona,  (100,)  Isabella,  Catawba. — South  Carolina:  Catawba,  Pauline. 

Question  10.  What  varieties  are  most  subject  to  I e^if  diseases,  and  to  what 
extent  arc  they  injured  ? — Arkansas :  Isabella,  badly ;  Concord,  slightly. — 
Connecticut :  All  varii-ries  more  or  less  except  Ives. — Georgia :  JPauline, 
Herbemont,  and  all  the  varieties  of  the  Vids  Labrusca. — Illinois:  Ca- 
tawba, Delaware,  Clinton,  l.s;ibella,lvebecca,  i>iana,  Iona,Ives,  Hartford 


GRAPE    CULTURE.  213 

Pfolifie,  Maxata^vuy,  Israella,  Creveling. — Indiana  :  Catawba,  Delaware, 
Isabella.  Cuyahoga,  lona,  IsraeUa,  Concord,  Diana. — lovra :  Clinton,  Ca- 
tawba, Diana,  Isabella,  Eogers's  Hybrids,  Allen's  Hybrid,  lona. — Ken- 
tucky :  Eogers's  Hybrids,  Delaware,  Clinton,  Tokalon,  and  all  varieties  If 
primed  in  summer. — Kansas:  Delaware,  Catawba  ;  about  three-tentLis. — 
Missouri :  Catawba,  Delaware.  Isabella,  lona,  Clinton. — Mich.igan :  Isa- 
bella, lona,  Israella. — Massachusetts:  Delaware,  Creveling,  Israella, 
Diana  Hamburg;  Creveling,  ibiu'-tenths  to  five-tenths. — Xew  Jersey: 
Delaware,  Creveling,  Eebecca,  lona,  Diana,  Allen's  Hybrid,  Maxataw- 
ny. — Xew  York. — Delaware,  five-tenths :  Adh'oudack,  four-tenths :  Wal- 
ter, three-tenths  ;  Allen's  Hybrid,  three-tenths:  Isabella,  two-tenths; 
Concord,  one-tenth ;  Diana,  one-tenth  ;  Eebecca,  one-tenth ;  lona,  one- 
tenth ;  IsraeUa,  one-tenth. — Ohio:  Catawba,  Delaware,  lona.  Isabella, 
four-tenths  to  five-tenths ;  Eogers's  ZSTos.  3,  4,  lo,  three-tenths  to  five- 
tenths  :  Allen's  Hybrid,  four-tenths ;  Israella,  three-tenths ;  Chnton, 
lona,  Diana,  one-tenth  to  thr-ee-tenths.  Always  most  injuiious  to 
plants  that  are  overloaded  with  fruit ;  prevents  ripening  of  wood,  and 
weakens  the  vitality  of  the  plant. — Pennsylvania  :  All  varieties  are  sub- 
ject to  leaf  bhght.  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  seven-tenths  of  the  foli- 
age, except  Concord,  Hartford  Prolific,  and  Northern  Muscadine. — 
South  Carolina  :  Catawba.  Isabella. — Tennessee  :  Isabella,  very  badly. — 
TVisconstu :  Little  or  no  disease. 

Question  11.  What  varieties  are  most  subject  to  rot,  and  to  icMt  extent? — 
Arkansas:  Chnton, Isabella. — Connecticut:  Diana. — Georgia:  Catawba, 
Isabella,  six-tenths. — Illinois:  Catawba,  seven-tenths  to  entire:  Isabella, 
five-tenths  to  eight-tenths ;  Clinton,  foiu'-tenths  to  six-tenths :  Creveling, 
five-tenths  to  seven-tenths ;  Diana,  five-tenths ;  Taylor's  Bidlet,  three- 
tenths;  Tokalon,  thi-ee-tenths ;  lona,  four-tenths;  Eebecca,  three-tenths; 
Concord  cracks. — Indiana:  Catawba,  three-tenths  to  eight-tenths ;  Isa- 
bella, three-tenths  to  eight-tenths ;  Diana,  three-tenths  to  five-tenths ; 
Concord,  two-tenths. — Iowa :  Catawba,  five-tenths  to  eight-tenths ;  Diana, 
four-tenths ;  Isabella  and  Clinton,  three-tenths  ;  Concord,  one-tenth. — 
Kentucky:  Eogers's  Hybrids,  lona,  Catawba. — Kansas:  Catawba  rots 
badly  in  wet  seasons. — Missouri :  Catawba,  Isabella,  lona,  Tokalon, — 
Michigan  :  Catawba,  Isabella. — Massachusetts :  Diana ;  very  little  in 
other  varieties. — Xew  Jersey:  Isabella  hi  wet  locations  only. — Xorth 
Carolina  :  Catawba. — Xew  York  :  Catawba,  three-tenths  to  foiu--tenths; 
Concord,  one-tenth  to  two-tenths  ;  Diana  and  Delaware  on  low,  alluvial 
lands  are  subject  to  rot  to  a  great  extent. — Ohio:  Catawba,  three-tenths 
to  eight-tenths ;  Isabella,  three-tenths  to  six-tenths ;  Israella,  thi^e-tenths: 
Diana  and  lona,  three-tenths:  Concord,  one-tenth  to  three-tenths.— 
Pennsylvania:  Catawba  and  Isabella,  very  badly,  frequently  to  the 
extent  of  eight-tenths. — South  Carolina :  Catawba,  tVarren. — Tennessee : 
Isabella  and  Catawba,  very  badly  after  bearing  two  or  three  crops  ol 
fruit. — Wisconsin  :  Allen's  Hybrid,  three-tenths^ 

Question  VJ.  WJtat  effect  has  shelter  or  protection,  of  any  JciiuJ^  injjye- 
renting  leaf  diseases  f — Arkansas:  Saunders's  sheltered  trellis  effectually 
prevents  leaf  diseases. — Connecticut :  Very  little  efiect. —  Georgia  : 
Always  fail'  when  gTOwn  in  trees. — Illinois :  Favorable  wherever  tried : 
even  slightly-covered  trellis  iusures  against  mildew :  protection  will  iusiu'e 
fair  crops  in  the  most  unfavorable  seasons. — Indiana  :  Beneficial  where 
tried. — Iowa  :  Good  where  it  has  been  tried. — Kentucky  :  A  beneficial 
efiect  to  aU  tender-leaved  varieties. — ^Missomi :  Where  tried  has  exerted 
a  favorable  influence. — Massachusetts :  Beneficial  by  increasiag  the 
temperatiue. — ^ew  York :  Favorable  where  it  does  not  prevent  a  fi-ee 
circulation  of  air. — Ohio :  Yiues  trained  againct  buildings  and  on  covered 


214  AGEICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

trellises  are  free  from  leaf  diseases;  instances  are  kuowu  of  siiccessflil 
cnlture  of  uncertaiu  varieties  under  sbelter,  successive  crops  for  thirteen 
years  having  been  raised. — South  Carolina :  Most  excellent  effect ;  pre- 
vents leaf  diseases. — Tennessee :  Vines  protected  by  projecting  eaves  or 
copings  always  do  well. 

Question  1.'3.  Wiat  effect  lias  soil  in  reference  to  rot  in  the  herry  ? — Illi- 
nois :  Low,  wet  soils  almost  invariably  produce  rot  in  the  berry ;  rich 
hinds  also  seem  to  induce  rot  in  the  berry. — Indiana :  Wet  and  rich  soils 
iire  the  prevailing  causes  of  rot  in  the  berry. — Iowa :  Undrained  clay 
soils  cause  rot. — Kentucky:  Stiff,  retentive  subsoils,  keeping  water  near 
the  surface,  produce  rot. — Kansas :  Very  rich  soils  cause  rot  in  the 
grape. — Missouri :  Hot  in  the  berries  is  very  rare,  and  is  seen  on  rich  or 
heavy  clay  soils  only. — Massachusetts :  Not  liable  to  rot  on  dry  soils. — 
KewJersey :  In  tret  seasons  and  on  wet  soils  we  have  rot  in  the  berries. — 
North  Carolina :  The  rot  is  frequently  disastrous  on  rich  or  retentive 
soils. — New  York :  Only  on  low  grounds  and  wet  subsoils. — Ohio :  Heavy 
wet  soils  are  extremely  pernicious,  and  thought  to  be  the  primary  cause 
of  rot ;  drained  soils,  even  clays,  are  almost  entirely  exempt. — Pennsyl- 
vania :  The  rot  is  most  destructive  on  nntlrained,  heavy  clays,  but  is 
also  induced  by  over-manuring  and  enriching  the  soil. — South  Carolina: 
We  seldom  escape  rot  in  the  berries,  on  heavy,  damp  soils. 

Question  14.  What  soils,  cliemicaUy  considered,  are  most  favorahle  to 
health  and  vigor  of  plant,  and  perfection  of  fruit "? — Arkansas:  A  reddish 
clay  soil,  intermingled  with  sand,  is  the  most  congenial,  so  far  as  experi- 
ence confirms  ;  on  pure  clays  the  crop  has  failed. — Connecticut :  A  good 
depth  of  limy,  loamy  soil  is  best. — Georgia :  Soils  containing  alkaline 
phosphates,  and  considerable  humus,  are  most  productive,  and  maintain 
healthy  plants. — Illinois:  Silicious  and  calcareous  soils  are  well  suited j 
also  gravelly  clay  soils,  if  somewhat  rolling  on  the  surface;  clay  subsoils 
are  very  good,  if  not  too  wet ;  especially  so  if  they  contain  some  iron  and 
lime. — Indiana :  Grapes  do  well  on  clays  if  properly  drained  and  limed ; 
also  very  fairly  on  gravelly  and  sandy  soils  when  i)roperly  worked. — 
Iowa  :  The  ^■^nes  seem  to  do  equally  well  either  on  silicious,  calcareous, 
or  gravelly  soils,  where  the  last  is  not  too  poor  or  light.  Shales  are  very 
good.  Clayey  soils  produce  the  richest  fruit,  but  sandy  soils  the  greatest 
amount  of  vine. — Kentucky :  Soils  containing  much  oxide  of  iron  seem 
to  favor  the  rot. — Kansas :  A  sandy  clay  soil  is  best  for  grapes. — Mis- 
souri :  The  most  favorable  soils  are  those  of  a  silicious  and  calcareous 
nature,  containing  magnesian  limestone,  with  potash  and  phosphates; 
clay  soils  are  very  good,  but  they  must  be  drained. — Michigan:  The 
earliest  and  sweetest  fruit  is  produced  on  clay  soils,  but  sandy  soils  give 
the  largest  and  best-looking  fruit. — Massachusetts :  Where  the  growing 
season  is  short,  a  dry  sandy  sod  is  preferable.— North  Carolina :'  A  light 
sandy  loam  gives  best  results.— New  York :  Calcareous  and  aluminous 
soils  abounding  in  phosphates;  shaly  soils  are  always  good.— Ohio: 
Calcareous  and  aluminous  soils,  well  drained;  also  rotten  shales. — Penn- 
sylvania :  Calcareous  soils  in  combination  with  iron  ;  shaly  and  sdicious 
soils  are  very  well  adapted.— South  Carolina:  The  varieties  of  Vitis 
estiralis  prefer  silicious  soils ;  the  varieties  of  Vitis  vnlpina,  those  of  an 
aluminous  character;  and  tbe  varieties  of  Ft7«s  rof?mf/(/b/m  do  equally 
well  in  cither;  as  a  general  rnle,  light  soils  are  best  if  sui)plied  Avith  lime 
and  potash.— Wisconsin :  A  loose  limestone  soil  is  perhaps  the  most 
favorable ;  sandy  clay  soils  are  also  good,  but  very  stiff  clays  are  not  so 
profitable. 

Qiiestion  15.  What  cfects  have  been  observed  from  mechanical  conditions 
Of  soilSj  such  as  draining,  subsoiling,  and  other  cultural  operations? — 


GRAPE   CULTUEE.  215 

Arkansas :  Subsoiling  and.  trencMng  show  marked  results  for  good. — 
Connecticut:  Draining  is  indispensable  in  order  to  g'^t  the  grape  to  grow 
in  originally  wet  soils. — Illinois :  Draining,  trenching,  and  good  cultm^e 
are  necessary;  the  soil  should  be  well  pulverized  and  manipulated  before 
planting. — Indiana:  Draining  seems  indispensable  in  most  soils;  sub- 
soiling  and  good  culture  generally  are  always  attended  with  marked 
results. — Iowa:  Deep  plowing,  in  conjunction  with  di-aining  and  subsoil- 
ing,  prevents  rot  to  a  very  great  extent. — Kentucky:  Draining  and  sub- 
soiling  pay  well. — Kansas  :  We  find  the  best  results  on  drained  soils,  and 
shallow  after-culture. — Missouri:  The  yield  of  fruit  is  largely  increased 
by  draining,  trenching,  and  subsoiliug. — Massachusetts :  Draining  is 
iLseful. — North  Carolina :  The  products  are  greatly  improved  by  proper 
stirring  and  culture  of  the  soil. — New  York:  Draining  and  subsoiling 
are  of  essential  benefit,  making  the  gTowth  more  certain,  and  preventing 
injury  from  drougbt. — Ohio:  Very  dry  soils  are  vastly  improved  by 
trenching;  draining  is  indispensable  in  stiff  clays,  and  subsoiling  favor- 
able; good  clean  culture  will  always  be  attended  by  best  crops. — Penn- 
sylvania: Under  draining  is  always  attended  with  good  resiilt-s  in  tena- 
cious soils. — South  Carolina:  Draining  is  absolutely  necessary  in  clay 
soils;  subsoiling  is  useful  in  aluminous  lands,  but  of  no  use  in  silicious 
soils. — Tennessee:  Draining  and  deep  culture,  especially  on  i)oor  soils, 
are  of  gTeat  benefit. — Wisconsin:  Deep  cidture  is  necessiuy  in  dry 
summers. 

Question  IG.  Wliat  effect  has  elevation  upon  tlie  liealtli  of  the  vine?  Give 
resitlts  of  observations,  and  opinion  as  to  the  proper  height  above  valleys. — 
Arkansas:  Other  things  being  appropriate,  we  prefer  low  situations, 
because  they  are  sheltered  from  heavy  storms. — Connecticut :  No  differ- 
ence if"  the  ground  is  d_ry  in  the  valleys. — Illinois :  Elevated  rolling  lands 
are  decidedly  the  best,  bnt  elevation  is  not  so  important  when  near  large 
bodies  of  water;  near  small  streams,  or  in  valleys  distant  from  water,  an 
elevation  of  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hmidred  and  fifty  feet  is  much 
preferable;  very  liable  to  freeze  in  low  gi-ounds. — Indiana:  An  eleva- 
ted position  is  always  the  best;  grapes  are  healthier,  with  much  less  dis- 
position to  rot,  even  in  wet  seasons. — Iowa:  An  elevation  of  fifty  to  two 
hundred  feet  above  streams  has  proved  best. — Kentucky:  There  is  no 
question  but  that  elevated  sites  are  to  be  preferred,  where  tbe  air  can 
circulate  freely,  and  be  protected  fi-om  slight  frosts. — Kansas:  Elevations 
of  fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  above  vaUeys,  with  grounds  sloping  to  the 
south,  are  the  best. — Missouri:  Elevations  of  from  three  hundred  to  four 
hundred  feet  above  water-level  have  proved  the  very  best,  for  health  and 
value  of  products. — Minnesota:  The  best  vines  are  those  cultivated  on 
elevatioiLS  one  huntb-ed  to  two  hundred  feet  above  the  river. — Massachu- 
setts :  Side  hills  (of  no  great  elevation)  with  southern  slopes  are  the 
most  favorable;  northern  slopes  and  low ti-osty  hollows  must  be  avoided 
here. — North  Caroliiia:  The  Scuppernong  grape  does  best  in  low  lands, 
but  other  varieties  succeed  only  on  elevations;  on  the  mountain  sides, 
where  we  are  exempt  from  oce-asional  late  and  early  frosts,  failure  has 
never  been  known ;  in  low  valleys  they  are  destroyed  by  blight  and 
rot. — New  York :  Our  best  vineyards  are  on  considerable  elevations,  from 
fifty  to  four  hundred  feet  above  the  valley.  On  these  high  lands  we  are 
not  subject  to  early  frosts  in  autumn,  and  the  vine  is  healthier  generally 
than  in  low  grounds. — Ohio:  Elevations  are  considered  good,  but  opin- 
ions differ  as  to  height;  some  prefer  being  within  range  of  fogs;  fifty  to 
three  hundred  feet  above  creeks  and  small  streams  exempts  fi'om  early 
faU  frosts,  and  vineyards  are  generally  more  healthy;  where  there  are 
large  bodies  of  water,  elevation  seems  of  but  little  consequence. — Penn- 


2  L  ^  AGKICULTUiiAL,   itEPORT. 

sylvauia :  Elevations  of  from  two  Lniulretl  to  fo4ir  liuudred  feet  are  safer 
ill  early  and  late  frosts,  and  both  the  frnit  and  the  vines  are  superior  to 
the  luoductiou  of  low  i^onuds. — South  Carolina :  The  best  jrape  rejriou 
is  that  above  the  frost-belt  on  the  nioimtain  slopes:  this  is  cle;iiiy  indi- 
cated bv  the  fact  that  a  diseased  grape  leaf  or  beiTy  has  never  been  seen 
on  these  elevated  lands.— Teunessee :  We  find  deeidetlly  the  best  grapes 
on  elevated  iwsitious. — \Yisconsin :  Elevations  are  subject  to  destructive 
wiiul-stoims. 

Question  17.  Has  any  rariefy  of  ihc  foreign  fjrape proved  remunerative  in 
vineyard  eulture  .* — The  retui'ns  uniformly  express  a  negative  answer  to 
this  question. 

Question  1$.  What  is  the  effect  of  summer  prunincj,  and  what  method  of 
icinter  prwiing  is  best  ? — Arkansas  :  Judicious  summer  pruning  assists  in 
developing  the  fiiiit :  any  system  of  renewal  is  good  for  \Tinter  pruning. — 
Connecticut:  Vines  that  are  allowed  to  run  ail  summer  without  pruning 
invariably  yield  large  crops. — Delaware :  When  summer  pmning  is  judi- 
ciously ]>eribrmed.  it  has  a  tendency  to  increase  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  fi-uit,  and  also  tends  to  promote  niatui-ity  of  growth. — Georgia : 
We  lind  summer  pruning  injurious. — Illinois :  All  known  methods  of 
pruning  are  more  or  less  practiced.  Summer  pruning  is  considered  hurt- 
ful, according  to  its  severity.  Cases  are  cited  of  severe  summer  pruning 
causing  a  loss  of  half  of  the  crop. — Ii^.diana :  Summer  pmning  should  be 
limited;  it  is  injuiious  if  severe.  All  methods  of  renewal  and  spur 
methods  of  winter  pruning  are  practiced, — Iowa :  Summer  pruning  is 
injmious,  if  it  involves  the  removal  of  much  of  the  foliage.  A  moderate 
pinching  of  the  points  of  fruiting  shoots  checks  gi'owth  and  improves 
the  fruit.  The  renewal  and  other  systems  of  winter  pruning  are  prac- 
ticed.— Kentucky :  On  the  whole,  summer  pruningis  considered  injurious, 
and  should  be  abandoned. — Kansas :  Summer  pruning  should  be  strictly 
confined  to  pinching  out  the  points  of  shoots,  and  not  removing  them 
entii'ely. — Missom'i:  Summer  pruning  is  practiced  to  a  moderate  extent. 
The  winter  pruning  takes  place  in  November.  AH  modes  are  practiced. — 
Michigan:  Summer  pruning  is  deemed  hiu-tful  wlien  can'ied  to  any  con- 
siderable extent.  The  winter  pruning  is  on  the  renewal  system. — Massa- 
chusetts :  Very  little  summer  i^nming.  Winter  pnmiug  on  the  spur 
system. — Nortli  Carolina :  Summer  pruning  severely  injui'es,  and  some- 
times kills  the  vine  in  this  locality. — Xew  York:  Summer  pruning  is 
injurious,  except  so  far  as  to  check  the  growth  of  rampant  shoots,  or 
remove  superfiunus  wood.  All  systems  of  winter  pruning  are  practiced, 
but  the  renewal  mode  is  preferred. — Ohio :  Summer  pruning  is  injurious 
as  an  unqualified  system,  but  is  favorable  to  the  extent  of  removing 
superfluous  buds,  and  checking  over  luxuriant  growth.  ]\Iany  systems  of 
winter  pruniug  are  practiced,  but  the  ronevral  system  is  pretend.  The 
system  of  horizontal  arms  with  spms  has  resrJted  in  comparative  fail- 
ure.— Pennsylvania :  Moderate  summer  pinching  is  favorable  to  inci-ease 
in  the  size  of  fruit,  but  is  likely  to  increase  the  present  at  the  expense  of 
subsequent  crojis.  Winter  pi-uning  is  varied,  both  the  renewal  and  the 
spur  system  in  various  modifications  being  practiced. — South  Carolina : 
Summer  pruning  is  not  practiced.  The  renewal  system  has  been  adopted 
in  winter  pruning. — Tennessee :  Xo  summer  pruning  done. — ^Wisconsin : 
Summer  jiruniug  is  found  to  be  beneficial  when  done  with  judgment. 
Winter  pruniug  is  done  in  November. 

Question  liL*.  What  inseets  are  most  injurious  to  the  vine,  and  ichct  is  the 
extent  of  the  injury :  and  irhett  rcmedics'have  proved  efficient? — Arkansas: 
The  leaf  roller  is  somewhat  troublesome  on  all  varieties,  except  tlie  Scup- 
pernong  and  Clinton. — Connecticut :   The  tlirips  is  sometimes  very  in- 


GK. 


CULTURE. 


21' 


jurious. — Delav.are  :  A  small  curciilio,  tlie  uaiuc  of  which  has  not  been 
determined,  is  very  destructire. — Georgia:  Xo  trouble  fi'om  insects. — 
niiiiois :  The  leaf  folder,  thrips,  borer,  and  curculio  are  occasionally 
foiuid  in  vint'yards.  Shaking  and  hand-picking  are  the  only  kno^vn 
remedies  for  the  last  named. — Intliana :  lusects  are  not  troublesome,  al- 
though rose  bugs  occasionally  devastate  the  young  fruit  bunches. — Iowa: 
The  leaf  roller  and  thrips  are  the  principal  insect  enemies.  The  fii-st  named 
can  be  destroyed  by  dusting  with  hellebore  powder. — Kansas :  The  thrips 
is  sometimes  seen,  but  not  to  any  great  extent. — Missouri :  The  rose  bug, 
thrips,  and  some  other  insects  are  to  be  seen,  but  not  to  any  gTcat 
extent. — Minnesota :  Xo  injury  from  insects. — Massachusetts :  Eose  bugs 
are  troublesome. — Xew  Jersey:  Eose  bugs  sometimes  destroy  the 
crops. — Xorth  Carolina :  The  Scuppernong  gTaiDe  is  exempt  from  all 
insect  enemies;  other  varieties  are  sometimes  injured. — ISTew  York: 
The  gi'ape  beetle,  thrips,  rose-bug,  and  caterpillar  appear.  TThale-oil 
soap  and  dusting  with  lime  are  good  preventives. — Ohio:  A  worm 
that  eats  its  way  fi-oui  one  berry  to  another  does  considerable  injury. 
The  thrips  is  most  desti-uctive  upon  thin  and  smooth-leaved  varieties. 
They  have  been  prevented  by  washing  the  vines  with  a  mixture  of  soft- 
soap  and  sulphur  in  the  fall,  after  the  decay  of  the  foliage ;  also  by 
fiunigating  with  tobacco  smoke  on  their  first  appearance.  Lime  and 
sidphur  sprinkled  on  the  leaves  are  also  effective.  The  rose  bug,  steel- 
blue  beetle,  and  curculio  are  occasionally  troublesome. — Pennsylvania: 
Various  insects  make  their  appearance,  but  none  of  them  are  very  in- 
jurious, except  the  thrips  in  some  dvj  season. — South  Carolina  :  "^The 
thrips  is  occasionally  troublesome. — Tennessee:  !Xp  insect  of  any  mo- 
ment.— Wisconsin:  The  thrips  to  a  small  extent. 


EECAPITULATIOX. 


^ 

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o 

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-r 

5 

g 

a 

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c 

^ 

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a 

u, 

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=  ^ 

States. 

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go  product 
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Arkansas 

1 

\                                1 

1 

CoEnecticnt 

1 

^5 

3o 

20 

10,000 

15,000 

$300  00 

6,000 

250 

Delaware 



Cieorgiu 

!......  1  ::;:::::::i:::::::::: 

IlIiDoi= 

37 

2,711 
14'>i 

1  515 

1  415' 

615  500 

224,412 
6,9->2 

2S5  20 
274  00 

5,072 
6,666f 

*:!00 
2?0 

312i 
300 

Indiana 

11 

'l04 

81' 

10,000 

lov.R. 

7 

178 

111 

26 

I'J,  000 

2, 740 

320  00 

6,200 

180 

Koiitncky 

.     ..   . 

..     . 

1 

1 

Mi»ouri 

19 

i,  528i 

992 

944* 

237,000 

103,116 

341  50 

0,900 

483i 

540 

Jlicuepota 

1 
2 
2 
1 
2 

5 

43 

91 

."iO 

200 

1 
13 
38 
4U 

l'^ 
15 

1,000 
8,0C0 
10,000 

eo 

1,575 
2,0«) 

Mkliigan 

197  00 
4C0  00 

Massachusetts. . 

7,000 

New  Jer>ej- 

North  Carolina. 





5,000 

40  00 

700 

450 

New  York 

9 

7,473 

4,387 

7,338 

2,322,000 

234,250 

247  14 

4,571 

416i 

Ohio 

23 

lO.OUO 
1,101 

7,387 
612 

4,o30i 
1,030 

4,813,000 
1,402,500 

384,012 
34,100 

274  00 
140  O'J 

3,475 
3,000 

320 

199i 
200 

Per.nsj-'.vrj)ia  . . 

6 

South  Carolina. 

500 

475 

50 

1  COO 

ICO  00 

2  COO 

iso 

275 

Tonnes.- ee 

500 



1 

According  to  the  above  reports,  the  most  popular  varieties  for  table  use 
are,  1st,  Concord ;  2d,  Delaware  ;  and,  3d,  Catawba.  Those  in  highest 
repute  for  wine,  are,  1st,  Delaware ;  2d,  Concord ;  3d,  Catawba  and  Scup- 


218  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT 

pemoug  in  tlie  southern  States.  The  varieties  principally  grovni  are 
the  Concord  and  Cata^vba,  but  the  ncTrer  varieties  are  rapidly  being  dis- 
seminated, and  thoir  respective  merits  Tvill  be  tested  in  a  lew  years.  On 
the  must  scale  the  Delaware  shows  the  greatest  uniform  amount  of 
sugar,  next  the  lona  ;  the  Catawba  and  iv^ortou's  Yirginia  are  also 
favorably  mentioned  in  this  respect. 

In  regard  to  mildew  and  other  leaf  diseases,  no  variety  appears  to  be 
entirely  exempt;  Concord.  Ives," Hartford  Prolific,  and  Northern  Musca- 
dine appear  to  sutler  the  least,  and  it  is  probably  owing  to  this  exemp- 
tion fiom  severe  leaf  injury  that  these  varieties  are  so  prominent. 

Eot  in  the  beiTy  is  almost  as  universal  as  leaf  blights,  nearly  all  the 
varieties  being  liable  under  certain  conditions.  If  any  exceptions  are 
made  they  refer  to  the  family  of  summer  grapes,  the  cultivated  varieties 
of  which  are  the  Elsinboro,  -STorton's  Vii-ginia,  Lenoir,  Cunningham, 
Herbemont,  &c.;  these  appear  to  be  noted  for  their  freedom  ti'om  rot. 
Old  \'ines  are  also  more  generally  liable  to  rot  than  those  in  young  i>lanta- 
tions. 

Shelter  from  dews  and  other  atmospheric  changes  is  considered  advan- 
tageous in  modifying  leaf  diseases.  It  has  long  been  observed  that  vines 
growiug  imder  the  partial  protection  of  the  overhanging  eaves  of  a 
building,  also  those  allowed  to  ramify  unmolested  on  the  branches  of 
trees,  are  generally  exemi)t  from  injmy.  Covered  trellises  seem  to 
exert  a  similar  influence. 

The  eftect  of  soil  with  reference  to  rot  in  the  beny  seems  to  be  very 
decided.  Soils  that  retain  water,  as  uu drained  clays,  are  very  likely 
to  rot  the  fruit  of  grapes,  more  especially  when  the  plants  are  over  four 
or  five  years  old.  Very  rich  bottom  lauds  are  also  conducive  to 
this  disease.  "Wet  seasons  are  more  fatal  than  dry  on  any  soO,  the 
primary  cause  apjiearing  to  be  an  excess  of  water  in  the  soil.' 

The  chemical  constitution  of  the  soil  does  not  seem  to  exert  any  very 
marked  influence  on  the  growth  of  the  \ine;  clayey  soils  produce  the 
richest  fiuit,  as  also  the  earliest  ripe;  the  latter,*^  however,  depending 
uix)n  the  moisture  of  the  season;  success  evidently  depends  rather  ujiou 
its  physical  qualities.  The  couvictiou  is  gradualfy  gaining  gTound  that 
all  grape  soils  should  be  artificially  tlrained,  mdess  they  actually  rest  on 
an  extremely  porous  strata;  deep  culture,  or  rather  deep  prei)aratiou  of 
the  ground,  is  also  strongly  recommended  in  connection  with  diainiug, 
the  two  operations  being  of  much  benefit  only  when  simultaneously  per- 
formed; draining  being  of  little  value  unless  the  soil  is  deeply  cultivated, 
and  deep  culture  of  but  little  value  unless  the  land  is  drained. 

The  eflect  of  elevation  upon  the  health  of  the  ^-ine  is  considered  as 
favorable;  tlie  reiwrts  are  neiu-ly  unanimous  on  this  point.  Not  only 
ai-e  high  lands  more  favorably  disposed  to  drainage  facilities,  but  the 
greater  immunity  from  late  spiing  and  early  fall  frosts  is  of  vast  import- 
ance. Localities  contiguous  to  large  bodies  of  water  are  pre-eminently 
lavored  in  this  respect,  but  small  streams  in  sheltered  vallevs  have  an 
injurious  rather  than  a  beneficial  influence. 

The  returns  are  entirely  imanimous  in  regard  to  the  failure  of  the  for- 
eign grape  in  vineyard  cultuie,  a  fact  which  should  be  considered  by 
those  who  are  stdl  experimenting  with  foreign  wine  grapes  cast  of  the 
I?ocky  Mountains.  " 

Summer  pruning,  so  far  at  least  as  it  involves  the  removal  of  auv 
great  amount  of  foliage,  is  generally  abandoned  as  injudicious,  and  tend- 
ing to  positive  injury.  If  performed  early  in  the  season,  and  only  to  the 
extent  01  partially  checking  the  growth  of  certiiin  shoots,  more  paiticu- 
larly  those  that  are  bciUing  fniit,  it  is  beneficial;  but  to  remove  a  quan- 


GRAPE   CULTUEE.  219 

tity  of  healthy  foliage  at  any  period  during  the  active  growth  is  certain 
to  result  in  injury. 

The  modes  of  winter  pruning  are  rather  indefinitely  described,  and 
various  modifications  of  renewal  and  spur  pruning  are  practiced.  The 
renewal  method  seems  to  have  the  preference,  although  it  is  evident 
that  very  widely  varying  practices  are  included  in  the  term. 

No  serious  injuries  from  insects  are  reported.  The  thrips  is  most 
troublesome,  but  no  practical  and  at  the  same  time  effectual  mode  of 
destroying  them  has  been  made  apparent. 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  PEANUT. 


Thongli  tLe  peanut  lias  beeu  cultivated  in  Tiruiaia  to  some  extent 
from  a  remote  date,  it  is  ouly  since  the  war  that  the  crop  has  l>ecome  of 
primarj-  importance  in  the  section  of  the  State  peculiarly  adapted  to  its 
production.  The  frreater  part  of  Eastern  Virginia  was  hx  turns  occu- 
pied by  both  of  the  contending  armies:  and  as  neaily  every  farmer 
raised  i^eanuts  enough  for  his  fe.mily.  and  some  to  spare,  their  merits 
became  extensively  known  among  the  soldiers;  so  that  when  the 
armies  were  disbanded  a  knowledge  of  them  was  carried  to  every  part 
of  the  country.  It  is  doubtless  to  tiis  cause,  more  than  to  any  other,  that 
we  are  to  ascribe  the  extraordinary  impulse  given  to  their  culture 
within  the  last  few  years.  So  rapid  has  been  its  extension  that  the  crop 
of  each  successive  year  has  been  threefold  greater  than  that  of  the  year  pre- 
ceding, and  at  prices  fidly  maintained.  The  crop  of  1SG8  in  Virginia  is 
estimated  to  have  aggregated  about  three  hundred  thousand  bushels, 
the  average  price  of  which  was  about  1^2  75  per  bushel.  Sach  enormous 
profits  in  the  present  depressed  condition  of  our  agriculture  are  well  cal- 
culated to  keep  up  the  same  ratio  of  increase  for  ISG'J,  so  that  the  pro- 
duct might  be  safely  estimated  at  a  million  of  bushels  if  it  were  not  that 
many  of  the  new  planters  have  embarked  in  the  business  without  an 
adequate  knowledge  of  the  conditions  necessaiy  to  success. 

The  preparation  of  the  soiL,  however,  is  shrouded  in  no  mystery,  while 
the  subsequent  culture  is  almost  as  simple  and  scarcely  more  expensive 
than  that  of  com.  This  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  some  plant- 
ers put  as  much  as  a  huudred  acres  in  i>eanuts.  and  not  a  few  from 
thirfr  to  fifty  acres,  in  addition  to  other  crops.  To  attain  the  best  suc- 
cess the  planter  should  not  l>e  lacking  in  any  one  essential,  and  in  order, 
therefore,  to  treat  the  subject  iatelligeatly,  it  wiU  be  i^resented  under 
several  heads. 

SOIL. 

Any  soil  that  can  be  put  in  a  friable  condition,  and  kept  in  that  state, 
will  i^roduce  peanuts ;  but  that  which  is  best  adapted  to  their  growth  is 
a  light,  gray  soil,  without  l>eiQg  very  sandy.  The  color  of  the  i>ods 
always  partakes  of  the  color  of  the  soif ;  and  as  the  brightest  ixhIs  always 
bring  the  most  money,  so  the  gray  land  is  to  be  preferred.  When 
harvested  they  are  perfectly  clean,  scarcely  a  particle  of  soil  adhering 
to  them.  >sot  so  with  red  or  chocolate-colored  lands.  They  leave  a 
stain  on  the  pods,  of  which  they  cannot  be  divested  even  by  washing — 
a  practice  fix-qnently  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  getting  a  fancy 
article.  When  taken  to  market  the  bright  nuts  will  command  from  ten 
to  Meeu  cents  more  per  bushel  than  the  brown,  though  equal  in  all  other 
respects.  The  gray  sod  is  therefore  to  be  selected  when  there  is  free- 
dom of  choice,  bat  the  brown  soil,  when  of  the  right  textui-e,  is  equally 
productive. 

In  choosing  a  site  for  planting,  reference  should  be  had  to  the  crop  of 
the  previous  year.  Peanuts  require  a  clean  soil;  they  will  follow  any 
hoed  crop  to  advantage,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  sweet  potatoes. 
Com  laud  is  generally  preferred.    In  tide- water  Virginia  much  of  thi» 


CULTIVATION    CF    THE    PEA:nUT.  221 

land,  was  Iiea\"ily  marled  in  former  years,  and  "whenever  this  is  the  case 
an  important  and  perhaps  the  chief  requisite  to  success  has  been  akeady 
provided.  The  peanut  will  not  tiruit  except  on  a  calcareous  soil.  The 
vines  may  gi'ow  with  the  greatest  luxuriance,  covering  the  whole  ground, 
hut  in  the  absence  of  lime  or  marl  the  pods  do  not  fill :  they  turn  out  to 
be  notliing  more  than  what  is  popularly  called  "pops."'  If,  then,  the 
land  has  not  been  previously  marled  or  limed,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
apply  say  a  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  of  marl,  or  fifty  bushels  of  lime, 
to  the  acre.  The  kind  of  lime  chiefiy  used  of  late  years  is  burned  oyster 
shells,  which  may  be  had  in  abundance  in  all  the  large  towns.  It  is 
applied  in  either  of  several  ways,  according  to  the  convenience  of  the 
planter,  and  with  about  equally  good  efi"ect.  If  there  is  any  choice, 
spreading  broadcast  is  perhaps  the  best,  to  be  done  before  the  land  is 
plowed:  in  which  case  the  quantity  should  be  about  fifty  bushels  to  the 
acre.  A  tavorite  mode,  where  a  large  siu-face  is  to  be  planted,  is  to 
strew  the  lime  in  the  furrow  over  which  the  bed  is  to  be  raised  for  plant- 
ing. In  this  case  a  less  quantity  will  answer,  by  reason  of  its  being 
more  concentrated — say  twenty  bushels.  Other  planters,  again,  who 
are  hurried  in  their  work,  spread  the  lime  over  the  beds  after  the  crop  is 
planted,  at  the  rate  of  about  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre.  Either  mode  is 
attended  with  good  success :  but  wherever  it  is  practicable  to  have  a 
choice  of  land  that  has  been  sufiiciently  marled  or  limed  in  former  years, 
and  preserved  by  judicious  cultiu-e.  the  best  results  are  found  to  follow. 
In  such  cases  the  yield  not  imfrequently  reaches  a  hundi-ed  bushels  to 
the  acre.  Last  year  the  writer  was  told  by  a  i?.lanter  of  the  highest 
character  that  on  twelve  acres  of  such  land  as  has  been  Just  described 
he  sold  fourteen  hundred  bushels  of  nuts  of  prime  quality,  besides  saving 
an  ample  supply  for  seed.  The  product  ranges  from  the  quantity  stated 
down  to  twenty-five  or  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre,  according  to  the  skill, 
or  want  of  skill,  of  the  planter — a  fiiir  average  of  ihe  whole  being  esti- 
mated at  fifty  bushels. 

Few  persons  make  peanuts  part  of  a  regiilar  system  of  rotation,  but 
the  pre-eminent  success  of  a  gentleman  v.ho  has  foUowed  the  plan  is 
worthy  of  special  reference.  3Ir.  Henry  31,  Butts,  of  Southampton 
Coiuity,  Virginia,  has  for  years  jjursued  the  following  course :  The  lot 
intended  for  peanuts,  say  next  year,  has  been  seeded  in  stock  peas  this 
year,  the  "\tqcs  to  be  plowed  in  some  time  in  September.  The  vines  afi:brd  a 
great  quantity  of  vegetable  matter,  which  becomes  thoroughly  decomposed 
by  the  time  for  planting  the  crop.  "When  the  season  for  planting  is  at  hand, 
the  gTound  is  replowed  and  laid  off,  and  ten  bushels  of  lime  and  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  to  a  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds  of  superphosphate 
strewn  in  the  furrows  to  be  ridged  over.  The  year  following  peanuts 
the  land  is  ])lanted  in  sweet  potatoes,  with  a  liberal  di^essing  of  stable 
manure.  The  third  year  it  is  laid  down  in  stock  peas  again,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  i)eanuts  as  before,  always  repeating  the  lime  and  superphos- 
phate. The  crops  of  Mr.  Butts  averaged,  one  year  with  another,  not  less 
than  a  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre.  Last  year  from  ten  acres  he  sold 
thirteen  huntlred  bushels  of  prime  peanuts,  entirely  exempt  from  "pops," 
and  worth  three  dollars  per  bushel. 

cultivatio:n. 

Having  selected  the  ground,  it  is  to  be  plowed  vdth  a  one-horse 
l)low  in  3Iarch  or  April  to  a  depth  not  exceeding  four  or  five  inches. 
The  advantages  of  shallow  culture  wiU  be  apparent  fi-om  the  fact  that  the 
pednncles  continue  to  penetrate  the  earth  until  a  firm  bed  is  reached  on 


222  AGEICULTURAL    KEPORT. 

which  to  deposit  the  nut;  aud  the  still  fimher  fact  of  the  increased 
facility  afforded  in  harvesting,  as  Mill  appear  when  we  come  to  treat 
of  that  branch  of  the  subject. 

About  the  10th  to  the  20th  of  May  is  the  time  for  planting.  If  the 
land  is  thin  and  needs  manuring,  open  furrows  three  feet  apart,  and 
strevr  in  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds  of  Peru- 
vian guano,  or  from  a  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds 
of  superphosphate  of  lime.  The  former  is  generally  used,  because 
of  the  greater  certainty  of  getting  a  pure  article,  but  nothing  can  be 
better  than  the  latter  when  well  prepared.  The  furrow  is  then  to  be 
ridged  over  and  the  whole  surface  thrown  into  three-feet  beds,  which 
should  bo  reduced  to  within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  general  level  of 
the  field.  Then  mark  off  the  rows,  and  at  distances  of  eighteen  inches 
plant  two  seeds,  covering  them  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  deei) — iiot 
more. 

In  ten  days  to  two  weeks,  according  to  the  weather,  the  young  plants 
begin  to  come  up.  As  it  is  very  important  to  get  "a  good  start,  the  miss- 
ing hills  should  be  replanted  at  the  earliest  moment.  It  is  the  custom 
of  some  planters  to  put  an  extra  quantity  of  seed  in  eveiy  fourth  or  fifth 
row,  to  fiu'nish  plants  for  transplanting,  if  needed;  if  not  needed, 
they  can  be  thinned  out. 

As  soon  as  the  grass  makes  its  appearance  give  a  light  plowing, 
throwing  the  earth  fiom  the  vines,  aud  following  with  the  hoe,  thoroughly 
removing  all  the  gi^ass  from  the  row.  Plow  again  as  soon  as  the  grass 
reajipears,  this  time  using  a  double  shovel  or  cultivator,  and  the  hoe  as 
before  directed.  If  the  siiasou  should  i^rove  to  be  veiy  wet,  a  third 
working  may  be  necessary,  making  use  of  the  cultivator  and  hoe  again. 

Next  comes  the  time  for  laying  by,  the  vines  having  extended  nearly 
half  way  across  the  space  between  the  rows.  This  is  done  by  rimning 
a  mold-board  once  in  the  middle  between  the  rows,  aud  drawing  the 
earth  up  to  the  rows  with  the  hoe.  care  being  taking  not  to  cover  the 
vines  and  to  disturb  their  position  as  little  as  i)ossible,  as  the  fi'uit  will 
now  be  forming.  It  will  be  necessary  also  to  guard  against  making  ihe 
bed  too  high.  AVhen  there  is  grass  in  the  row  it  must  be  pulled  up  by 
hand.  Soon  after  this  the  vines  will  cover  the  whole  ground,  and 
repress  every  other  growth,  unless  it  may  be  a  chance  weed  that  escaped 
notice  at  the  former  working. 

HAETESTING. 

The  time  for  harvesting  the  crop  is  from  the  15th  to  the  30th  of  Octo- 
ber, immediately  after  the  first  frost.  When  the  crop  is  forward,  or 
when  it  is  an  object  to  get  a  portion  of  it  early  in  market,  the  oi>eration 
may  be  commenced  in  the  latter  part  of  September:  but  the  longer  the 
vines  continue  to  grow,  the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  sound  pods. 
Select  a  time  when  the  weather  is  settled  and  favorable,  aud  with  three- 
pronged  hoes  loosen  the  \iues  along  the  rows.  Hands  follow  the  digger, 
pull  up  the  vines,  shake  the  dirt  from  them,  and  leave  them  in  the  same 
place.  In  dry  weather  they  will  be  sufliciently  cured  in  two  days  to  be 
shocked.  Showery  weather,  though  it  may  somewhat  delay  the' curing, 
does  no  injury. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  shallow  culture  becomes  apparent  in  harvest- 
ing. When  the  fruit  is  deposited  only  a  few  inches  below  the  surface, 
the  vine  is  detached  from  its  position  with  little  or  no  loss;  when  the 
depth  is  greater,  the  stems  or  pedicels  are  liable  to  be  broken  off. 

In  shocking,  provide  stakes  seven  feet  long,  made  sharp  at  both  ends; 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  PEANUT.  223 

tlien  lay  tvro  fence  rails  on  the  gTonnd  as  a  fonndation,  but  witli  supports 
underneath  to  afford  free  access  to  the  air.  The  stakes  are  stuck  in  the 
ground  at  convenient  intervals  betTveen  the  rails,  the  stacks  built  up 
around  them,  and  finished  off  by  a  cap  of  stravr  to  shed  the  rain.  The 
diameter  of  the  stack  is  made  to  conform  to  the  spread  of  a  single  vine. 

After  remaining  about  two  weeks  in  the  stack  the  picking  should  be 
begim,  taking  off  none  but  the  matui^ed  pods.  These  are  to  be  carried  to 
the  barn,  and  prepared  for  market  by  completing  the  di'ying  process,  and 
then  fanning  and  cleaning. 

The  most  tetlious  part  of  the  work  is  the  picking.  An  expert  discrimi- 
nates at  a  glance  between  the  mature  and  immature  pods,  but  cannot 
pick  more  than  two  and  a  half  or  three  bushels  per  day.  A  machine  to 
perform  the  operation  would  be  a  most  valuable  invention.  Unless  the 
management  in  the  barn  is  carefully  conducted,  there  is  great  danger, 
where  there  is  much  of  a  bulk,  that  the  peas  will  become  heated  and 
noiddy.  The  condition  in  which  the  early  deliveries  are  often  received 
at  market  renders  this  caution  quite  necessary.  In .  fact,  there  is  as 
much  slovenliness  in  the  hiindhng  of  this  crop  as  there  is  in  regard  to  any 
other;  perhaps  more,  for  the  reason  that  so  many  inexperienced  persons 
engage  in  the  cultiu-e  every  year.  Until  the  pods  are  thoroughly  sea- 
soned, the  bulk  should  be  frequently  stirred  and  turned  over. 

A  certain  classification,  in  respect  to  quality,  obtains  in  peanuts  as  in 
every  other  article  of  agricultural  produce.  The  descriptive  terms  in 
general  use  are  "  inferior,"  '•  ordinary,"  "  prime,"  and  "  fancy  5  "  but  these 
are  not  so  definite  as  to  admit  of  no  intermediate  grades.  Assuming 
prbne  to  be  the  standard,  and  that  rhe  prime  are  82  75  per  bushel,  then 
iw/Vrfor  will  be  worth,  say,  81  to  81  50;  ordinary^  82  to  82  50;  ixvaX  fancy, 
$3.  Seed  peanuts  always  command  an  extra  price,  ranging  fi-om  $3  25 
to  83  50.   These  were  the  cun-ent  prices  for  the  crop  of  ISGS. 

YAREETIES. 

There  are  two  very  distinct  varieties  of  the  peanut,  known  respectively 
by  the  names  of  the  Virginia^  aiul  the  Carolina  or  African.  The  diver- 
sity between  them,  however,  does  not  amount  to  a  specific  difterence, 
the  chief  characteristics  being  that  the  one  has  a  large  pod  and  bean, 
and  the  other  a  small  one.  The  Virginia  is  cidtivated  almost  exclusively 
for  eating,  while  the  Carobna  is  i)riucipally  used  for  the  manutactm-e  01 
oil,  which  cannot  be  distinguished  from  olive  oil,  and  is,  accordingly, 
sold  as  such.  The  standard  weight  of  the  Virginia  peanut  is  twenty- 
two  pomuls  to  the  bushel ;  that  of  the  Carolina  twenty-eight  pounds. 
In  the  markets  they  are  always  sold  by  weight. 

SEED. 

A  matter  of  primary  importance  is  to  provide  seeds  of  good  quality 
for  ])lanting ;  and  in  order  to  be  assured  of  their  excellence,  the  planter 
should  either  raise  them  himself,  or  buy  them  of  a  person  on  whose 
fidelity  he  can  rely.  If,  after  the  vmes  are  dug  and  they  are  lying  in 
the  field,  they  should  be  exposed  to  frosty  weather,  the  germinat- 
ing principle  wouJd  be  destroyed  or  imjiaired.  As  a  merchantable  article, 
however,  their  value  is  not  at  all  affected.  Neither  should  the  nuts 
become  the  least  heated  or  mouldy ;  nor  should  they  be  picked  off"  the 
vines  while  wet,  or  before  they  are  thoroilghly  cured.  It  is  obvious, 
therefore,  that  the  most  careful  attention  is  requisite  in  this  matter. 
Previous  to  planting,  the  pods  should  be  carefully  shelled  and  every 


224  AGRICULXrEAL   REPQKT. 

faulty  beau  thi-omi  oat ;  not  even  the  membrane  inclosing  the  seed 
should  be  ruptured.  It  takes  about  two  bushels  of  lieanuts  in  the  pod 
to  plant  an  aciv. 

PSOFITS. 

The  relative  profits  of  peanuts  and  other  leading  crops  of  the  district 
of  counti'v  in  which  they  are  severally  grown  may  be  determined  with 
a  near  approximation  to  accuracy.  Assuming  that  the  average  yield  of 
cotton  to  the  acre  is  half  a  bale,  or  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds, 
and  that  it  is  worth  twenty-five  cents  a  pound,  the  aggregate  proceeds 
would  be  $JG  2o.  An  average  Cl0]^  of  tobacco  does  not  exceed  six  hundred 
pounds,  nor  the  average  jmce  $10  per  hiuidred ;  the  gross  proceeds 
woidd,  therefore,  amoimt  to  8G0.  An  average  crop  of  peanuts  is  tiftj- 
bushels  per  acre,  which  may  be  put  at  $2  50  per  bushel,  aggregating 
$125  :  so  that  it  ajjpears  that  at  one-half  the  price,  or  one-half  the  pro- 
duct, the  peanut  is  as  profitable  as  either  cotton  or  tobacco.  So  far  as 
regards  the  expense  of  i)repai^,tion  and  cidrure,  the  difiexence  between 
peanuts  and  cotton  is  inconsiderable :  but  the  picking  of  the  cotton  is 
by  far  more  tedious  and  laborious  than  gathering  the  peanuts.  As  to 
tobacco,  the  crop  is  never  ofi"  the  handtj  of  the  planter,  and  the  cultiva- 
tion is  the  most  expensive  of  the  three,  leaving,  therefore,  less  clear 
profit. 

co::cLn)ES'G  t.bZ'LAhkh. 

The  i>eanut  crop  is  justly  considered  exhausting,  but  not  more  so,  it 
is  believed,  than  either  of  the  others  with  Avhich  Ave  have  compared  it. 
Planters  who  have  been  long  engaged  in  the  ciuuire  say  that  the  same 
ground  may  be  planted  for  a  succession  of  years,  iwovided  the  vines  are 
restored  to  the  soil,  and  a  moderate  application  is  annually  made  of  guano 
or  other  fertilizer.  Cotton,  under  a  simih^.r  system,  may  be  jdauted  on 
the  same  land  for  an  indefinite  period  without  diminution  of  product. 

The  vines  of  the  peanut  make  a  large  quantity  of  veiy  nutritious 
provender,  which  is  eaten  with  avidityby  cattle.  If  the  crop  is  dug 
before  li-ost,  it  is  equal  in  value  to  any  other  forage  plant.  As'the  pods 
ai-c  i>icked  off,  the  vines  should  be  placed  under  shelter,  secure  Irom  the 
weather. 

On  account  of  the  profit  of  the  crop,  it  has  taken  the  place  of  lobacco 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  ]>laces  where  the  soil  is  adapted  to  it.  This 
is  the  case  in  the  large  tobacco-growing  counties  of  Amelia.  Xottoway, 
llaiifax,  and  Brunswick,  besides" others"  of  less  note.  How  far  noith  the 
cidture  may  l»e  extended  to  advantage  is  at  present  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture ;  but  in  the  tide- water  district  of  Maiyland.  and  iilso  in  Delaware 
and  the  southern  part  of  iisew  Jersey,  it  well  deserves  a  trial. 


THE   POTATO. 


niSTOKY  AND  nAEITS. 

The  potato  {Solanum  tuherosxim)  is  a  native  of  the  table-lands  of  the 
Andes  of  South  America.  Centuries  ago  it  "R"as  found  by  travelers 
growing  wild  in  Chili,  at  Cuzco  iu  Peru,  at  Quito  in  Ecuador,  and  in 
the  forests  of  Bogota  in  Xew  Granada,  8,694  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Potatoes  have  been  cultivated  at  Quito  from  time  immemorial, 
and  are  among  the  tinest  iu  the  world.  This  city  is  situated  on  an  ex- 
tensive plain,  at  an  elevation  of  10,233  feet.  The  mean  temperature 
of  the  climate  throughout  the  year  is  about  sixty  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
and  varies  from  this  but  little  at  any  iiarticular  season.  The  country 
has  the  appearance  of  perpetual  spring.  There  are  no  sudden  changes 
from  heat  to  cold,  no  violent  storms  of  rain  and  wind.  The  land  is  re- 
freshed by  distilling  dews  and  gentle  showers. 

The  soil  of  these  table-iands,  which  are  the  uplifted  beds  of  an  ancient 
ocean,  is  generally  composed  of  disintegTated  rocks  and  shells,  of  the 
detritus  of  the  mountains,  and  of  vegetable  mold,  and  belongs  to  the  geo- 
logical formation  of  the  secondary  or  the  tertiary  period.  It  is,  there- 
fore, light,  porous,  and  friable,  and  contains  large  proportions  of  sand,hme, 
and  vegetable  substances.  It  is  also  naturally  well  (h^ained,  though 
retentive  of  sufficient  moisture,  and,  from  its  elevated  and  airy  location, 
is  cool  and  moderately  dry. 

Such  is  the  native  home  of  the  potato,  where  it  grows  spontaneously, 
renewing  itself  from  year  to  year  from  its  tubers  and  seeds.  It  retains 
the  verdure  of  its  foliage  unimpaired  throughout  the  entire  season,  and 
when  its  tubers  and  seeds  are  fuUy  matured,  it  dies,  not  of  any  injury 
from  external  influences,  but  because  its  period  of  life  has  terminated. 

From  this  brief  history  of  the  habits  of  the  potato,  the  following 
principles  may  be  deduced :  1.  That  tbe  location  for  its  culture  should 
be  elevated  and  airy.  2.  That  the  climate  should  bo  temperate,  not 
subject  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  nor  violent  storms  of  wind  and 
rain,  ha^^ng  a  mean  temperature  of  about  sixty  degrees.  3.  That  the 
soil  should  be  light,  well  drained,  and  comi)osed  of  the  proper  propor- 
tions of  sand,  lime,  and  vegetable  mold. 

These  principles  lie  at  the  foundation  of  the  suceessful  cultivation  of  the 
potato.  K  they  are  regarded,  good  crops  may  be  expected  ;  if  they  are 
neglected,  the  result  will  be  poor  crops,  degeneracy,  and  disease  of  the 
plant.  Although  the  potato  is  of  tropical  origiu,  (tropical  in  its  latitude 
though  not  in  climate,)  and  has  its  favorite  locality,  in  which  it  will  gTow 
with  certainty  and  in  perfection,  yet  such  is  its  adaptability  that  it  may 
be  grown,  by  careful  culture,  with  tolerable  success,  from  Patagonia  to 
Labrador,  and  fi'om  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Iceland. 

DISEASES. 

There  are  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  the  cultivation  of  the  potato, 

when  removed  from  its  native  locality,  which  are  unavoidable,  and  can 

be  overcome  only  in  part  by  a  thorough  knowledge  of  its  origin  and 

habits.    The  most  formidable  of  these  are  the  diseases  of  rust,  curled 

1.5 


226  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

leaf,  aud  rot.  The  first  two  are  only  the  incipient  stages  of  the  latter, 
and  the  causes  and  remedies  are  the  same  in  each. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  debility  Ls  a  predisposing  cause  of  the 
lK)tato  rot,  and  usually,  if  not  always,  preliminary  to  its  attacks.  It 
may  be  induced  in  various  ways : 

ir  By  planting  small  and  imperfectly  matured  tubers. — Tubers  maybe  small 
in  consequence  of  the  feeble  constitution  of  the  plant,  or  because  they 
were  formed  late  in  the  season,  and,  tln-refore,  had  not  sufficient  time  to 
attain  lull  size  and  maturity.  It  is  a  law  well  established  in  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  and  also  in  tho  animal,  that  like  produces  like.  By  this 
it  is  not  meant  that  the  offspring  will  be  exactlj' lil:e  the  parent  in  every 
particular,  but  simply  that  it  will  more  resemble  it  than  any  other 
variety.  If,  then,  we  plant  a  tuber  which  is  small  and  the  result  of  feeble 
growth,  we  cannot,  by  any  principle  of  reproduction,  expect  anything, 
as  a  general  result,  but  a  small  aud  feeble  olispring.  This  may  not 
always  be  fully  realized  at  once,  but  sooner  or  later  it  will  come. 

In  the  case  of  imperfectly  matured  tubers  it  is  well  known  by  all  that 
potatoes,  when  used  before  they  are  ripe,  arc  unpalatable,  hard,  and 
watery.  These  qualities  result  principally  from  the  absence  of  starch, 
which,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Professor  P^iveu,  made  with  seven 
varieties  of  the  potato,  constitutes  about  seventeen  parts  ont  of  the 
twenty-six  parts  of  the  whole  solid  or  dry  matter  contained  in  the 
tuber — seventy-four  parts  of  the  tuber  being  water.  The  starch,  when 
converted  into  sugar  by  the  process  of  germination,  furnishes  food  for 
the  young  plant  in  the  early  stages  of  its  growth,  and  before  it  has 
thrown  out  roots  by  which  it  may  draw  any  nourishment  from  the 
earth. 

^ow,  if  the  tuber  does  not  contain  a  proj^er  amount  of  starch,  in  con- 
sequence of  its  imperfect  maturity,  the  young  plant  cannot  get  the 
necessary  nomishment.  and  of  course  must  be  feeble  and  stinted  during 
the  period  of  its  growth ;  and  this  shock  to  its  constitution  cannot  be 
overcome  by  any  amount  of  fertility  of  soil  from  which  it  may  after- 
wards derive  its  food.  Hence  imperfection  and  debility  will  be  the  re- 
sult, and  a  foundation  ^vill  be  laid  for  future  disease.  A  remedy  for  this 
debdity  may  be  found  by  yearly  selecting  and  planting  full-sized  and 
perfectly  matured  tubers. 

2.  By  pilanting  tubers  cut  very  small. — Tubers  are  often  cut  into  very 
small  pieces,  containing  perhaps  only  one  or  tv,o  eyes  at  most.  It 
is  obvious  that  pieces  so  small  can  contain  only  a  very  small  quantity  of 
starch  for  the  nourishment  of  the  young  plant.  It  must,  therefore, 
struggle  through  this  critical  period  of  its  existence  in  a  starved  con- 
dition, and  we  cannot  reasonably  suppose  that  it  will  ever  be  able  to 
overcome  this  want  of  '<  a  good  start"  at  the  commencement  of  life,  by 
any  subsequent  cultivation,  however  good  it  may  be.  ''  Small  potatoes," 
says  C.  E.  Goodrich,  '•  and  those  cut  very  small,  are  certainly  very  ob- 
jectionable in  a  physiological  point  of  view.  The  sprouts,  untirthey 
are  well  out  of  ground,  and  their  leaves  expanded,  draw  all  their  food 
from  the  mother  potato.  If  this  is  small,  or  has  a  great  many  eyes  in 
proportion  to  its  size,  it  caimot  throw  up  strong  shoots." 

And  further,  admitting  that  the  pieces  are  sufficiently  large  to  con- 
tain all  the  starch  necessary  for  healthy  germination  and  growth,  yet  in 
many  instances  they  suffer  a  partial  decay  l)efore  germination,  while 
lying  in  the  ground,  and  the  starch  is  changed  from  its  healthy  condi- 
tion, in  consequence  of  the  absori)tion  of  water  and  noxious  substances, 
through  the  lacerated  organs  of  the  cut  tubers. 

The  tuber  is  a  thickened  portion  of  a  branch,  growing  out  of  the  stalk 


THE  POTATO.  227 

under  ground,  and  having  the  power  of  retaining  life  for  a  time  after 
the  parent  plant  has  ])erished.  It  is  not  a  root.  It'  a  shoot  of  the  com- 
mon currant  bush  should  thicken  at  the  end  and  swell  into  a  tuber,  its 
woody  substance  being  changed  into  nutritious  matter,  and  its  buds 
retained  on  the  outside,  it  would  precisely  correspond  with  ihe  tuber  of 
the  potato.    The  eyes  of  the  potato  are  only  the  buds  of  the  branch. 

The  buds  of  a  shrub  or  a  tree  are  connected  with  the  woody  tissue 
and  pith  of  the  branch,  by  the  medidlary  rays,  so  that  a  cireufation  is 
constantly  kept  up  between  the  interior  and  the  smlace.  The  buds 
(eyes)  of  the  potato  are  connected  with  the  interior  of  the  tuber  in  a 
similar  manner ;  and  if  the  rootlets  are  cut  the  functions  of  the  organs 
are  impaired,  and  they  cannot  perform  their  offices  of  absorbing  nutri- 
tion fi'om  the  tubers  a«  they  would  if  they  had  not  been  injured,  and, 
therefore,  the  young  plant  is  weal:ened.  It  is  true  that  the  potato  has 
naturally  such  rigor  of  coustitntipn  that  it  will  grow  even  from  a  peel- 
ing not  more  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  but  it  must  be  appar- 
ent to  every  careful  observer  that,  ^ith  such  deficiency  of  support,  it 
coidd  not  long  maintain  its  health. 

To  guard  against  the  danger  of  decay  of  the  tuber  in  the  ground  be- 
fore germination,  it  is  covered  with  a  coating  which  is  nearly  imjjervious 
to  all  fluids,  so  that  the  matter  which  is  contained  within  is  carefully 
preserved  from  contact  with  all  substances  whicli  would  unfit  it  for  sup- 
plying healthy  noimshment  for  the  young  germ  which  it  is  intended  to 
support.  "The  fact  is,''  says  C.  E.  Goodi-ich,  "the  potato  has  a  less 
permeable  skin  than  any  other  culinary  root.  This  impermeability  for- 
bids the  transmission  of  ordinary  liquids  thr(mgh  it ;  hence  it  is  the 
last  root  to  wither  in  the  sun  and  the  last  to  absorb  moisture.  The 
withering  of  potatoes  in  ordinary  cases  in  spring  is  the  result  not  of 
transpkation  of  theu"  juices,  but  of  theii-  loss  by  germination." 

From  these  statements  it  appears  evident  that  the  greatest  health  and 
vigor  of  the  plant  are  secured  by  adopting  the  course  which  natiu-e  pur- 
sues in  reproducing  the  plant  in  its  native  locality,  or  by  planting  fidl- 
sized  and  perfectly  matured  tubers  whole.  "  The  custom  of  planting- 
cut  potatoes,"  says  Professor  von  Martins,  "instead  of  whole  ones, 
should  in  no  case  be  adopted,  as  without  doubt  it  has  exerted  an  influ- 
ence in  the  deterioration  of  the  race. " 

3.  By  long  cultivation  of  the  same  variety. — It  is  generally  believed 
that,  by  long  cultivation  of  any  variety  of  the  potato,  it  at  length  be- 
comes less  prolific,  and  is  weakened  in  its  Avhole  constitution.  Although 
the  ftict  of  deterioration  is  admitted,  there  is  much  difference  of  opinion 
with  regard  to  its  cause.  If  the  cause  coidd  be  perfectly  known,  a  verj^ 
important  step  would  be  taken  toward  finding  a  remedy  by  which  the 
debility"  might  be  removed. 

Some  persons  suppose  the  reason  of  the  deterioration  to  be,  that  the  ele- 
ments of  the  soil  have  been  exhausted,  and  that  the  potato  really  becomes 
weakened  for  want  of  proper  food ;  a  part  of  the  deterioration  is  also 
attributed  to  bad  cultivation.  It  is  said,  in  reply,  that  this  is  no  doubt 
true  to  a  certain  extent,  but  that  a  change  of  locality  and  culture  will 
not  restore  its  original  vigor.  "I  have  in  several  instances,"  says  T.  A. 
Knight,  "tried  to  renovate  the  vigor  of  old  and  excellent,  nearly  ex- 
pended varieties  of  the  potato,  by  change  of  soil  c-md  mode  of  culture, 
hut  I  never  in  any  degTce  succeeded." 

In  addition  to  this,  it  is  contended  that  the  deterioration  is  owing 
really  to  exhaustion  of  the  vital  energies  of  the  plant,  by  reason  of  age; 
that  aU  created  beings,  whether  plants  or  animals,  have  a  beginning,  a 
maturity,  and  an  end;  and,  although  the  end  may  sometimes  be  much 


228  AGBICULTURAL    KEPORT. 

deferred  In  various  aitificial  means,  as  good  culture,  &€..  yet  death  Ls 
inevitable."  John  Towiiley  thinks  that  the  potato  raised  Irom  the  seed 
is  in  its  prime  or  lull  matnritA-  fix>m  the  lonrth  to  the  tenth  year,  and 
after  this  it  greuerally  declines,  and  -will,  in  the  eonrse  of  years,  "run 
out.^  and  tiually  become  extinct.  The  ix)Trer  of  propa grating  the  potato 
from  the  tuber  ai)pears  to  be  only  a  temporary  device,  by  ^hich  a  desir- 
able variety  may  be  continued  l^eyond  its  annual  period  of  life  for  a  few 
years,  or  until  other  good  varieties  may  1>e  produced  and  jierfected  from 
the  seeds. 

It  is  asserted,  further,  that  the  renewal  of  a  plant  by  a  bud  or  a  branch, 
as  in  the  cultivation  of  the  potato  from  the  tuber,  is  only  a  continuation 
of  the  same  organization,  or  old  variety:  that  the  earth  in  the  case  of 
the  tuber,  and  the  stock  in  the  case  of  gi^rfting  a  branch  upon  it,  *•  can 
give  nutriment  only."'  and  "not  new  life:"  and  that  it  is  the  seed,  which 
iias  been  influenced  by  the  pollen,  that  originates  a  new  plant  which 
differs  Irom  all  that  have  been  created  before  it  or  will  be  created  after  it. 
being  endowe<l  with  a  vitiil  principle  peculiar  to  itself,  and  which  no 
other  plant  of  the  same  species,  or  any  other  species,  can  impart  or  per- 
petrate beyond  a  certain  limited  period  of  life.  *-The  culture  of  the 
lX)tato  constantly  from  the  tubers,"'  says  C.  E.  Goodrich,  "and  almost 
never  from  the  seed,  added  to  the  carelessness  with  which  that  cultiva- 
tion has  been  conducted,  has  certainly  tended  to  enfeeble  it." 

Admitting  that  this  view  is  correct,  one  remedy  at  least  for  the  de- 
bility must  be  found  in  raising  new  vaiieties  from  the  seeds  of  healthy 
plants.  If  vigorous  varieties  cannot  be  found  at  home,  they  must  be 
obtained  from  theii"  native  locality.  The  seeds  should  be  sown  in  beds 
or  boxes  like  tomato  seeds,  in  early  spring,  and  then  transplanted 
into  well-prepared  soil,  where  they  may  mature  their  tubers.  It  is 
recommended  to  set  the  stems  deep,  or  a1x)ut  one-third  in  the  ground, 
that  they  may  not  dry  up,  and  that  the  tubers  which  giow  from  them 
may  be  properly  protected.  Some  tubers  of  tolerable  size  will  l>e  formed 
the  first  year,  and  of  full  size  the  second.  Only  a  few  will  prove  worthy 
of  being  cultivated. 

Xew  varieties  may  also  be  produced  by  cross-breeding,  which  consists 
in  fertilizing  the  pistils  of  the  flowers  of  a  desirable  variety  by  the  jwllen 
of  the  stamens  of  another  variety,  the  qualities  of  which  we  wish  to 
impart  to  the  former.  From  the  seeds  produced  by  the  fertilized  plant 
new  varieties  may  l>e  grown  possessing,  in  some  degree,  the  qualities 
of  both,  and  some  may  be  better  than  either.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  all  new  varieties  are  not  equally  hardy,  some.  fix)m  a 
natural  weakness  of  constitution,  being  more  inclined  to  rot  than 
others,  and  therefore  inferior,  in  this  respect,  to  some  older  varieties: 
but  these  cases  are  exeei)tional.  If  the  practice  of  renewing  the  potato 
from  the  seeds  at  proper  intervals  shoidd  be  adopted,  the  debility-  aris 
ing  from  long  cultivation  of  the  same  variety  woiild  be  avoided. 

4.  By  ruUiraiinfj  in  ftoils  not  containing  the  ehmenis  necessary  for  it'c 
ffroxcth. — It  is  found,  by  an  analysis  of  the  solid  or  dry  matter  of  th* 
tuber  of  the  potato,  that  about  forty-four  parts  out  of  one  hundred  an 
curbou;  and  of  the  one  hundred  parts  of  the  ash  of  the  ru1>er.  about 
forty-eight  parts  are  ])Otash  and  twenty-one  parts  phosphates.  It  will  Ix* 
seen,  therefore,  that  the  elements  which  form  a  large  portion  of  the  solid 
part  of  the  potato  are  carbon  and  i>otash.  We  have  also  previously 
shown  that  carbon  and  lime  abotmd  in  the  soil  of  the  table-lands  where 
the  potato  grows  wild. 

If  these  elements  are  wanting  in  the  soil  in  which  we  desire  to  cultivate 
the  potato,  (and  this  can  be  ascertained  by  analyzing  it,)  they  must  be 


THE    POTATO.  229 

supplied  by  artiliciul  menus,  as  the  only  propter  remedy  for  Treakness 
induced  by  a  deficiency  of  mitiitivo  elements.  Carbon  may  be  supplied 
in  abundance  from  decayed  ve^uetable  substances,  as  leaves,  tiu'f,  and 
muck ;  potash  may  be  found  in  ashes,  lime,  and  gj-x)sum,  and  the  phos- 
phates in  bones.  All  experience  proves  that  these  substances,  combined 
in  proper  quantities  with  sand  and  loam,  form  an  admirable  soil  for  the 
growth  of  the  potato  ;  and  preparing  the  soil  in  this  way  constitutes  an 
important  part  of  good  cultivation. 

5.  Bu  excessive  stimulus  from  stronr/  and  concentrated  manures. — It  is  a 
fact  of  coumion  observation  that  plants  which  are  subjected  to  high  cul- 
tivation do  not  ripen  and  consolidate  their  tissues  so  thoroughly  as 
those  of  more  moderate  gTov>'th.  Fruit  trees  cultivated  in  rich  gardens, 
and  making  large  gTowth  of  wood,  are  certainly  not  capable  of  enduring 
so  gTcat  climatic  changes,  without  iujury,  as  those  which  grow  in  poorer 
soils. 

The  case  is  the  same  with  the  potato.  The  tubers  are  inflated  and 
watery,  in  consequence  of  a  deficiency  of  starch,  which  should  have  been 
elaborated  in  the  leaves,  and  jiroperly  prepared  fer  plant  gTowth ;  the 
organs  are  overworked  and  surcharged  with  stagTiaut  matter,  and  the 
whole  plant  feels  the  delibitatiug  influence.  This  efl'ect  may  not  apiDear 
in  the  first  or  the  second  year,  or  indeed  in  many  years  ;  but,  like  the 
abuse  of  the  human  system  by  excesses  of  any  kind,  it  will  surely  appear 
at  some  tune.  This  anxiety  to  raise  large  crops,  and  to  work  the  plant 
beyond  its  capacity  by  excessive  stimulus,  is  very  injurious,  and  will,  in 
the  end,  destroy  it.  Moderate  stimulus  produces  a  firm  texture  and 
vigorous  constitution. 

C.  By  effect  of  climate^  or  sudden  alternations  of  heat  and  cold,  and  of  icet 
and  dry  weather. — Few  plants,  even  of  those  which  are  native,  will  endure 
gTeat  extremes  of  chmate  without  injury.  The  potato,  although  a  very 
hardy  plant,  is  in  some  respects  tender.  The  efl'ect  of  sudden  cold  after 
gTeat  heat  is  to  paral\-ze  the  organs  which  elaborate  the  sap  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  plant,  and  unfit  them  for  performing  the  oflices  in 
the  vegetable  economy  for  which  they  were  designed. 

The  pores  (stomata)  are  the  breathing  i)assages  of  plants,  and  are  foimd 
on  the  leaves  and  steins  in  great  numbers.  Through  these  the  super 
fluous  water  taken  up  by  the  roots  is  eliminated.  In  wet  weather  they 
are  open,  and  in  diy  nearly  closed,  to  prevent  too  great  evaporation. 
Too  much  wet  after  hot  and  dry  vreather,  or  excessive  heat  after  th^ench- 
ing  rains,  has  an  effect  very  similar  to  too  great  cold.  The  spongioles  of 
the  roots,  after  heavy  rains,  absorb  large  quantities  of  water  contain- 
ing the  nutritive  elements  very  much  diffused.  The  leaves  and  stems 
also  absorl)  additional  Cjuantities,  containing  little  or  no  nutrition.  The 
elaborating  organs  become  gorged  with  fluid,  and  the  tissues  tender. 
If  a  sudden  transition  to  gTeat  heat  and  tkyness  occurs  at  this  time,  the 
pores  are  closed  and  evajjoration  is  checked.  The  fluids  are  retained  in 
a  stagnant  condition  in  the  tissues,  the  elaborating  organs  are;  ob- 
structed, the  leaves  become  pale  and  sickly,  and  finally  decomposition 
and  disease  ensue.  The  eflect  here  described  is  often  seen  after  heavy 
rains,  blackening  the  foliage  of  the  potato  in  every  part. 

Climatic  influences  cannot,  of  course,  be  entirely  overcome,  but  the  most 
natural  remedy  for  the  disease,  resulting  from  want  of  adaptation  of 
climate,  is  to  cidtivate  this  crop  in  that  portion  of  the  year  which  com- 
bines in  the  gTeatest  degree,  in  any  given  locality,  the  conditions  of  uni- 
formity of  a  proper  temi)erature,  serenity  of  atmosphere,  and  the  requi- 
site amount  of  moisture.  From  what  we  have  learned  of  the  habits  of 
the  potato,  it  appears  that  an  average  temperature  of  about  sixty  degrees 


230 


AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 


is  most  concrenial  to  its  growth .  Boussinganlt  says  it  can  be  ciiltivated 
with  the  best  success,  in  respect  to  quantity,  quality,  and  freedom  from 
disease,  the  soil  being  the  same,  in  places  in  which  the  mean  temper- 
ature during  the  season  of  growth  ranges  between  fifty-six  and  sixty- 
five  degrees.  The  period  must  vary,  of  course,  with  the  different  localities 
in  which  it  is  cultivated. 

The  following  table  gives  the  most  favorable  portions  of  the  year  for 
the  growth  of  the  potato  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  with  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  same.  ^Uso,  the  mean  for  each  month  and  for 
the  year,  together  with  the  yearly  range  of  the  thermometer,  or  the  differ- 
ence between  the  warmest  and  the  coldest  day  of  the  year. 


Different  localitieg. 


Mean  j  Mean    Mean  ]  Sleaa    Mean 
for    I    for        for    j    for         for 
Dec.     Jan.    Feby.    Mar.    April 


Mean   Mean 
for    I    for 
May.  I  June. 


Mean  ,  Mean 

for        for 

July.     Aug. 


Mean    Mean 

for    t    for 

season!  year. 


Range 

for 
year. 


New  Orleans,  La. . . 
San  Francisco,  Cal. . 

S.icrameuto,  Cal 

Knoxville.  Tenn  .. 
PbUadelpbia,  Peun. . 
Harrisbnrg,  Penn  - . 

Oswego,  N.  Y 

Aagusta,  Me 


Def.  j  Deg.     Den. 

63.  47  !  62.  45  58.  .^7 
51.69 
49.04 


Peg. 

68.  P5 
50.19 
56.43 
53.33 


Deg.  I  Leg.     Beg. 


Dcg. 


59.62 
6i.33 
54.  S"} 
45.53 

45.71 


57.16 

66. 50 
67.13 
61.20 
61.88 
.53.01 
56.57 


72.  47 
71.20 

71.53 
59.66 
61.46 


77.11 
77.11 
73.33 
71.38 


Dtg. 


67.82 
66.59 


62. 03  1 
56.  16  I 
58.37 
61.94 
63.77 
64.07 
62.  45  I 
64.00 


Deg. 
73.  44 
57.43 
60.02 
57.69 
5.3.46 
52. 42 
45.  .56 
44.77 


Deg. 
61.00 
62.00 
67.00 
85.50 
99.00 
103.00 
111.00 
116.00 


It  will  be  seen,  by  examining  the  table,  that  the  ^vinter  season  is 
chosen,  at  New  Orleans,  for  cultivating  the  potato.  In  consequence  of 
the  small  yearly  range  of  the  thermometer,  and  the  cool  and  uniform 
temperature  of  this  season  of  the  year,  potatoes  of  the  best  quality  may 
be  raised  with  entire  exemption  from  the  rot.  This  is  not,  however,  a 
desirable  locality  for  their  cultivation  as  an  article  of  commerce,  the 
great  heat  making  it  difficult  to  preserve  them. 

At  San  Francisco  and  Sacramento  the  thermometric  changes  are 
small,  in  con.sequeDce  of  their  southern  position  and  the  ameliorating 
influence  of  the  wind.s,  which  diminish  the  cold  in  -^vinter  and  the  heat 
in  summer,  thus  producing  a  uniformity  of  temperature  and  serenity  of 
atmosphere  very  favorableto  the  potato.  Mr.  Crouise,  in  his  recent  work 
on  California,  says  that  the  potato-rot  is  unknown  about  these  places. 

As  we  go  iiorthAvard  the  yearly  range  of  the  thermometer  increases, 
and  the  changes  from  heat  to  cold  become  greater  and  more  A"iolent ; 
but  isothermal  lines  do  not  always  correspond  with  latitude;  as  at 
Ejioxville  it  is  colder  than  at  Sacramento,  although  the  latter  is  fur- 
ther north.  These  variations  may  be  caused  by  the  difference  of  eleva- 
tion above  the  se<i,  or  by  the  effect^ of  winds.  lu'Grand  Traverse  County, 
Michigan,  iKjtween  Lake  ]\Iicliigan  and  Lake  Huron,  the  temperature  is 
so  much  .softened  by  the  lakes  and  tlie  winds  that  the  potato-rot  has 
never  prevailed  in  that  section,  although  it  is  common  in  jdaces  in  the 
same  latitude  around  it. 

At  Ilarrisburg,  Oswego,  and  Augusta,  the  range  is  still  p-eater;  and 
in  these  places  the  rot  has  jirevailed  extensivelv.  At  the  Xorth,  plant- 
ing early  m  spring  i.><  found  to  afford,  as  a  general  rule,  more  favorable 
conditions  than  at  a  later  period;  but  in  all  these  places  some  years  will 
be  tound  more  favorable  than  others,  because  of  the  presence  or  ab.sence 
of  the  conditions  neces.sary  to  the  healthv  giwvth  and  maturity  of  the 
crop. 

Another  cause  of  the  potato-rot  is  generally  supposed  to  ht  parcmtic 
fungi,  which  u.sually,  jierhaps  not  always,  follow  rather  as  a  consequence 
of  previous  debilitj-  of  the  plant. 


THE    POTATO.  231 

The  fungi  are  a  very  extensive  class  of  plants  wliicli,  in  common  lan- 
guage, receive  the  names  of  toadstools,  mushrooms,  rust,  mildew,  smut, 
bunt,  pmT-balls,  &c.  They  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  but  are 
most  abundant  in  moist,  temperate  latitudes.  The  division  of  plants  to 
which  they  belong  is  called  Cryptogamia,  or  Hov.-erless  plants,  and 
tht?ir  seeds"  are  usually  called  spores.  These  spores  or  seeds  are  very 
minute,  and  can  be  stiidied  only  when  subjected  to  a  good  microscope. 
They  begin  to  germinate  by  sending  out  numerous  filamentous  root- 
lets,* composed  of  a  succession  of  very  small  cells,  which  peribrm  the 
office  of  roots  m  supporting  the  plant  in  an  erect  position,  and  supplying 
it  with  nurishment.  These  rootlets  are  called  the  mycelium.  Tbey  also 
send  up  stems  {stvpes)  of  various  shapes,  according  to  the  class  to  which 
they  belong.  The  Botryth  infestans,  more  recently  called  the  Peronos- 
pora  infestans,  is  one  of  tlie  most  destructive  of  the  fungi  that  cause  the 
potato-rot.  It  has  the  form  of  a  spreading  tree,  bearing  some  three 
thousand  ovoidal  spore-cases  {acrospores)  on  the  ends  of  the  branches, 
somewhat  reseuibling,  vrheu  taken  collectively,  clusters  of  grapes,  and 
hence  its  generic  name  Botrytis.  Each  of  these  acrospores  contains  six 
to  sixteen  seeds  called  Zoospores. 

The  seeds  of  the  fungi,  which  are  contained  in  the  spore-cases,  usually 
have  a  brown  color,  like  fine  dust,  and  arc  almost  infinite  in  number.  A 
single  plant  is  said  sometimes  to  produce  millions,  so  small  and  light  as 
scarcely  to  be  affected  by  gTavity.  They  cover  everything  around  them — 
earth,  plants,  and  animals.  The  air  is  filled  with  them,  and  they  wait 
only  for  a  state  of  the  atmosphere  favorable  to  their  growth  to  seize 
upon  every  object  within  tlieir  reach.  They  live  principally  upon  de- 
caying substances,  but  the  lining  do  not  always  escape  them. 

The  conditions  best  adapted  to  their  gi'owth  are,  first,  a  debilitated 
or  morbid  state  of  the  plant ;  and,  secondly',  a  ])roper  degree  of  heat, 
moisture,  and  electric  influence  to  induce  germination.  They  do  not 
germinate  readily,  and  the  conditions  must  be  very  nicely  balanced  to 
insure  germination  at  all.  They  frequently  remain  inert  for  a  long  time, 
and,  when  the  conditions  are  complete,  fall  upon  plants  like  an  epidemic, 
and  after  a  time  disappear  almost  entirely.  Such  may,  perhaps,  some- 
times have  been  the  case  in  their  attacks  upon  the  potato.  Long-con- 
tinued warm,  damp  weather,  often  causes  them  to  appear  in  great  num- 
bers ;  but  a  single  day  of  dj?y  weather  will  arrest  their  progress. 

They  mature  with  wonderful  rapidity.  Puii'-balls  sometimes  grow  six 
inches  in  diameter  in  a  single  night.  Certain  species  have  been  found 
gTowing  on  the  surlace  of  iron  that  had  been  heated  in  the  forge  only  a 
few  hours  before.  They  have  also  been  found  growing  on  the  surface  of 
glass.  The  Peronospora  infestans  matures  in  a  few  days,  sometimes  in 
fifteen  to  eighteen  hours  even,  when  conditions  are  most  favorable  to  its 
growth,  and  scatters  its  seeds  by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands,  to 
prey,  with  each  successive  brood,  from  day  to  day,  upon  the  expiring 
plant. 

The  seeds  are  supposed  to  enter  the  pores  {stomata)  of  the  leaves  and 
stems,  and  also  to  be  taken  vip  by  the  spongioles  of  the  roots,  and  carried 
along  in  the  cii'culation  of  the  sap  through  the  plant.  They  take  root 
in  the  cellular  tissues  of  the  stems  and  leaves,  stop  up  thepores  with 
their  roots,  prevent  the  proper  elaboration  of  the  crude  sap,  and  exhaust 
large  portions  for  their  ovrn  support,  besides  probably  exerting  a  deleteri- 
ous chemical  influence  on  the  plant.  That  the  seeds  of  this  fungus  are 
capable  of  destroying  the  potato  has  been  demonstrated  by  Dr.  De 
Bary,  who  ihixed  some  of  them  in  a  drop  of  water  and  applied  them  to 
the  leaves  and  tubers,  when  brown  and  livid  spots  appeared,  and  after- 


232  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

wartl  decay.  "All  the  members  of  tliis  j?enus,  Peronospora,"  says  M. 
C.  Cooke,  in  his  recent  work  on  the  fungi,  "  with  which  avc  are  acquainted, 
are  parasitic  on  livins'  plants,  inducing  in  them  speedy  decay,  of  which 
they  are  themselves  the  cause." 
Ill  treating  of  the  remedies  for  the  fungi  vre  recommend: 
1.  To  keep  the  plant  as  vigorous  and  healthy  as  possible  by  the 
means  previously  suggested ;  since  we  have  seen  that  the  fungi  are  much 
more  likely  to  attack  plants  when  in  a  morbid  condition  than  when  their 
vitality  is  active.  This  is  generally  the  case  -svith  the  potato,  but  per- 
haps liot  always,  as  the  foregoing  experiment  tends  to  prove. 

L».  To  consult  the  nature  of  the  plant,  and  cultivate  it  in  elevated  and 
airy  localities,  where  the  superfluous  moisture,  which  is  so  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  the  fungi,  may  be  quickly  evaporated,  and  chills  be 
avoided.  "Choose  positions,"  says  C.  E.  Goodrich,  "on  high  hills  and 
mountains.  On  elevated  positions  is  the  last  place  to  look  for  the  potato 
cbsease.  Here  you  will  get  heat  enough  in  our  warm  climate,  and  avoid 
the  burning  temperature  of  the  plains.  You  will  probably  suffer  lighter 
chills  after  rain,  and  cold  heavy  dews,  than  in  deep  valleys.  Here,  too, 
yon  will  most  probably  find  that  moisture  of  soil  which  will  insure  an 
even  and  steady  growth."  It  has  long  been  observed  that  potatoes  cul- 
tivated in  valleys  or  on  low  lauds,  in  the  vicinity  of  lakes  and  oceans, 
are  much  more  liable  to  rot  than  on  more  elevated  lands  further  back 
in  the  interior  of  the  country,  where  there  is  less  moisture  from  fog  and 
other  causes. 

3.  To  avoid  using  such  manures  as  contain  large  quantities  of  nitro- 
gen ;  for,  as  nitrogen  forms  a  large  part  of  all  fungi,  such  manures  are 
very  favorable  to  their  growth.  An  evidence  of  the  i)eculiar  adaptation 
of  these  animal  manures  to  the  growth  of  fungi  may  "be  seen  in  the  com- 
mon mushroom,  {Agaricuscampcstris,)  which  springs  up  in  so  great  abund- 
ance, in  a  few  hours,  on  manure  heaps  in  warm,  dam})  weather.  In 
its  composition  it  is  similar  to  the  Pcronospora  infestans. 

4.  To  use  such  manures  as  are  known  to  be  destructive  to  the  fungi 
and  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  potato.  Wood  ashes,  lime,  gypsum, 
sulphur,  and  salt — the  latter  in  small  quantities — are  unfavorable  to  the 
growth  of  fungi,  and  favorable  to  that  of  the  potato.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  alkalies,  applied  directly  to  the  growing  fungi,  immediately 
destroy  them.  When  mixed  in  the  soil,  or  applied  to  the  potato  in  the 
hill,  tjiey  are  absorbed  by  the  roots,  and  carried  by  the  sap  into  the 
stems  and  leaves,  and  thus,  being  brought  into  contact  with  the  seeds 
or  the  tender  fungi,  destroy  them.  In  numerous  cases  alternate  rows, 
manured  with  barn-yard  manures  and  with  alkaline  substances  respect- 
ively, have  produced  diseased  or  healthy  potatoes,  according  as  one  or 
the  other  manure  was  used. 

From  this  it  may  also  be  seen  why  potatoes  grown  on  burnt  lands 
are  always  sound,  mealy,  and  free  from  rot.  A  case  is  at  hand  of  a 
farmer  who  scattered  ashes  on  all  his  v.heat-field  at  the  time  of  sowing, 
except  a  small  part  which  he  was  obliged  to  omit.  The  consequence 
was  that  the  wheat,  grown  on  the  part  to  which  the  ashes  were  not  ap- 
plied, was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  mildew,  {Fitccinia  (jraminis,) 
while  the  remainder  was  untouched.  These  manures  may  be  ai)plied  to 
the  whole  field  broadcast,  alone,  or  formed  into  compost  by  mixing  with 
muck,  leaves,  &c.,  for  the  general  dressing  when  needed,  and  also  ap- 
plied directly  to  the  potatoes  in  the  hill. 

5.  To  burn  the  tops  infected  with  the  disease  at  the  time  of  digging 
the  potatoes,  in  order  to  destroy  as  many  of  the  seeds  of  the  fungi  as 
possible,  as  a  preventive  to  their  growth'the  next  year.     It  is  not  sup- 


THE    POTATO.  233 

posed  that  a  gxeat  number  would  be  destroyed  by  this  process,  in  com- 
parison with  the  millions  which  matured  and  dispersed  themselves  so 
widely ;  yet  it  might  have  a  tendency  to  check,  in  some  degree,  their 
rapid  multiplication  and  dispersion  in  future. 

KIND  A^-D  PEEPAEATION  OF  SEED. 

It  has  been  shown,  in  the  foregoing  remarks,  that  potatoes  used  for 
seed  should  be  from  medium  size  to  larger,  and  planted  whole.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  have  some  above  the  medium  size,  to  i^revent  deterioration  to 
tubers  too  small,  since  there  is  always  a  tendency  to  fall  below  the 
parent  stock  rather  than  to  rise  above  it. 

The  question  now  presents  itself,  whether  it  is  desirable  to  cut  pota- 
toes not  to  be  gTown  for  seed.  Dr.  H.  F.  Hexamer,  of  Xew  York,  gave, 
before  the  Xew  York  State  Agricultural  Society,  the  result  of  seven- 
teen different  ways  of  planting  the  potato.  He  obtained  the  best 
result  from  planting  one  large  whole  potato  in  a  hill ;  the  next  best 
yield  was  fi'om  two  large  half-potatoes,  cut  lengthwise  ;  the  next  from 
the  seed  end*  of  a  large  potato  ;  the  next  from  a  large  half-potato  cut 
lengthwise ;  and  nearly  the  same  result  when  the  large  potato  had  its 
seed  end  cut  off.  The  smallest  yield  vras  from  half  a  small  potato  ;  one 
piece  with  an  eye  did  a  little  better.  He  finds  the  gfreater  the  yield  the 
larger  the  amount  of  large  potatoes  in  proportion  to  small.  He  used  no 
small  potatoes  for  seed.  A  medium-sized  potato  he  plants  whole  ;  cuts 
lai'ge  ones  in  two  pieces;  and  the  largest  in  four  pieces,  always  taking 
care  to  select  sound  and  well-developed  potatoes. 

From  this  experiment  it  would  seem  that  the  largest  crop  can  be 
raised  from  whole  potatoes,  and  the  smallest  from  small  ones. 

J.  T.  Warder,  of  Ohio,  says:  ''I  have  just  comiileted  my  second  ex- 
periment with  assorted  seed  potatoes.  They  were  the  Hamson.  The 
rows  were  three  feet  apart,  twenty-two  and  a  quarter  rods  long,  and  very 
even  in  quality  of  soil.  2s o.  1  was  planted  with  whole  potatoes  as  near 
the  size  of  hulled  walnuts  as  I  could  get  them ;  was  drilled  with  fourteen 
poimds  of  seed,  equal  to  9i  bushels  per  acre  ;  and  produced  5i  bushels, 
ecjual  to  217^  bushels  per  acre.  ^o.  2  was  planted  with  cut  vseed,  two  or 
three  eyes  to  each  set,  from  selected,  fair-sized  potatoes,  drilled  in  the 
same  way  as  Xo.  1,  with  twenty-one  pounds  of  seed,  lo^  bushels  per 
acre,  and  i)roduced  G|i  bushels,  equal  to  2o4i  bushels  per  acre.  Xo.  3 
was  planted  with  large-sized,  selected  potatoes,  drilled,  but  fiuther  apart 
thaa  Xos.  1  and  2,  with  forty-eight  pounds  of  seed,  equal  to  31^ 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre:  and  produced  G|  bushels,  equal  to  203^-  bushels 
per  acre.  Xo.  4  was  planted  ^^ith  halves  of  the  same  selection  as  So.  3, 
with  twenty-seven  pounds  of  seed,  equal  to  17-i  bushels  of  seed  per  acre, 
and  produced  G^  bushels,  equal  to  257jV  luishels  per  acre.  It  was 
planted  the  same  distance  as  Xo.  3,  and  contained  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  salable  potatoes,  with  ISTo.  2  next,  and  with  almost  equal  propor- 
tions of  large  ones  as  in  Xos.  1  and  3.  This  experiment,  in  connection 
with  one  made  last  year,  would  induce  me  to  cut  g'ood,  salable-sized 
potatoes  for  seed,  in  preference  to  using-  them  whole  ;  and,  in  times  ot 
scarcity,  to  use  small  potatoes,  with  care  not  to  plant  them  too  closely 
together."' 

In  this  experiment  the  smallest  potatoes  ;\ielded  the  largest  crop  in 
proportion  to  the  weight  of  seed,  the  cut  next,  and  the  whole  ones  It^ast 
of  all.  But  the  small  ones  were  objectionable,  because  thej'  yielded  too 
large  a  proportion  of  small  potatoes. 

'  The  eud  opposite  the  stem  wliicli  connecta  the  potato  with  the  stalk. 


234 


AGEICULTURAL   REPOET. 


George  Maw,  of  England,  in  speaking  of  his  experiment,  says :  "1.  Every 
increase  in  the  size  of  the  set,  irora  one  ounce  to  eight,  produces  au  in- 
crease of  the  crop  much  greater  than  the  additional  \rcight  of  tlie  sets 
planted.  2.  The  net  gain  over  the  extra  weight  of  tlie  sets  in  planting 
tour-ounce  sets  in  lieu  of  one-ounce  sets  amounted,  on  the  whole  series 
of  experiments,  to  from  three  to  four  tons  per  acre,  or  over  one  hundred 
bushels.  3.  The  additional  gain  on  the  increase  of  size  of  the  set  from 
four  ounces  to  eight  averaged  about  five  tons  per  acre,  or  over  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  bushels.  4.  Increasing  the  intervals  at  which  the  sets 
were  planted  in  the  drills,  oven  those  of  the  largest  size,  to  more  than 
twelve  inches,  diminishes  the  crop  per  acre.  5.  Weight  for  weight,  cut 
sets  produce,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  same  weight  per  acre  as  whole 
potatoes." 

From  an  examination  of  the  results  of  this  experiment,  there  would 
seem  to  be  little  or  no  difference,  so  far  as  the  crop  is  concerned,  whether 
potatoes  are  planted  whole  or  cut.  Again,  notliing  is  lost  by  close  iilant- 
ing  within  a  certain  limit ;  for  the  excess  of  the  crop  much  more  than 
oalances  tlie  vreight  of  extra  seed  used. 

Professor  W.  W.  Daniells,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Wisconsin, 
in  an  experiment  made  with  the  Peach-blow  potato,  divided  the  ground, 
(thirty-five  rods  in  length,  and  nine  in  breadth,)  lengthwise,  into  eight 
parallel  sub-divisions  of  five  rows  each,  and  planted  in  rows,  three  and 
a  half  feet  apart  each  way,  and  three  inches  deep,  with  seed  prepared  as 
follows : 


No. 

No.  S 
No.  S  . 
No.  4  . 
No.  5  . 
No.  6. 
No.  7. 
No.  8  . 


Seed  whole,  and  of  Inr^o  b'izo,  one  potato  in  aliill 

Seed  of  large  size,  cut  into  four  pieces,  three  pieces  in  a  hill,  four  inches  apart. 

One  small  potato  in  a  hill 

Small  potatoes  cut  into  thirds,  three  pieces  in  a  hill,  four  inches  apart 

One  seed  end  of  medium-sized  potato  in  a  hill 

Half  a  medium-.sized  potato,  v^ithout  seed  end,  in  a  hill 

The  same  as  No.  2 

Single  eyes,  three  in  a  hill 


5i 
15 


At  the  time  of  digging,  five  small  plats,  of  fifty  hills  each,  were  taken 
from  each  sub-division  in  vaiious  parts  of  it,  the  potatoes  weighed,  and 
the  mean  taken  as  the  average  yield  for  that  sub-division,  giving  the 
following  results: 


a 

Yield  in 

pounds  on 

five  plats  in  each  subdivision. 

Total  on  five 
plats  in  each 
sub-divibiou. 

Size. 

u 
o 
a. 

at  6 

J) 

a 

Plat  1. 

Plat  2. 

Plat  3. 

Plat  4. 

Plat  5. 

■O  OS 

PQ 

No.  1.. 

:i5 
not 

108  J 
100 
87 
]18§ 
124 
109} 

84 

yu.v 

100  J 
!)l 

rj.ii 

97* 
56 

125J 
!)() 
{12* 

93i 
111) 
100 
.GCi 

102 
74 
86 
96 
98 

104 
94 
57 

81)1 

!)2 

92 

S6 

84 

94 

93 

66 

519.V 
4G0i- 
478.»- 
478 

4.'5:t* 

559 

.008* 

353 

123 

No.  2.. 

110 

No.  3  .. 

113 

No.  4  .. 
No.  5.. 

Medium 

113 
107 

No.  6.. 
No.  7.. 

Lai  ge  

132 
120 

No.  8  .. 

84 

From  a  review  of  the  preceding  table,  it  will  bo  seen  that  no  two  of 
the  small  plats  produce  the  same  qnantitv  of  potatoes,  although  the 
soil,  planting,  and  ciUture  were  the  same,\is  nearly  as  they  could  be 


THE   POTATO.  235 

made  so.  Therefore,  no  experiment  on  a  single  plat  eould  be  conclusive 
to  establish  a  general  principle.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  cut 
tubers,  with  the  exception  of  No.  4,  produced  more  from  the  same  weight 
of  seed  than  those  planted  v/liole;  but  Professor  Daniells  says  that  the 
large  whole  potatoes  in  l^o.  1  produced  the  most  vigorous  plants,  and 
those  ill  Xo.  8,  with  single  eyes,  the  least  vigorous. 

If  a  greater  crop  can  he  grown  on  a  given  area  from  the  same  weight 
of  seed  when  cut  than  when  whole,  as  the  last  experiment  and  that  of 
Mr.  Warder  seem  to  prove,  because  the  pieces  can  bo  made  to  occupy 
more  places  in  consequence  of  being  more  numerous,  it  vrould  be  desir- 
able, for  economy  in  seed,  or  when  the  quantity  is  limited,  to  cut  those 
grown  for  the  market ;  but  they  should  be  divided  into  pieces  of  suiS- 
cient  size  to  produce  strong  plants,  and  allowed  to  dry  a  week  or  two 
before  planting,  to  harden  the  surface.  If,  however,  the  soil  is  very  rich, 
they  may  be  cut  iuto  smaller  pieces  than  when  it  is  less  fertile.  It  is 
also  recommended  to  moisten  them,  whether  cut  or  whole,  and  sprinkle 
v.ith  pulverized  lime  or  ashes,  to  foi-m  a  coating  on  the  surface.  Whole 
})otatoes  should  always  be  planted  for  an  early  crop,  since  they  will  com- 
mence growing  several  days  sooner  than  when  cut ;  and  a  part  of  the 
field  having  the  most  suitable  location  and  soil  should  be  reserved,  and 
planted  witii  whole  potatoes  for  seed. 

KINDS  AND   PKEPARATION  OF  SOIL, 

The  best  soil,  probably,  aside  from  bui'nt  laud,  for  growing  sound, 
mealy,  and  healthy  potatoes,  and  which  is  accessible  to  agriculturists  in 
general,  is  a  light,  loamy,  green-sward  pasture  land,  moist  but  not  wet, 
and  sufficiently  fertile  to  produce  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
bushels  per  acre,  with  the  common  alkaline  fertilizers  applied  to  the  hills. 
It  is  very  important  to  select  a  soil  congenial  to  the  growth  and  perfec- 
tion of  the  potato ;  for,  unless  this  is  done,  good  potatoes  cannot  be 
grown  even  from  the  best  varieties.  It  should  be  plowed  in  autumn  as 
deeply  as  possible,  and  sufficiently  early  for  the  sod  to  decay  by  the  next 
spring.  Early  in  the  season,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to 
v/ork,  it  should  be  cross-plowed,  and  carefully  harrowed,  so  as  to  mellow 
the  soil,  and  pulverize  it  thoroughlj'.  If  the  land  is  not  sufficiently  fer- 
tile, it  will  be  safe  to  manure  it  carefully  with  a  compost  of  lime,  ashes, 
and  muck  spread  evenly  on  its  siu'face  before  cross-plowing.  If  a  great 
crop  is  desired,  and  there  is  no  fear  of  rot,  the  land  may  be  heavily 
dressed  with  barnyard  mamu-e,  and  a  cro])  of  corn,  which  will  bear  stim- 
ulating fertilizers,  taken  from  it  the  first  year,  and  potatoes  the  next. 
The  barn-yard  manure  would  become  so  much  decomposed  during  the 
year,  that  jio  "^ery  serious  injury  need  be  apprehended,  pro^^idcd  ashes 
or  ^psum  are  used  in  the  hills.  Old  land,  or  that  which  has  been  pre- 
viously cultivated  in  some  other  crop  than  potatoes,  should  be  plowed 
deeply  and  thoroughly  pulverized. 

PLANTING  AND   HOEING. 

Drills  may  be  made  for  the  potatoes,  by  plowiug  at  intervals  of  three 
feet  from  center  to  center,  running  north  and  south,  if  practicable,  that 
the  sun  may  dry  off,  as  quickly  as  possible,  any  superfluous  moisture  that 
may  happen  to  accumidate.  If  planted  in  hills,  two  and  a  half  feet  be- 
tween the  sets  in  the  rows  would  be  a  proper  distance ;  if  in  drills,  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  inches.  If  a  great  crop  is  desired,  without  regard  to 
convenience  in  cultivation,  or  liability  to  rot,  they  may  be  jilanted  twenty- 
seven  inches  betvreen  the  rows,  and  ten  inches  in  the  drills.  More  potatoes 


236  AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

can  l>e  i-aised  from  the  same  area  of  ground  by  planting  in  drills  tUan 
in  hills,  and  This  method  is  preferable  in  common  cnltivatiou.  unless  tlie 
la>id  is  very  rocky,  or  infested  with  troublesome  weeds.  But  when  the 
lx)tato  is  cidtivated  on  a  very  large  scale,  and  principally  or  wholly  by 
machineri\  the  quantity  of  laud  used  being  of  no  consequence,  some 
prefer  to  make  the  hills  three  and  a  half  feet  apart  each  way,  in  rows 
nmning  in  two  directions  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  thus  securing 
the  important  advantage  of  cross  cultivation. 

After  the  ix)tatoes  have  been  droi>ped.  a  small  quantity  of  ashes,  pul- 
verized lime,  or  gyi^sum  should  be  thrown  around  them  to  promote  their 
growth  and  prevent  the  rot.  It  is  also  an  admirable  i>lan,  at  the  first 
lioeing,  to  ]mt  ashes,  lime,  or  gyiisum.  in  small  quantities,  on  the  hills. 

If  the  land  is  plowed  to  a  ]n"oper  depth,  and  thoroughly  drained,  the 
IK)tatoes  should  be  covered  about  four  inches  dee]):  if  not  in  such  condi- 
tion, half  that  depth  would  be  sufticient,  and  additional  soil  should  Ije 
drawn  around  them  when  hoed.  They  are  sometimes  very  expeditiously 
covered  with  a  plow,  so  managed  as  to  turn  back  upon  them  the  furrow 
made  by  drilling,  and  also  with  the  mold-board  or  the  shovel  cultivator, 
by  ninning  it  astride  the  drill.  A  potato  planter,  lately  invented,  which 
drills  the  gromid,  cuts,  dro])5.  and  covers  the  potatoes,  all  at  the  same 
time,  is  used  with  great  satisfaction  in  some  parts  of  the  country. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  of  our  best  agTicultiuists  that  very  little  or  no 
hilling  is  necessary  when  the  land  is  properly  prepared.  High,  conical 
hills  shed  the  rain,  and  let  in  much  heat  during  the  hot  season  of  sum- 
mer, which  hinders  the  growth  of  the  plant.  Potatoes  should  be  kept 
free  from  weeds  at  all  seasons,  but  hoeing  after  the  tubers  have  begun 
to  set  shotild  be  performed  with  extreme  care,  that  they  may  not  be  dis- 
turbed or  otherwise  injured. 

HAEYESTING  AXD  STOKIN'G. 

Little  need  be  said  in  respect  to  harsesting.  The  inquiry  is  frequently 
made  whether  it  is  best  to  dig  potatoes  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe,  or  to 
allow  them  t^>  remain  in  the  ground  till  later  in  the  season.  In  warm 
climates  it  woidd  jirobably  l>e  l>est  to  dig  them  as  soon  as  they  ai'e  ripe, 
and  remove  them  to  a  cool  place.  In  northern  latitudes,  where  they 
would  l>e  sufliciently  cool  in  the  ground,  it  would  be  much  belter  to  allow 
them  to  remain  till  the  close  of  the  season,  being  carelid  always  to  dig 
them  l>efore  the  beginning  of  the  fall  rains,  while  the  ground  is  dry  and 
the  weather  pleasant.  It  will  be  of  no  advantage  to  dig  them  early  to 
avoid  the  progress  of  the  rot ;  as,  if  they  are  aiiected.  the  disease  will 
go  on,  and  digging  and  storing  early  will  only  add  the  unpleasant  labor 
of  removing  them  from  the  bin.  and  picking  out  the  diseased  tubers. 
The  potato  hook,  which  is  a  kmd  of  hoe  with  four  to  six  strong  steel 
l)rongs,  is  a  more  convenient  implement  for  diggmg  than  the  common 
hoe;  and,  where  the  land  is  free  from  stones  and  other  obstructions,  the 
potato  digger,  in  some  of  its  recently  improved  forms,  which  leaves  the 
potatoes  behind  it  on  the  surface  of  the  groimd,  or  picks  them  up  in  a 
box,  as  may  be  preferred,  is  employed  by  many  farmers  with  success. 
and  found  to  be  a  great  labor-saving  machine. 

^Vfter  being  dug.  potatoes  shorUd  always  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
ground  till  they  aie  thoroughly  dry,  which  will  be  efiected  in  a  few  hoiu-s 
if  the  weather  is  warm  and  pleasant.  If  not,  they  must  be  removed  to 
the  bam,  or  some  other  convenient  place,  and  diied  as  soon  as  the  weather 
will  i)ermit,  and  afterward  stored  in  the  cellar,  in  a  cool  place. 

It  will  be  found  convenient  to  a.ssort  them  when  picked  up  from  the 
gi'oimd  in  tho  field,  those  intended  for  family  use  and  the  market  being 


THE    POTATO. 


237 


placed  in  a  biu  by  themselves,  and  the  small  and  imperfect  on©g  kept  for 
feeding  to  animals.  They  are  sometimes  assorted  by  using  a  wire-riddle, 
which  allows  the  small  ones  to  pass  through  it,  while  the  large  ones  are 
retained.  Those  which  have  been  planted  especially  for  seed  require  partic- 
idar  care  in  assorting,  which  can  be  exercised  only  by  an  experienced  per- 
son, who  should  be  alDle  to  select  those  most  suitable  in  size,  the  most  sjtu- 
metrical  and  perfect  in  form,  well  matured  and  solid.  It  cannot  be  deter- 
mined with  certainty-  whether  a  potato  is  solid  throughout,  yet  an  expert 
can  generally  come  to  a  revj  correct  conclusion. 

In  storing,  each  class  should  have  its  appropriate  biu,  easily  accessi- 
ble without  interfering  with  the  others.  The  place  should  be  moder- 
ately cool,  and  not  liable  to  sudden  and  great  changes  of  temperature. 
Hence,  the  cellar  should  be  so  constructed  as  never  to  make  it  necessary- 
to  resort,  in  the  coldest  weather,  to  the  artihcial  heat  of  a  stove  or  other 
apparatus.  The  potato  will  endiu'C  a  great  deal  of  cold  without  injury, 
but  a  small  excess  of  heat  soon  destroys  it.  It  will  bear  a  temi)erature 
of  two  degrees  belovr  the  freezing  point  for  several  days ;  but,  if  exposed 
below  this,  it  soon  freezes,  and  becomes  unfit  for  food  or  seed.  It  is  very 
unsafe  to  expose  it  below  the  freezing  point ;  and,  if  possible,  the  cellar 
should  be  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  the  lowest  temperature  may  not 
exceed  thirty-five  degrees,  nor  the  higJiest  forty -five ;  otherwise,  germi- 
nation may  commence,  which  would  have  a  very  injurious  effect  upon 
the  potato. 

RECENT  EXPERIMENTS. 

Dr.  H.  F.  Hexamcr,  of  l!s'ew  York,  in  a  series  of  experiments,  attained 
the  following  results:  1.  Of  se^'tnty  hdls  of  potatoes,  pared  so  that  no 
eyes  were  visible,  thirty-five  grew ;  some  produced  very  large  potatoes, 
and  most  of  the  tubers  planted  remained  hard  and  firm  till  time  of  dig- 
ging. 2.  Of  eighty  hills  planted  with  pieces  cut  without  eyes,  thirteen 
hills  grew ;  all  of  which  sprouted  on  the  cut  surface,  none  through  the 
skin.  3.  Of  one  hundi'ed  whole  potatoes  planted,  ninety-eight  grew 
from  tlie  small  end,  and  one  from  the  side.  Of  more  than  one-half  the 
potatoes  planted  whole,  only  one  eye  grew  fr-om  each,  the  rest  remain- 
ing dormant. 

Dr.  Hexamer  gives  the  following  list  of  varieties  of  the  potato  cidti- 
vated  by  him,  the  length  of  time  each  had  been  planted  on  the  farm,  the 
marketable  product  of  each  per  acre,  and  its  hardiness  : 


Variety. 


Cuzco 

Monitor 

Pinkeye  Knstycoat. 
Whito  Peach  Blow  . 
Fluke 


Peach  Blow 

Mercer 

Bulkley's  Seedling. 

Garnet  Chili 

Buckeye 

Early  Goodrich 

Prairie  Seedling... 

Colebrook 

Early  Cottage 

Blue  Mercer 

Oleason 


.Jackson  White 

J)ykeman 

I'rince  Albert 

White  Rock 

Kough  and  Ready. 
Early  Sovereign'. 
Early  June 


Years  planted. 


Third  year... 
First  year.... 

Third  year 

Third  j-ear... 
Third  year. . . 
Third  year. . . 
Third  year. . . 
Third  year. . . 
Third  year... 
Third  year... 
Third  j-ear. . . 
Third  year. . . 

Fir.st  j'Car 

Third  year... 

Third  year 

First  year 

First  year 

Third  year... 
Third  year... 
Third  year. . . 
Third  year... 
.Second  year. 
Third  year. . . 


Bushels 


3fi9 

2C2 

219 

t.'35 

215 

200 

189 

188 

166 

150 

145 

125 

109 

113 

103 

95 

90 

85 

80 

75 

62 

57 

5.3 


Hardiness. 


No  rot. 

Rotted  badly. 

Ko  rot. 

Rot. 

No  rot. 

Much  rot. 

Much  rot. 

Much  rot. 

Rot. 

Eaten  by  grubs. 

No  rot. 

Rotted  badly. 

Rot. 

No  rot. 

Rotted. 

No  rot ;  poor  location. 

Rot. 

Little  rot. 

Rotted  badlj . 

No  rot. 

Rotted. 

No  rot. 

No  rot ;  poor  location. 


238  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

A  conesiK)udeiit  of  the  Working  Farmer  planted  three  rows  of  Davis 
Seedlinsr  potatoes  side  by  side,  and  manured  them  in  the  hLU  alike  :  1st, 
small  whole  potatoes  ;  2d,  large  cut  jwtatoes ;  3d.  whole  potatoes  o1 
medium  size.  The  cut  potatoes  were  of  large  size,  and  an  entire  potato, 
cut  into  equal  part^,  was  put  in  each  liill.  They  all  produced  iiotatoes 
of  good  size,  but  the  row  planted  with  cut  tuljers  yielded  about  one-fifth 
more  in  quantity,  and  of  rather  larger  size  than  either  of  the  others. 

At  Old  Westbury,  Xew  York,  niue  varieties  of  the  potato  were  planted 
on  soil  prepared  alike,  and  produced  as  follows :  The  Calico,  267  bushels ; 
Harrison,  2Go  ;  Gleason,  254  :  Early  Eose,  235;  Vanderver-r,  227 ;  Gard- 
ner, 215  :  Peach  Blow.  197  :  Early  Goodrich,  ISS  ;  Early  Samaritan,  90. 
The  Early  Goodrich  aud  JEarly  Samaritan  were  badly  eaten  by  the 
potato  bug,  which  accounts  for  their  small  jield.  The  Peach  Blow  and 
the  Calico  are  declared  to  be  of  ^ery  good  quality :  the  Early  Eose,  Early 
Goodrich,  Early  Samaritan,  good :  the  Gleason.  Vanderveer,  and  Gard- 
ner, medium.  The  Harrison  is  thought  to  be  the  best  winter  variety, 
and  ripens  two  weeks  earlier  than  the  Peach  Blow.  The  Early  Eose  is 
regarded  as  the  best  early  variety,  rijiening  two  weeks  before  the  Early 
Goodrich. 

S.  S.  C.  Moreland,  of  Pennsylvania,  planted  some  large  potatoes  of  the 
Cuzco  variety,  with  the  following  results:  Ten  hills  with  one  potato 
each,  ten  with  two  halves  each,  ten  with  one  half  each,  ten  with  four 
quarters  each,  ten  -with  two  quarters  each,  ten  with  one  quarter  each. 
The  hills  were  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  manured  alike.  "SATien 
they  were  dug,  the  dilierence  was  so  trifling  as  not  to  be  worth  naming. 
The  hills  "u-ith  two  quarter  pieces,  however,  did  rather  the  best.  By  the 
side  of  these  was  planted  a  small  piece  with  the  same  variety,  in  the  old 
way,  one  foot  apart,  and  the  yield  was  more  than  twice  as  great  as  that 
from  the  others  planted  in  lulls. 

A  Pennsylvania  con-espondent  of  the  Tavm  and  Fireside  planted 
seven  hundred  and  eighty  hills  of  potatoes,  as  follows  :  In  the  first  row 
three  pieces  in  a  hill ;  in  the  second  row,  four  pieces ;  and  so  on  through 
the  field,  the  rovrs  alternating  with  three  and  four  pieces,  respectively, 
iu  ahUl.  Each  row  was  dug  separately,  and  the  product  weighed.  The 
result  was,  that  three  hundred  and  ninety  hills  with  three  pieces  yielded 
1,401  pounds ;  and  the  three  hundred  and  ninety  hills  with  four  pieces 
yielded  1,570  pounds — a  gain  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  pounds, 
when  four  i^ieces  were  put  iu  a  hill.  He  also  planted  in  a  pOe  of  mud, 
of  uniform  fertility,  thirty-six  hills  with  four  pieces  in  a  hill,  which 
yielded  125i  ]wunds  :  and  thCrty-six  hUls  with  five  pieces  in  a  hill,  with 
a  product  of  130^  pounds;  a  difference  of  eleven  poiuids  in  favor  of  the 
hills  containing  five  pieces.  From  these  exi^eriments  an  argument  is 
derived  iu  favor  of  heavy-  seeding ;  but  if  there  is  too  much  seed  the 
potatoes  will  be  smaller. 

A  correspondent  of  the  American  AgTiciilturist  planted  five  pounds 
of  whole  potatoes  twelve  inches  apart,  ^vith  a  yield  of  eighteen  poimds ; 
in  the  next  row,  five  pounds  of  halves  six  iuciies  ripart.with  a  yield  ot 
twenty  pounds ;  while  one  and  three-quarters  pound  of  single-eye  pieces 
produced  ten  pounds.  There  was  no  discoverable  di lierence  in  the  quahty 
of  the  potatoes,  and  very  little  in  size.  Those  of  tlie  whole  tubers  were  a 
trifle  the  largest.  This  makes  it  appear  that,  in  the  proportion  of  crop  to 
seed,  the  advantage  is  largely  in  favor  of  single  eves"^;  for  in  the  same  pn)- 
portion  the  whole  and  the  half  potatoes  should  each  have  yielded  28.57 
pounds,  instead  of  eighteen  pounds  and  twenty  pounds,  "respectively. 
Ha\'ing  reference  to  the  ground  occupied,  the  result  is  iu  favor  of  the 
halves  first,  and  the  whole  potatoes  second.    The  hiilves  yielded  double, 


THE   POTATO.  239 

and  the  vrliolo  ones  ne?rly  double  tlie  yield  of  the  single  eyes  on  the 
same  surface  of  ground.  Although  the  cjuantity  of  seed  and  the  ground 
planted  rdth  whole  and  with  half  potatoes  were  the  same,  the  distance 
apart  was  double  in  the  first  mentioned. 

J.  N.  Stearns,  of  ^Michigan,  planted  one  pound  of  the  Early  Rose 
potato,  comprising  two  large  potatoes  and  a  small  one.  He  cut  the  two 
larger  tubers  through  the  middle,  taking  one-half  of  each  for  the  experi- 
ment. On  cutting  the  eyes  he  had  sixteen  in  each  potato.  He  cut 
through  each  eye  of  one  of  the  potatoes,  making  thirty-two  pieces,  and 
put  one-half  an  eye  or  one  piece  in  each  hill ;  and  the  sixteen  eyes  of 
the  other  potato  were  planted  with  one  eye  in  a  hill.  From  the  thii'ty- 
two  pieces,  cut  by  dividing  the  sixteen  eyes,  he  had  -lof  poimds ;  from  the 
sixteen  pieces  planted  with  an  eye  in  each,  19^  pounds ;  from  the  small 
potato  planted  with  a  single  eye  in  each  piece,  hvi  had  17f  pounds — 
making  in  all  82i|  pounds,  or  nearly  one  and  a  half  bushel  from  one 
pound  of  potatoes. 

W.  H.  Crane,  of  ISIinnesota,  planted  four  pounds  each  of  the  Early 
Goodrich,  the  Harrison,  the  Gleason,  and  the  Cuzco  potato,  cutting 
them  into  pieces  with  a  single  eye,  and  planting  in  drills  three  and  a  half 
feet  apart,  putting  one  piece  at  every  eighteen  inches  in  the  drill,  with  the 
following  results:  From  the  Early  "Goodrich  he  harvested  16  J  bushels; 
the  Harrison,  22i  bushels;  the  Gleason,  O-^  bushels;  the  Cuzco,  27^ 
bushels ;  making  7G  bushels  from  sixteen  pounds  of  seed.  From  nine- 
teen eyes  of  the  Harrison  he  raised  two  bushels  of  potatoes,  producing 
at  the  rate  of  eight  hundred  and  ninety-three  bushels  to  the  a-cre. 

William  Goodrich,  jr.,  of  Xew  York,  planted  in  drills  three  feet  apart, 
and  sets  nine  inches  apart  in  the  drills,  one  barrel  each  of  the  Cuzco, 
the  Orono,  and  the  Harrison  potato,  cut  into  pieces  containing  two 
eyes.  Each  variety  yielded  about  twenty  barrels,  being  at  the  rate  of 
about  one  hundred  barrels  to  an  acre.  The  Cuzco  yielded  a  few  less 
than  the  Orono,  and  the  Harrison  a  few  more.  The  Orono  was  a  little 
the  earliest,  the  smoothest,  and  best  table  potato,  and  also  the  best  mar- 
ket variety.  Mr.  Goodrich  thinks  he  should  have  had  more  potatoes 
from  the  same  seed  had  they  been  planted  fifteen  inches  in  the  drill 
instead  of  nine  inches,  but  not  so  many  -per  acre.  They  were  all  free 
from  disease. 

A  cori-espondent  of  tlie  Cultivator  and  County  Gentleman  states  that 
his  Harrison  potatoes  turned  out  tvro  hitndred  bushels  to  an  acre ;  G lea- 
sons,  three  hundred  bushels ;  and  that  his  Cuzcos  outstripped  all  others. 
He  estimated  the  yield  at  five  hundred  bushels  per  acre. 

Joseph  L.  Orr,  of  Massachusetts,  raised  from  four  pounds  of  the  Early 
Goodrich  potato  three  hundred  and  seventy  pounds,  or  over  ninety-two 
poimds  from  one  pound.  The  ground  on  which  they  grew  contained 
1,035  feet,  including  a  margin  of  eighteen  inches.  They  were  planted 
the  25th  of  May ;  stocks  blighted  the  middle  of  August ;  dug  the  mid- 
dle of  October. 

John  Danforth,  of  Connecticut,  planted  twenty  pieces  of  the  Early 
Goodrich  i)otato  in  his  garden,  making  twenty  hills,  manuring  them 
with  hog  maniu-e.  The  product,  dug  on  the  17th  of  August,  was  three 
bushels  and  one  peck  of  the  finest  potatoes  he  ever  saw,  weighing  ninety 
pounds. 

E.  A.  Fassett,  of  Pennsylvania,  planted  sixteen  potatoes  of  the  Early 
Eose  variety,  weighing  three  pounds  in  all.  They  were  cut  in  pieces 
containing  a  single  eye,  and  planted  with  one  piece  in  a  hdl,  three  feet 
apart  each  way.  They  made  about  two  hundred  hills,  from  which  were 
dug  fourteen  and  a  half  bushels,  or  at  the  rate  of  two  hundred  and 


240 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


uiuety  pounds  liom  one  pouud.  Four  of  the  "best  liills  filled  a  half 
bushel,  aud  the  liu'gest  potato  weighed  two  aud  three-quarters  pounds. 
As  to  quaht\ ,  from  the  limited  trial  made,  he  thinks  that  they  are  nearly 
or  quite  first-rate  when  mature,  but  poor  and  watery  when  young,  and 
growing  rapidly. 

Thomas  M.  Harvey,  superintendent  of  the  East  Pennsylvania  Experi- 
mental Farm,  reports  the  follovring  residts  of  a  series  of  experiments : 

yo.  1. — The  varieties  of  the  potato  planted  were  of  different  sizes,  cui 
so  as  to  make  the  uimiber  of  pieces  in  a  row,  as  given  in  the  table. 
Phosi)hate,  800  iwiinds  to  an  acre,  applied  in  the  rows. 


Varieties. 


a:  ^ 

c  o 

o  i>    . 

Zj  ^  > 

«^  ?  " 

o  ->  ~ 

•CO 


7^    I  '"'^ 

c.  =  TV  p.  a  s 

.5  ?  i;     i    s  ga 


Planted  the  leth  of  May. 

Orono 2-M 

Jackson  AMiitc 223 

Carter '  214 

Early  Seboc ;  213 

Cuzco :  225 

Xew  York  Seedling  ilerccr i  217 

Gleason ;  214 

Andes 224 

Michigan  Wliite  SproTit.s !  221 

Prince  Albert 1  225 

English  Fluke i  210 

Buckeve '  216 

Ohio  Pcach-blo^- I  218 

Michigan  Peach-blow I  220 

Planted  -JCth  of  May. 

r,amet  Chili !  208 

California  Mereer i  2i:j 

White  Mercer  Seedling '  20.i 

Calico I  208 

•lersey  Monitor I  205 

Shaker's  Fancy 212 

Buckeye 225 

Hinnnian ' 

Vanderveer's  Seedling j  21C 

Xtitmegs 210 

White  Peacb^low !  214 


Ifi7 

123J 

106 

165^ 

8€J 
13Ti 
129i 

66 
104k 

24i 

82 

83 

93 


147? 
76i 

30V 
209J 
125i 
121i 

104i 
140i 

79i 
7Gi 


Poundbi. 


10 

8i 

11 
21 

'51 

6 


3 

13 


5.V 
Hi 


Xo.  2. — Bone  phosphate,  1,000  pounds  spread  on  the  first  acre ;  planted 
tiie  5th  of  May,  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  one  potato  or  piece  in  a  hill. 


Variety,  and  form  of  seed. 


MEUcrns. 

Wliole  tubers,  largo 

Cut,  quartered  length\visc 

Cut,  halved  lengthwise,  then  across,  stem  end 

Same  seed  cut  as  preceding,  only  seed  end 

Whole  tubers,  medimn 

Out,  halved 

"Whole  tubers,  small 


c  ■x 

.  _^ 

X  o 

V.  - 

--i  . 

e  S 

o  c  u 

S22 

c  ^ 

«5„ 

^"1 3 

«s3 

"S         j; 

P-i; 

i.~;H 

2  o  '" 

e.*-  r 

S  '"■- 

—^.5 

CS  o 

—  iTr 

dsi 

£  —"" 

•-•  ^.^ 

~S  r 

>^ 

^ 

02 

o' 

Pounds. 

Pounds 

275 

114 

93i 

8 

353 

200 

50 

5i 

:te7 

253 

72 

4 

3cj7 

226 

56i 

G 

COO 

170 

101 

7 

6!0 

224 

C>i 

6 

1,200 

25'J 

74i 

lOi 

THE  POTATO. 


241 


Bone  phosphate.  d:c. — Contiuiied. 


TarietT,  and  form  of  seeiL 


KOMTOi: 


Whole  tubers,  larjre 

Quartered  lengthwise,  large 

Ualved  »nd  crossed,  large,  seed  end  this  row 

Halved  and  cros-^ed.  large,  stem  end  in  this  row. 

■Whole  tnbers.  mcdiiini 

Halved  tnbers,  met.liuni 


KAP.EIiON. 

"Whole  tiibers.  large 

Cut,  quartered  lengthwise,  large 

Halved,  »hen  crossiFd.  large,  seed  end  in  this  row. 

Same  cut.  Large,  stem  end  in  this  row 

Whole  tubers,  me  .liuiii  size 

Cut.  halved  lengthwise,  medium  size 

Small  whole  tubers 


EADLY  GCOPiacn. 
(PL-mted  the  tth  of  May.) 


^Vhole  tubers,  large ; 

Cut,  qiiartered  lengthwise,  large 

Cut,  halved,  then  c^it  across,  larse.  seed  end  in  this  row. 

Cut  same  as  preceding,  stem  end  in  this  row 

Whole  tubers,  medium 

Cut,  halved  lengthwise,  meiinni 


2G1 

•2Cl 
201 
4G1 
4C1 


^■^ 

3  ^ 

fi 

=  °  te 

a  . 

a  r  ^ 

isi 

•  -  — • 

a»2 

S.  "•= 

^t^ 

C"  S   B 

=  s.s. 

_2  s  " 

"=^3 

'A 

^ 

to 

w"- 

Fminds. 

Pounds. 

158 

lOD 

153 

3i 

153 

010 

135 

4 

.  153 

210 

109J 

3k 

153 

205 

134i 

5 

375 

152 

135i 

Ci 

375 

240 

107i 

8 

200 

102 

14CJ 

8i 

OCO 

201 

100 

13 

000 

007 

107i 

11 

220 

230 

156 

10  t 

410 

160 

1S5 

13  t 

410 

212 

187 

14 

s.o 

2^ 

1:^4 

12 

103 

233 
234 
223 
156 


71 

73 

GG) 

C2J 

Mi 

74 


9 

8 


'^o.  3.  —  wStable  uianuro,  fourteen  loads  spread  on  tlie  second  acre; 
same  kind  and  fonu  of  seed  as  on  tlie  preceding  plios])hate ;  ])lanted 
11th  of  May,  in  row.s  three  feet  apart,  one  potato  or  piece  in  a  hill. 


TarietT.  and  form  of  seed. 


-  o 


- -=         I 


=  Eg    ! 

"A 


"il^  t  = 


5  "■ 


Whole  tnbers.  l.Tge : j  324 

Cut,  quEi-tc-rcd  lengthwise,  largo 304 

Cut,  halved,  then  cut  .icrrss,  seed  end  in  thfs  row j  324 

Crt  Nune  as  prccefdng,  stem  end  in  this  row i  304 

Whole  tnbers.  medium |  5G2 

Crt,  halved  Icncth wise,  medium j  562 

Whole  tubers,  small i  1, 200 


Whole  tuber?,  large 

Ci'.t,  cuartertd  lengthwise,  large 

Cut,  halved,  then  cut  acre s3.  seed  end  in  this  row. 

Cnt  same  as  preceding,  stem  end  in  thia  row 

Whole  tnbei-8,  medium 

Cut,  halved  k-agthwise,  medium 


iiAraasox. 


Whole  tnbers,  large 

Cut.  qncrtercd  lengthwise,  large 

Cnt.  halved,  then  cut  aci-os.'s,  seed  end  in  thi.*  row. 
Cut,  halved,  then  .icross,  stem  end  in  this  row 

IG 


17G 
17G 
17G 
17G 
358 
353 


981 
201 
201 
201 


100 
1S7 
203 
204 
ICO 
210 
21G 


103 
223 
213 
2IG 
1.56 
220 


Pounds. 
1101 
G7i 
109} 
125| 
141 
llCi 
103 


230 

2)0 

2Ciii 

204 

245 

200 


113  26S1 

211  204} 

229  i      232J 

IM  1      192| 


PmincLs, 
G 
4 
5 
5i 
8i 

H 
11 


3J 

•li 
6V 


13} 

53 


242 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


Stable  manure,  <jCr. — Continued. 


Variety,  ainl  form  of  seed. 


DAniusox — continued. 


WTiole  tubers,  medium. 
Cnt,  halved,  luedium... 
"VThole  tubers,  small — 


EARLY  GOODRICH. 


"UTiolo  tubers,  l.irge 

Cut,  qna'-tered  lensTthwise,  large 

Cut,  halved,  then  cut  across,  seed  end  in  this  rove. 

Cut  same  as  preceding,  stem  end  in  this  row 

■\VboIe  tubers,  mediiun 

Cut,  halved  length wi.se 

■Whole  tubers,  small 


~  "  2 
6  S  a: 


474 
474 

889 


2C5 
205 


4C1 
401 


o  o 


151 

223 
237 


106 
221 

220 
225 
157 
224 
214 


K  a 

■te  — -^ 
^^ 


Pounds. 
203 
2U2 
30Ci 


114i 

115 

111 

113J 

120 

117 

153 


Pounds. 
16 
23 


9J 
6i 
5i 
6J 

14 

12J 

17 


Jonathan  Talcott,  of  New  York,  planted  Jackson  White,  the  Early- 
Goodrich,  and  the  Ohio  Russet,  of  which  the  Jackson  White  was  eight 
or  ten  days  the  earliest,  and  also  the  best  in  quality ;  yield  about  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  bushels  per  acre.  The  Early  Goodrich,  though  a  few  days 
later,  is  preferred  for  its  hardiness,  smooth  and  perfect  appearance,  and 
yield  per  acre.  The  Ohio  Eusset  matures  with  the  Early  Goodrich,  is 
iull  as  good  in  quality,  but  the  yield  is  only  medium. 

A  correspondent  of  the  Rural  American  has  for  several  years  raised 
the  Garnet  potato,  and  says  he  finds  it  all  its  originator  ever  claimed  for 
it.  The  Gleasou  he  thinks  far  ahead  of  any  variety  he  has  ever  raised, 
in  respect  to  yield  and  freedom  from  rot ;  although,  as  a  table  potato,  he 
considers  it  no  better  than  the  Garnet.  From  eight  pounds  of  this  va- 
riety he  raised  one  barrel  of  fine  potatoes,  without  extra  cultivation. 
He  planted  eight  rows  of  the  Gleason,  four  of  the  Garnet,  tMO  of  the 
Peach-blow,  and  five  of  the  Eastern  Red,  putting  a  forkfull  of  coarse 
manure  in  each  hill,  by  way  of  experiment.  He  generally  applies  a  large 
handful  of  ashes  instead  of  barn-yard  manure.  From  the  eight  rows  of 
the  Gleason,  thirty-three  bushels  were  harvested,  nearly  all  tit  for  the 
table,  and  entirely  free  from  rot ;  from  the  eleven  remaining  rows  of  the 
varieties  named,  only  thirty  bn.shels  were  gathered,  making  a  ^ield  of 
one  and  three-tenths  bushel  in  favor  of  the  Gleason.  Only  a  few  dis- 
eased i>otatoes  were  found  among  the  Garnets,  but  many  among  the 
Peach-blows  and  Eastern  Reds. 

Andrew  Archer,  of  Maine,  planted  side  by  side,  and  on  the  same 
quality  of  land,  seven  varieties  of  the  potato,  with  the  following  results : 
The  Cuzco  yielded  370  bushels  i)er  acre;  the  Orono,  320;  the  Early 
Goodrich,  3LM);  the  General  Grant,  304;  the  Early  Sebcc,  204;  the  Mer- 
cer, 240;  the  Jackson,  240.  lie  states  that  the  Early  Goodrich,  the 
past  year,  maintained  its  former  reputation  as  a  first  .class  .potato  in 
every  respect;  and  that  the  General  Grant  is  equally  so,  either  for  the 
table  or  the  market,  and  is  the  earliest  variety  on  record,  cultivated  in 
Maine,  being  two  weeks  earlier  than  the  Early  Sebet;,  and  three  weeks 
earlier  than  the  Early  Goodrich.  The  Early  Goodrich  and  the  General 
Grant  do  not  iot,  and  he  thinks  they  are  far  superior  to  any  other 
varieties  now  grown  in  that  State. 

Isaac  Hicks  and  Sous,  of  New  York,  planted  nine  rows  of  each  of  nine 


THE    POTATO. 


243 


varieties,  with  the  following  results:  The  Early  Goodrich  yielded  ISS 
bnshels  per  acre:  Early  Samaritan,  9G;  Early  Rose.  235 :  Harrison,  265: 
Calico,  2G7;  Gleason,  254;  Vanderveer,  227;  Gardner,  215;  Peach-blowi 
196.  All  were  dug  before  the  middle  of  September.  The  Peach-blows 
were  beginning  to  rot,  and  were  sent  to  the  Xew  York  market  as  fast  as 
possible.  Three  or  four  only  of  the  Gleasons  were  found  rotten  in  each 
barrel ;  all  the  other  varieties  were  sound,  and  kept  well.  The  Peach- 
blow  brought,  in  the  market,  83  75  to  64:  per  barrel ;  the  Gleason,  $2  50 
to  83:  the  Vanderveer,  82  50;  and  the  Early  Goodrich,  82  25. 

Mr.  Bristoe,  of  Kentucky,  planted  the  varieties  named  below,  with  the 
results  annexed : 


I  Seed  planted.        Tield. 


Wliite  Spront... 
Karly  Goodrich. 

Harrison 

Cuzco 

Shaker  RuKset.. 

Garnet  Chili 

Bnckeve 

Early  June 

Peach-blow 

Jenny  Lind 


Pounds. 

Pounds 

m 

•231 

lOi 

299 

lOi 

283 

lot 

298 

lot 

205 

ICi 

197 

Ki 

227 

10+ 

152 

lot 

104 

'i 

76 

Mr.  Bristoe  does  not  regard  the  Peach-blow  as  a  sure  crop  in  the 
South;  as,  whatever  the  time  of  planting,  it  Avill  not  produce  pota- 
toes till  late  in  June.  He  has  planted  from  April  to  the  middle  of  Jidy, 
with  about  equal  success. 

The  following  table  shows  the  results  of  an  experiment  made  by  Thomas 
Meehan,  editor  of  the  Philadelpbia  Weelvly  Press,  and  a  committee  of 
agricultural  editors  and  others,  by  boiling  Utteeu  popular  varieties  of  the 
potato.  The  numbers  affixed  denote  their  qualities  respectively.  Xo.  1 
signifies  best ;  Xo.  2  next  best,  &:c. : 


Varieties. 


1 

o 

3 

o 

H 

•   o 

2 

1  2 

3 

Early  Goodrich 

White  Spront 

Fclterid  Early :    3 

Jemsalem 

Early  Rose  

Peach-blo«v 

Garnet  Chili 

Priuce  Albert 

Gleai-on 

Carter 

Calico 

Harrison 

Cnzco 

Andes 

Jackson  White 


2 

3 

3 

1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

2 

o 

2 

2 

;  3 

3 

3 

3 

!  3 

2 

1  3 

2 

2 

3 

From  an  inspection  of  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Early  Eose 
and  the  Early  Goodrich  hold  the  first  place  in  the  total  value  of  their 
good  equalities:  but.  as  color  is  of  less  importance  than  either  textm-e  or 
flavor,  the  Early  Piose  must  be  regarded  as  the  best  on  the  list.  The 
Cuzco,  Garnet,  Chili,  Gleason,  and  Carter  also  take  a  high  rank. 

Peter  Henderson,  of  Xew  Jersey,  cut  one  potato  weighing  four  ounces 
into  two  parts,  in  such  a  way  that  the  largest  possible  number  of  eyes 
in  each  piece  would  be  presented  upward:  then  each  part  was  placed  on 


244  AGEICULTURAL  EEPOET. 

the  soil  of  one  of  the  benchesof  hisg:reenhoiise,atatemixratiireof  about 
seventy  degrees,  and  kept  entirely  dry  until  the  ent  sunace  liad  hcr.led 
over,  and  shoots  began  to  start  fi-om  the  eyes.  The  shoots,  \rhea  icur 
or  five  inches  in  lenjrth,  were  cut  off  about  one-1'ourth  of  an  inch  from 
the  sunace  of  the  potato,  auu  rooted  by  s^adiu:^  and  vratering  iu  the 
usual  way,  and  then  put  iu  two-inch  pots,  iu  rich  soil,  and  started  to 
grow,  (ithcr  shoots  were  afterward  thrown  n]>  froin  the  iKitato  iu 
great  numbers,  and  rooted  as  before.  When  the  first  shoots  were  seven 
or  eight  inches  high,  cuttings  were  taken  from  the  toi>s  of  these  also  and 
rooted ;  so  that  by  the  1st  of  June  one  hundred  and  fiitty  good  shoots  had 
been  ]iroduced  from  this  potato,  each  of  which  was  equal  to  a  set  made 
directly  from  the  tuber.  These  sets  were  ]>hmted  out  the  first  week  in 
Jime,  in  land  not  v.eil  ;  uited  for  the  growth  cf  the  potato.  The  crop, 
when  dug  in  September,  weighed  four  huudrod  and  fiity  i>ounds,  equal 
to  seven  "and  a  half  bushels,  being  an  increase  of  sixteen  hundred  fold. 
It  may  be  questioned  whether  this  process  is  of  any  practical  value, 
or  whether  it  will  pay.  It  is  not  claimed  that  it  would,  when  i>otatoes 
bring  only  the  ordinary  price:  but,  when  they  are  sold  at  the  price  at 
that  time  of  the  Early  Bose,  $3  per  pound,  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  of 
its  practical  utility. 


OSAGE  HEDCtES. 


Tho  cost  of  fences  is  a  groat  bm  don  upon  acrricnltnre  everywhere.  In 
tlio  prairie  sections,  where  stone  is  never  available,  and  timber  rarely  at 
hand,  the  expense  is  increased:  and  here  the  feasibility  of  obtaining 
•serviceable  liv(^  fences  is  naturally  an  important  ici^iry.  Western  farm- 
ers have  long"  been  seeking',  the  best  plant  for  this  pnr]icse.  In  the 
Climate  of  Great  Britain  the  hawthorn  (Cratcrgm  oxyacantha)  has  been 
snccossfnlly  employed  for  centuries:  but,  in  the  climate  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  it  is  not  suClciently  at  home  to  answer  the  puqiose;  the 
atoiosplierc  is  too  hot,  dry,  and  variible.  The  honey  locust.  fCrlcditsch-a 
triacanthos.J  has  been  tried,  as  also  the  buckthorn,  fllha.nnus  catharticus.J 
the  Cherokee  rose,  (Rosa  kn-ipata.j  and  ctlicrs:  but  the  Osage  orange 
thorn,  (Maclura  airraniiacaj  after  years  of  experiment,  in  diherent  parts 
of  the  country,  appears  to  be  a  more  promishig  material  for  hedges  than 
any  other  upon  which  experiments  have  been  made.  It  was  called  by  the 
French  Boisd'crc;  by  the  Indians,  bow- wood;  and  Osage  orange  by  the 
present  inhabitants  of  the  West.  In  1S41  it  was  thus  described  by 
William  Kenrick: 

"A  native  of  Arkansas,  where  it  rises  in  beautiful  proportion  to  the 
height  of  sixty  feet,  and  has  been  pronounced  one  of  the  most  beautifnl 
of  oiu*  native  trees.  The  wood  is,  perhaps,  the  most  durable  in  the 
world,  and  for  ship-building  is  esteemed  preferable  to  live  oak.  It  is 
valuable  for  furniture,  as  it  receives  the  tinest  i)olish.  and  yields  a  yellow 
dye.  It  is  remp.rkabiy  tough,  strong,  and  elastic,  and  preferred  by  the 
Indians  to  all  other  woods  for  bows.  It  deserves  a  trial  for  hedges.  I 
know  of  no  wood  so  beautiful  for  this  jHirpose." 

A  few  facts  in  the  history  of  its  introduction  and  use  in  the  West,  as  a 
hedge  plant,  are  stated  upon  the  authority  of  Hon.  M.  L.  Dunlap,  of 
Illinois.  In  1S42  a  nurseryman  of  Peoria  County,  Illinoit^,  Mr.  Ed:ion 
Harkness,  after  a  trial  during  two  seasons,  in  which  it  was  killed  to  tho 
roots  by  frost,  came  to  the  erroneous  conclusion  that  it  would  not  stand 
the  climate.  In  1844  Mr.  Charles  H.  Larrabee,  of  Pontotoc  County, 
Mississippi,  sent  a  package  of  seed  to  the  editor  of  the  Prairie  Farmer, 
suggesting  its  probable  utility  as  a  hedge  ])lant,  and  its  great  value 
lo  Illinois  especially.  In  1843  Professor  J.  B.  Turner,  of  Jacksonville, 
Illinois,  stated  that  it  had  proved  hardy  for  six  years,  and  that  he 
thought  it  wovJd  make  a  good  hedge,  if  the  plants  woidd  bear  close 
l^lanting. 

It  is  claimed  that  a  Mr.  Choteau,  of  St.  Louis,  planted  Osage  seed  as  early 
as  1800.  The  elder  Landreth  propagated  someplauts  in  1805,  which  are 
now  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  thirty  to  forty  in  height.  Mr  Hancock, 
of  Fulton  County,  Illinois,  set  a  hedge  in  1844.  It  was  not  till  184G 
that  any  considerable  quantity  of  seed  was  sent  North.  Mr.  William  H. 
Mann,  then  a  resident  of  Fannin  County,  Texas,  living  upcn  Bois  d'xVi'c 
Creek,  hearing  that  the  seed  was  worth  eighty  dollars  ])er  bushel  at 
Cincinnati  and  in  the  northv.-est,  proceeded  to  wash  out  thirty  bushels  of 
seed,  for  which  he  refused  twenty  dollars  per  bushel  before  starting,  only 
to  meet  the  disappointment,  on  arrival  at  Peoria,  of  learning  that  there 
was  no  demand  for  it.  the  impression  having  gone  abroad  that  it  was  a 
failiu-e.    Alter  some  etiorr  ar.d  delay,  it  was  (hstributcd  in  small  lots. 


246  AGEICULTUKAL   REPORT. 

npou  a  year's  credit,  at  twenty  dollars  per  busliel.  The  late  Cyrus  Over- 
man, of  Fulton  County,  entered  into  a  copartuersliip  Mith  Mr.  Mann  in 
planting  a  lew  bushels  of  the  seed,  and  from  this  beginning  the  growing 
of  Osage  thorn  i)lants  has  assumed  its  present  proportions.  In  1851 
three  to  five  hundred  bushels  of  seed  were  brought  into  Illinois,  and  in 
1855  the  firm  above  named  brought  from  Texas  one  thousand  bush- 
els. Prior  to  18G0  the  price  varied  with  the  demand  from  five  to  thirty 
dollars  jiei-  bushel.  In  18G7  the  trade  in  seed  was  resumed  vrith  a  spec- 
ulative demand,  by  v.hich  the  market  became  overstocked,  and  the  price 
was  reduced  Irom  fifty  to  five  dollars.  In  18G8  the  trade  amounted  to 
eighteen  thous;ind  b#hels.  The  price,  eight  dollars  at  first,  went  up  to 
fifty.  During  the  winter  of  18G8-'G9,  twelve  thousand  bushels  went 
north  of  Memx)his,  ten  thousand  of  which  have  been  sold  for  the  spring 
planting.  The  price  ranged  from  twelve  to  eighteen  dollars.  Texas 
and  Arkansas  received  not  less  than  one  hiujdi'ed  thousand  dollars  for 
Osage  seed  in  the  autumn  of  18G8. 

It  is  estimated  that  ten  thousand  bushels  of  seed  will  be  planted  in 
the  northwest  in  18G9,  producing  300,000,000  plants,  at  30,000  to  a 
bushel  of  seed,  and  making  G0,000  miles  of  fence,  allowing  5,000  plants 
to  a  mile — enough  to  supply  22,000  farms  of  a  quarter-section,  at  840 
rods  to  a  farm.  One  um^seryman  has  four  hundred  acres  of  quicks  grow- 
ing. 

JMr.  Dunlap  thus  figures  the  comparative  cost  of  live  and  of  dead 
fences : 

First  year: 
To  prepare  the  hedge-row  for  a  mile  of  hedge  will  cost  in  labor 

about  five  cents  a  rod,  equal  to $1G  00 

5,000  plants 12  00 

Setting 4  00 

Cutting  and  hoeing IG  00 

Total 48  00 

Second  year: 

Cultivating  and  hoeing- IG  00 

Eesetting  of  plants 4  00 

Third  year:  * 
Cultivating  and  hoeing 12  00 

Totals 80  00 


Total  cost  for  three  years,  twenty -five  cents  per  rod. 

The  next  two  years  it  will  cost  nothing,  and  will  then  be  ready  for 
plashing,  or  it  may  stand  a  year  or  two  longer.  We  may  add  ten  cents 
a  rod  for  plashing  and  trimming,  where  the  hedge  will  need  an  annual 
shearing,  at  a  cost  of  about  two  cents  a  rod.  This  is  in  case  the  hedge 
is  to  be  kept  within  bounds;  but  in  many  cases,  where  it  is  also  A'aluablo 
for  shelter  and  for  timber,  this  extra  expense  is  not  incurred.  Such  a 
fence,  when  ten  years  old,  will  be  worth  its  full  cost  to  be  cut  down  for 
vineyard  stakes,  or  similar  use. 

The  first  ten  years  of  a  first-class  hedge  should  not  cost  a  farmer, 
including  interest  for  three  years  while  it  is  gTowiug,  over  fifty  cents  a 


Plate  VII. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Doublo  hedge  set  low. 
Fiff.  5. 


Set  on  ridge. 


Fig.  3. 


Oblique  laying  of  double  rows, 


Tertical  section  of  single 
row  hedge. 


Fig.  4. 


'^^'^^^^^ 


Vertical  section  of  donble  hedge. 

Fig.  6. 


^-^ 


Cross  section  of  doable  row  trenches. 


OSAGE  HEDGE  PLANTING. 


OSAGE    HEDGES.  247 

rod,  and  the  most  of  this  in  labor  at  odd  times.    This  -^ould  make  the 
hedging  of  the  quarter-section  farm  cost,  for  twenty  years,  as  follo"ws : 

840  rods  hedging $420 

20  years'  interest 840 

20  years'  shearing,  two  cents  per  rod 330 

Total 1.  59G 

Cost  of  board  fencing 4, 000 

2,404 


The  diftereuce  for  the  first  twenty  years  is  $120  per  annum,  and  thus, 
instead  of  haviug  $1,000  invested  as  original  capital,  we  have  but  8420 
in  the  hedge.  It  will  require,  at  least,  ten  per  cent,  to  keep  the  dead 
fence  in  repair,  while  $17  for  each  faim  wiU  keep  the  hedge  nicely 
sheared.  In  one  case  we  have  a  reliable  hedge,  and  in  the  other  an 
uncertain  one  of  pine  boards. 

The  following  communication  on  the  subject  of  Osage  thorn  hedges, 
received  from  Mr.  J.  W.  Clarke,  of  Kingston,  Greeue  Lake  County, 
Wisconsin,  is  presented  as  the  result  of  much  thought  and  experiment, 
but  not  indorsed  by  the  Department  as  infallible  in  all  its  positions : 

THE   OSAGE    THOEN. 

Though  this  thorn  has  been  variously  and  extensively  experimented 
witb,  probably  through  half  a  century  of  time,  with  a  view  to  its  adapt- 
ability to  forming  a  live  fence,  its  successful  propagation  and  growth 
on  a  large  scale  by  nurserymen  is  a  work  of  but  recent  achievement. 
The  urgent  necessity  of  some  hedging  material,  as  a  substitute  for  board 
fence,  has  also  been  deeply  felt  only  within  a  few  years,  or  since 
railroads  have  made  such  fearful  inroads  upon  the  Limited  timber  sup- 
ply of  the  couutiy.  It  is,  however,  a  well  established  fact  that  the  Osage 
thorn  is  quite  as  capable  of  being  grown  and  trained,  and  of  form- 
ing an  effective  live  fence,  in  all  but  far  northern  States,  as  is  the  haw- 
thorn in  the  British  Islands.  Its  adaptation  to  the  general  purposes  of 
hedging  being  a  settled  fact,  the  following  notes  and  suggestions  will  be 
directed  to  the  practical  bearings  of  the  principles  of  growing,  plans  of 
aiTangement,  and  the  most  suitable  methods  of  training  or  directing 
the  gTowth  of  the  Osage  thorn,  as  a  hedging  iDlant. 

NURSEKTMEN  PEOPAGATE  IT  WITH  SUCCESS. 

Of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt,  as  it  is  thus  grown  in  Elinois  to  the 
extent  of  hundi-eds  of  acres,  and  on  an  amply  successfid  scale  in  various 
other  localities.  It  must  be  stated,  however,  that  the  quicks  are  grown 
too  thick  in  tbe  nursery  row,  in  many  instances.  Close  crowding  here 
is  not  favorable  to  the  best  growth  of  roots,  which  is  as  essential  to 
Osage  thorn  quicks  as  to  apple  stocks,  and  as  necessary  to  their  best 
subsequent  giowth  in  the  hedge  row.  The  plants  are 'more  healthy 
when  lirst  giown  on  high,  or  at  least  on  well-drained  ground:  the  whole 
extent  of  their  wood  growth  being  fii^mer,  and,  if  sometimes  not  quite  so 
large  or  rank,  better  adapted  to  bear  the  vicissitudes  to  which  young 
hedges  are  usually  exposed. 


248  AGKICULTURAL  REPORT. 

PKEPARrSG  GROUND  FOR  SETTING  OUT  HEDGES. 

Sod  ^Touiul.  (lesi.j^ued  for  liedA'e  sites,  sliould  be  i)lo\ved  six  or  seven 
inclies  ikH'i»,  :is  early  as  tbe  ,i;Tass  <^rown  freely,  in  ]May,  the  year  preced- 
ing the  plautinj?  of  the  quicks.  As  soon  as  the  sod  is  well  rotted,  drag 
and  plow  as  numy  times  as  may  bi'  required  tliorouy:hly  to  pulverize  the 
soil,  and  reduce  it  to  such  a  coudition  of  liltli  as  ^vould  hi'  suitable  for 
planting- corn  o:i  old  grouud,  the  stiii)  of  grouud  so  treated  being  at 
least  six  yards  in  width.  This  should  be  done  either  in  ^September  or 
early  in  6i-tobcr;  nor  latei',  as  tbe  important  aiul  necessary  operation  of 
ridguig  up  the  ground,  as  a  foundation  for  a  successful  hedge,  is  required 
to  be  performed  before  severe  freezing  weather.  The  safest  course  is  to 
ridge  before  the  10th  of  Xovember. 

The  neee.ssity  for  ridging  arises  from  tlie  generally  observed  fact,  that 
the  natural  drainage  of  the  larger  ])ortion  of  the  vast  prairies  is  poor 
and  inelleetive,  the  soil  iu  many  localities  being  so  overcharged  M'ith 
moisture,  particularly  in  rainy  seasons,  as  to  materially  check  the 
growth  of  farm  cro[)s;  and,  as  is  well  understood,  the  yield  of  corn  and 
small  gTain  is  much  reduce<l  from  this  cause.  The  same  is  true  of  con- 
siderable districts  of  several  of  the  better  timbered  States,  where  other 
fencing  material  is  growing  scarce. 

The  width  of  giouml  plowed  should  not  be  less  than  eighteen  or 
twenty  feet,  as  a  narrovr  space  may  cause  considerable  inconvenience, 
where  the  adjoining  land  is  sod  or  iu  gra:?s.  The  height  of  the  ridges 
should  be  as  great  as  can  be  made  by  twice  plowing,  or  gathering  up  the 
soil.  In  spoiigy  or  low,  wet  places,  three  gatherings  with  tb.e  i)low  will 
not  raise  the  ridge  too  high.  Tb«  soil  having  been  well  pulverized 
before  ridging,  may  be  harrowed  once  with  a  coarse  harrow ;  but  it 
need  not  be  made  smooth,  as  a  Imrrowing  just  before  plowing  the  fur- 
row trenehes,  the  succeeding  spring,  will  be  necessary  to  freshen  and 
mellow  the  mold  before  other  work  is  commenced.  Among  the  advan- 
tages of  ridging  may  be  named  the  following: 

First.  The  Osage  quicks  v.ill  be  more  likely  to  escape  winter-killing, 
the  exeujption  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the  roots  are  above  the  level  of 
saturation. 

Second.  Operations  can  l)e  commenced  and  completed  from  ten  days 
to  two  weeks  cariier,  in  all  localities  where  the  natural  drainage  is  inef- 
ficient, and  O.iage  thorns  can  be  set  before  the  buds  open. 

Third.  The  roots  of  young  quicks  will  strike  down  obli(iuely  in  ridged 
ground,  instead  of  extending  out  horizontally  Just  beneath  the  surface 
soil,  and  attain  a  growth  corresponding  with  the  increase  of  available 
soil. 

Fourth.  The  young  plants  make  a  more  uniform  growth  when  ridged, 
in  conse<iuence  of  the  more  uniform  condition  of  the  soil  as  to  moisture, 
and  will  generally  be  extmpt  from  the  gaps  and  thin  places,  residtiug 
from  i)arti;d  winterkilling. 

Fifth.  AVhen  a  ridge  is  i)roperly  prepared  for  thorn  quicks,  the  roots 
of  the  hedge-row  will  form  a  more  iibrous  growth,  which  will  be  made 
chielly  in  central  parts  of  the  ridge  soil,  instead  of  the  roots  growing 
long  and  straggling.  If,  in  the  course  of  years,  however,  straggling- 
roots  should  be  found  to  require  prunmg  at  a  distance  of  eight  or  ten 
feet  from  the  hedge-row,  they  will  present  less  obstruction^ou  a  ridge 
than  when  jiTOwn  ui)on  h'vel  ground. 

Sixth.  ^Vhen  a  hedge  becomes  strong  enough  to  turn  Sioek.  it  is  desi- 
rable to  check  its  growth,  which  cau  be  done  by  cutting  oil'  the  ends  of 
the  roots  on  Ui«  sides  of  the  ridge  with  a  pruning  plow,  or  with  a  revolv- 


OSAGE    HEDGES.  249 

ii2g  colter,  without  endaugering  the  life  of  tlie  thorns,  the  large  amount 
of  root-growth  iu  the  deeper,  eeutral  parts  of  the  ridge  being  sufficient 
for  the  plant. 

Seventh.  A  ridge  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  above  the  level  will 
add  thirty  to  forty  per  cent,  to  the  effective  height  of  the  hedge  :  and, 
in  combination  v.  itli  the  latter,  v»-ill  form  a  barrier  that  will  turn  stock, 
thus  constituting  an  eliective  fence  from  one  to  two  years  sooner  than 
when  planted  on  low.  level  gTound  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  equally  con- 
tributing toward  the  etiectiveness  of  the  hedge  in  its  incidental  capac- 
ity as  a  wind-break. 

A  ]ilow  colter,  such  as  is  used  for  cutting  off  the  extremities  of  apple 
tree  roots  to  induce  early  bearing,  may  serve  a  siniiiar  purpose  in  prun- 
ing hedge  roots  v.hen  extending  beyond  their  prescribed  limits. 

Figure  1  represents  a  young,  unlaid,  double  hedge-row,  set  in  land 
relatively  low.  rigiire  2.  a  similar  hedge,  set  in  a  ridge  two  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  adjoining  land.  These  sketches  afford  an  illustration  of 
the  difference,  in  extent  and  character  of  root  gi-owth,  between  young- 
hedges  set  on  the  deep  soil  of  ridges  specially  made  for  them,  and  those 
set  on  level  gTOund,  v.ith  their  roots  near  a  wet  subsoil,  as  seen  in  Fig- 
ure 1. 

TKnnmsG  or.  DvrAiiTTSG. 

As  in  the  case  of  shortening  back  to  induce  the  gTOwth  of  fruit  spm^s 
in  the  apple  tree,  the  effect  of  trimming  Osage  thorn  hedge  is  to  cause 
some  thickening  at  the  bottom,  but  the  giowth  is  chielly  in  the  upper 
liart  of  the  branches,  or  in  the  emission  of  numerous  sumll  side  shoots, 
or  lateral  branches.  Inexperienced  writers  recommend  this  mode  of 
training  to  produce  thick-bottomed,  pernmnent  growth.  Thick  side 
growth  may,  for  a  limited  time,  result  from  such  management ;  as 
repeated  cutting  back  leaves  the  plants,  in  their  struggle  for  existence, 
the  only  alternative  of  the  slow,  feeble,  lateral  gTOwth,  to  be  seen  in 
hedges  that  are  not  allowed  to  extend  their  growth  vertically.  Lov,- 
traiued  hedges  may  be  necessiiry  where  land  is  limited  in  area,  and  high 
iu  price,  as  in  case  of  gardens,  small  lawns,  and  other  ornamental 
grounds ;  but  in  such  situations  plants  of  less  \igorous  growth  than  the 
Osage  thorn  would  seem  to  be  more  suitable,  for  the  reason  that  ever- 
green or  shrubs  may  be  formed,  trimmed,  and  low-trained  a  long  time 
without  pleaching.  With  the  vigoiously  growing  Osago  thoin,  how 
ever,  the  case  is  different.  Various  i)lans  of  training  were  adopted,  such 
as  cutting  off  each  row  of  two-rowed  hedges  alternately,  also  cutting 
out  alternate  thorns  close  to  the  ground,  to  induce  a  thick  growth  ot 
young  wood  in  the  lower  portions  of  the  hedge ;  but  the  result  of  such 
training  was  not  sufficiently  satisfactory  to  secure  its  continuance. 
Hedges  formed  thus,  i)riucipally  of  vertically  growing  stems,  were  found 
quite  weak  in  comparison  with  pleachetl  fences,  the  latter  proving  to 
be  much  more  effective  for  the  puipose  of  a  farm  fence. 

Within  a  few  years  past  an  aggi'egate  of  scores  of  miles  of  young 
Osage  thorns  in  hedge-rows  has  been  more  or  less  injured  by  Avinter- 
killiug  on  the  lov.er  lauds  of  the  west ;  and  cutting  back  to  force  lateral 
growth  and  thickening  at  the  bottom  of  the  plants  was  probably  the 
inciting  cause  of  much  of  this  great  destruction  and  consequent  disap- 
pointment. 

In  many  of  these  instances  the  hedge  rows  were  not  well  rooted,  the 
subsoil,  aud  even  the  upper  soil,  being  too  wet  and  cold  to  admit  of  either 
ample  or well-ripenedroot  grov^th.   V.'ell-ripened  wood  is  as  necessary  for 


250  AGEICULTUEAL   EEPORT. 

roots  as  for  branches,  to  enable  them  to  withstand  either  severe  freezing 
or  severe  trimming:.  But  the  general  reason  for  the  loss  of  these  winter- 
killed Osa.ire  ])lants  was  succulent,  spon^'y,  and  tender  wood  in  root  and 
branch :  and  it  must  continue  to  be  so  with  hedge  rows  set  at  the  level 
of  undrained  soils.  The  plants  seem  too  have  died  of  too  much  cutting 
and  too  much  water  in  the  soil. 

As  already  intimated,  trimmed  hedges  surely  grow  thin  in  the  lower 
parts  in  a  iV-w  years,  however  well  this  operation  may  be  jjerforraed. 
Great  care  and  good  management  may  postpone  the  ''  self-thinning,"  by 
the  inside,  shaded,  and  weak  bottom  branches  dying  out ;  but  these 
branches  will  as  certainly  die  out  as  that  the  sap  tends  naturally  to  the  top 
parts  of  the  hedge,  v.here  there  is  more  heat  and  light.  The  north  side 
of  a  hedge,  being  the  most  shaded,  will  be  likely  to  fail  first  in  the 
lower  parts,  when,  from  the  necessity  of  thickening  the  bottom  part, 
and  renewing  the  live  growth  from  the  ground,  the  labor  and  cost  of 
laying  hedges  that  have  long  been  subjected  to  trimming  will  be  found 
greatly  to  exceed  the  cost  of  laying  untrimmed  fences. 

The  objections  to  untrimmed  hedges  consist  mainly  in  their  shading 
more  ground  than  when  trained  low ;  but  this  is  chiefly  the  case  on  the 
north  side  of  east  and  west  fences,  crops  getting  as  much  sunlight  in 
about  half  the  time,  on  the  sides  of  north  and  south  fences. 

HEDGES  AS  A  HAEBOE  FOE  IN'SECTlVOEOrS  BIEDS. 

One  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  growing  hedges  is  the  fact  that 
they  provide  shelter  for  birds.  In  a  general  sense,  most  insects  are  the 
enemies  of  improved  vegetation ;  and  they  also  comprise  the  natural 
food  of  most  birds,  and  do  vastly  more  damage  where  the  country  is 
open  and  birds  are  few. 

It  is  a  significant  fact,  that  in  a  number  of  districts  in  England, 
where  many  of  the  hedges  have  been  grubbed  up,  the  increase  of  de- 
structive insects  has  Ijecorae  so  great  that  it  has  been  found  necessary 
to  take  measures  for  the  preservation  of  the  birds,  f»articularly  the 
hedge  sparrow. 

BENEWAL   OF   OSAGE  THOEN  HEDGES. 

It  has  been  established  by  experience  in  the  British  Islands,  and  to  a 
limited  extent  in  this  country,  that  hedges  sooner  or  later  become  so 
thinned  at  the  bottom  that  renewed  or  young  bottom  growths  are 
essential  to  maintain  their  efficiency  as  fences;  and  this  necessity  cannot 
be  evaded  in  the  case  of  the  Osage  thorn.  The  sap  tends  so  much 
towards  the  top  that  the  lower  part  will  become  thin  by  "self-pruning,'' 
which  wi',1  be  succeeded  by  holes  and  gaps.  This  result  may  be  expected 
in  both  trimmed  and  untrimmed  hedges.  These  gaps  and  holes  may  be 
temporarily  mended,  however,  by  inserting  detached  branches  cut  from 
thicker  i)arts  of  the  fence.  Layering  has  been  suggested ;  but  in  the 
shade  and  in  dry  soil,  in  which'  the  layer  must  grow,  if  at  all.  their 
growth  v.ill  l>e  ko  slow  as  not  to  l>ecome  available  against  animals  in  any 
reasonable  length  of  time,  and  it  is  probable  that  but  few  layers  would 
sur\ive. 

Osage  thorn  hetlges  may  grow  to  a  height  of  twelve  to  twenty  feet 
before  they  require  laying.  Laying  reduces  the  height  of  the  fence  two- 
thirds  or  three-fourths,  or  more,  causing  the  new  growth  to  be  made  near 
the  ground,  and  here,  accordingly,  multitudes  of  vigorous  young  saplings 
are  sent  up,  gi-owing  up  Ln  like  manner,  at  each  successive  laying. 


OSAGE   HEDGES.  251 


THE  STREXCtTII  OF  TWO-EOW  HEDGES  \YHEN  PLEACHED. 

Single-row  hedges  cannot  well  be  renewed  by  laying  without  stakes. 
But  double  rows  may  not  only  be  laid  or  pleached  without  stakes,  but, 
when  laid  down  in  a  proper  manner,  the  hedges  will  constitute  a  very 
sti'ong  fence.  Two-row  hedges  are  believed  to  l3e  much  the  best  adapted 
to  resist  the  stress  of  gales  of  wind,  the  attempts  of  rampant  animals  to 
break  over  them,  and  for  any  contingencies  requiring  great  strength  in 
a  fence. 

Figure  3  represents  a  section  of  the  horizontal  form  of  laying  the 
brush  of  each  of  the  rows  backward  and  obliquely  over  to  the  opposite 
side.  The  stems  of  the  thorus  are  pleached,  one  from  each  side  or  row, 
alternately,  each  saj^ling  being  brought  down  from  the  opposite  side, 
and  laid  in  such  a  manner  that  each  stem  crosses  the  last  one  laid,  about 
midway  of  its  length,  and  in  the  center  between  the  hedge  rows,  the 
angle  formed  between  the  saplings  and  the  ground  being  about  thirty 
degrees.  In  illustration  of  the  great  strength  of  this  form  of  two-rowed 
hedge,  Figure  4  represents  a  vertical  section  of  the  same,  which  is  five 
feet  high  above  the  ridge,  and  forms  an  almost  impassable  barrier 
against  any  farm  stock. 

SINGLE-EOW  HEDGE  NOT  EFFICIENT  UNLESS  STAKED. 

After  special  examination  of  one-row  fence,  in  Illinois,  both  unlaid 
and  such  as  is  called  laid,  the  conclusion  is  reached  that  neither  neat 
nor  efficient  single-row  hedge  can  be  made  without  the  aid  of  stakes ; 
and  it  is  stated  that  in  the  British  Islands,  stakes  are  always  employed 
to  give  it  stiffness,  and  hold  it  in  line  in  pleaching.  Specimens  of  the 
single-row  Osage  thorn  that  we  saw  had  much  the  appearance  of  a  line 
of  brush  with  tops  all  outward,  and  butt-ends  in  the  center.  Such 
single-row  fence  spreads  so  wide,  and  settles  to  the  ground  so  much,  that 
it  occupies  even  more  space,  as  seen  in  Figure  5,  while  not  possessing  a 
third  of  the  value,  as  a  fence,  that  is  required  by  a  substantial  two-row 
hedge;  and  the  single-row  fence — it  cannot  be  correctly  called  hedge — 
must  sag  and  settle  toward  the  ground,  if  pleached  without  staking. 
We  have  examined  some  specimens  in  which  there  were  live  stakes, 
obtained  by  cutting-  off  the  tops,  and  leaving  the  lower  of  the  thorn 
stems. 

DISADVANTAGES  OP  LIVE  STAKES. 

Live  stakes  may  save  a  portion  of  the  time  that  should  be  devoted  to 
preparing  others,  but  the  subsequent  disadvantages  resulting  from  their 
use  will  more  than  outweigh  the  trilling  saving  of  time  effected.  A 
hedge  becomes  thin  at  the  base  of  the  growing  stakes,  the  sap  ascending 
and  forming  a  spreading,  stool-like  form  of  growth,  where  the  hedge  is 
trimmed  at  the  top  of  the  stakes,  instead  of  sending  up  shoots,  as  would 
be  the  case  if  the  stake  saplings  were  laid  at  the  iDottom  to  thicken  it 
with  young  gTowth.  Another  defect  is,  that  numbers  of  vigorous  shoots 
spring  from  the  crowns  of  the  stakes,  formingand maintaining  a  growth 
of  shoots  two  or  three  feet  in  advance,  and  higher  than  the  general 
height  of  the  hedge.  It  is  also  necessary  to  cut  live  stakes  off  at  the 
gi'ound  preparatory  to  relaying  the  hedges,  which  is  not  required  when 
detached  wood  is  used.  Dead  or  detached  stakes  are  always  preferable 
to  live  ones :  they  serve  two  or  three  years  before  decaying,  by  which 


252  AGRICULTURAL    KEPOET. 

time  tlie  luii:i  iiiul  material  of  the  liedgo  become  ieiet,  or  firmly  lixed  by 
jrrowth,  and  stalios  are  no  longer  necessary. 

TJie  tops  of  thft  stakes,  set  lliree  feet  apart,  are  boiiud  at  tlic  to])  by 
winding-  or  wattlinjj:  long,  slender,  thorn  stems  so  as  to  inclose  the  tops 
of  stakes  between  them.  The  object  of  staking  is  to  so  stifien  a  hedge 
tliat  it  can  be  made  v.-ith  far  less  thorn  material  than  would  be  practica- 
ble if  stakes  vrer<'  not  employed.  The  stakes  also  prevent  the  sagging 
of  i)leached  or  obliquely  laid  saplings,  preventing  the  oblique  material 
from  smothering  the  young  undergrovrth  of  shoots  from  the  base  of  the 
fence.  The  strength  imparted  by  the  stakes  also  prevents  the  brush 
from  being  pushed  ont  of  line  by  stoclr,  or  blown  out  by  gusty  winds. 
The  object  of  vrattling  or  double- winding  them  at  the  top  with  saplings, 
Avhich  makes  a  much  more  handsome  fence,  is  to  hold  the  tops  of  the 
stakes,  and  consequently  of  the  fence,  in  a  straigh.t,  even  line. 

In  an  Osage  thorn  single-row  hedge,  trained  in  tliis  tapering  form, 
the  top  of  the  hedge  will  not  prevent  cither  sunlight  or  rain  from  access 
to  its  outside  growth,  as  would  be  the  case  with  square  or  flat  top  train- 
ing. There  arc  specimens  of  square-top  Osage  thorn  hedge  in  the  west, 
the  bottom  of  which  is  already  thin,  and  in  places  open. 

PEACTICAI.  SUGGESTIONS. 

Strong,  two-rowed  hedges  are  much  more  suitable  for  large  inclosures, 
to  turn  rampant  animals,  to  bear  severe  stress  of  boisterous  vrinds,  or  for 
any  purpose  where  a  very  strong  fence  is  necessary,  than  a  single-row 
fence  can  ever  become  under  the  best  possible  management.  The  double- 
row  v.'ill  make  the  best  fence  for  farmers  generally,  particularly  where 
the  farms  and  their  subdivisions  are  extensive  in  area. 

Single-rov,'  fence  seems  most  suitable  fbi'  vegetable  and  flower  gardens, 
and  nursery  grounds,  besides  lawn  and  ornamental  grounds,  as  before 
stated.    It  bears  trimining  better,  and  requires  Jess  ground  for  growth. 

SETTIIsG  QUICKS  IN  HEDGE  EOAfS. 

This  hcdge-rov/  ridge,  having  boon  prepared  in  the  fall  as  suggested, 
may  be  harrowed  over  once  or  twice,  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground  in  early  spring.  A  mode  of  setting  Osage  thorn  quicks,  known 
as  spade-setting,  consists  in  opening  a  line  of  slits  in  the  surlace  soil,  at 
regular  distances  on  the  line  of  the  intended  hedge,  with  a  long,  narrow 
spade.  The  spade  being  thrust  dovrn  a  sufiicient  depth,  is  pushed  for- 
ward froin  the  oi)erator,  when  an  assistant"  inserts  the  root  ends  of  the 
young  quicks.  There  arc  serious  objections  to  this  mode  of  setting. 
The  quicks  are  not  set,  but  tucked  in  and  often  doubled  back,  the  roots 
being  pla';ed  between  tvro  flat  .surfaces,  when  the  spade  is  withdrawn, 
and  the  slit  closed  by  luessing  the  soil  back  against  tlie  quick  with  the 
foot,  Avhich  process  as  certainly  flattens  the  roots  as  a  l)Otanical  specimen 
is  flattened  between  the  leaves  of  a  book.  This  flat  position  and  restricted 
direction  of  the  young  roots  must  retard  the  formation  of  an  cllicieut 
hedge. 

rUIlROW  TEENCHES  FOE  DOUBLE-LINE   QUICK  EOWS. 

For  making  the  trenches  a  plow  with  a  deep  land-side  is  best,  forming 
a  deej)  furrow,  smoothed  on  one  side.  A  n«w  mode  of  furrow-trenching 
and  of  setting  Osage  thorn  <] nicks  in  the  trenches  is  shown  in  Figure  U, 
v.-hich  represents  u  cross  section  of  doubie-row  trenches  on  the  crown  oi 


PUTE   VIII. 


Fis.  7. 


Settins  guide. 


Fis.  e 


Fig.  ?. 


Trimmiiis  ^'^"^ 


Trimming  Uade. 


Fis.  10, 


Pleaching  book. 


rip.  11. 


Press  polo. 


Fig.  12 


v:;:m.^^M^ 


Doul.iv  In-ui 


■  I'Vvr  •Wiat'i  iiiaunii. 


IMPLEMENTS  rSED  IX  HEDGE  GEOWTKG. 


OSAGE   HEDGES.  253 

the  ridge.  Stakes  are  set  the  "^hole  length  of  the  fence  line  in  the  cen- 
ter. The  distance  hetxreen  the  qaick  rovrs  is  tvro  feet.  The  trenching 
is  commenced  by  first  plowing  a  light  furrow  toward  the  center,  v»hich 
will  rest  on  the  space  Ijetween  the  trenches.  ^S'ext  turn  a  light  fiurow 
on  top  of  the  first,  depositing  this  also  over  the  space  between  the  trenches. 
Then  plow  a  furrow  out  of  the  bottom  of  each  trench,  turning  both  fur- 
rows outward  from  the  lines  of  the  quick  rows.  By  this  process  of  tak- 
ing t-u  o  furrows  from  each  trench,  a  suitable  supply  of  mold  is  deposited 
precisely  where  it  is  most  needed  to  fill  in  about  the  roots  of  the  quicks, 
when  these  are  set  up. 

The  old  mode  of  setting  the  quicks,  at  uniform  distance  between  the 
rows,  was  by  means  of  a  line  with  colored  strings  tied  to  it  at  the  required 
distances.  The  land  side  of  the  furrow  was  the  support  to  stand  the 
(piicks  against,  and  gaiide  them  in  a  straight  line.  But  the  land  side  of 
the  trench  was  liable  to  be  crooked,  and  the  labor  and  time  required 
were  considerable.  A  more  serious  objection,  however,  is  that  some  of 
the  roots  of  tbe  quicks  are  turned  aside  from  their  natural  position  by 
prf'ssing  against  the  v.ali  of  the  trench.  This  misplacement  of  the  roots 
retards  their  growth  in  some  degi'ee,  but  the  injury  is  less  than  that  of 
the  same  kind  incident  to  slit-setting,  by  means  of  a  spade.  Another 
defect  is  that  all  the  soil  is  turned  out  on  one  side  of  the  trench,  provid- 
ing no  mold  to  fill  in  on  the  other  side  of  the  quicks. 


TILE   SETTEN'Gr  GUIDE. 

As  a  rope  or  garden  line  cannot  be  kept  straight,  and  the  land  side  ot 
single  ftuTows  is  liable  to  the  same  objection,  a  tool  has  been  devised 
which  may  answer  the  three-fold  purpose  of  spacing  the  quicks  as  they 
are  placed  in  the  trenches,  as  a  support  to  the  quicks,  and  as  a  guide  to 
keep  them  in  line  ;  these  several  objects  being  desirable,  and  even  neces- 
sary, before  and  during  the  operation  of  filling  in  the  soil,  and  earthing 
up  the  quicks.  This  setting  guide  v.ill  cost  only  a  few  cents  and  a  little 
labor.  It  is  made  by  taking  a  narrow  strip  of  inch  board  or  three  or  four 
inch  batten,  fourteen  to  sixteen  feet  long,  and  attaching  to  it  three  strijis 
of  hard  wood,  one  in  the  middle,  and  one  at  each  end,  for  legs,  which 
should  be  sixteen  ts)  eighteen  inches  long.  Figure  7  gives  a  side  outline 
of  this  form  as  set  for  use,  about  one-ihird  of  its  width  from  the  land  side 
of  the  furrow-trench.  Vertical  chalk  marks  can  be  naide  on  this  setting 
guide,  or  small  pins  of  vrood  nuiy  be  inserted  at  the  distance  the  C[uieks 
are  to  stand  in  the  rovrs,  two  feet  being  a  good  distance  for  a  two-row 
hedge,  gaving  one  plant  to  every  foot  in  length  of  the  fence.  Oi"  course, 
the  quicks  in  each  row  will  be  jjliiced  opposite  the  spaces  in  the  other. 
The  qiiicks  in  the  figiu'e  are  sj)aced  one  foot  between,  as  for  a  single-row 
hedge.  If  holrs  are  made  at  intervals  of  fourinches,  the  eutii'e  length 
of  the  guide,  jjins  can  be  inserted,  and  the  quicks  be  set  at  any  number 
of  inches  apart  that  is  a  midtiple  of  lour.  By  placing  the  quicks  in  the 
angles  formed  by  the  pins  or  pegs' and  the  horizontal  strip,  they  are  sup- 
pers ed  in  position  on  tv^o  sides,  and  can  be  ]ilaced  as  they  are  to  remain 
in  the  trenches,  with  ease  and  rapidity.  When  the  lines  aie  properly 
staked  in  each  trench,  the  stakes  being  set  so  that  the  guide  may  be 
against  tv.o  at  each  time  of  its  removal,  there  will  be  no  sagging,  nor 
any  side-ways  deflection  of  the  setting  guide  or  the  rovr,  v.hile  the 
quicks  arc  jjlaced  and  supported  in  a  good  form  to  have  their  roots 
properly  extended  and  molded,  and  the  suil  filled  in  on  both  sides  of  the 
rov.s. 


254  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

RESULTS  OF   CLOSE  TEEiDrES'G. 

It  is  supposed  that  none  bat  siu^le-roTr  hedges  -^ill  be  trained  hy  the 
repressive  process  of  trimming  t"u-ice  annually,  for  the  quicks  in  hedge 
of  tliis  form  will  be  slender  in  consequence  of  the  crowding  of  the  roots 
from  tbicker  setting  in  the  rows.  Trimming  does  thicken  the  surface  of 
the  hedge  by  causing  a  stubbed,  stooliug  form  of  growth,  but  this  form 
at  the  top  soon  shades  the  bottom  part,  keeping  out  air,  light,  and 
moisture. 

After  a  few  years  of  close  pruning,  twice  each  year,  inlaid  hedges  pre- 
sent a  thin  bottom  growth.  Trimmed  hedges  cannot  well  be  trained 
more  than  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  high,  a  yard  across  at  the  bot- 
tom, while  naiTow  at  the  top.  Of  these  dimensions,  a  continuallj-  trim 
med  hedge  is  not  always  a  safe  fence  as  against  jumping  horses  and 
cattle,  and  its  ultimately  thinned  bottom  opens  a  door  for  the  inroads  of 
untamed  sicinc.  On  the  other  hand,  pleaching  causes  a  thick,  bottom 
growth,  thicker  after  pleaching  than  before,  by  the  combination  of  old 
and  of  new  gi'owth,  and  while  ample  new  growth  is  forming  in  the  bot- 
tom the  old  saplings,  now  pleached  layers,  are  still  kept  growing ;  and 
if  not  cut  two-thii'ds  through  they  will  grow  too  much  and  prevent  growth 
lower  down,  many  of  them  sending  up  new  shoots  in  all  parts  of  the 
fence.  The  pleached  saplings  also  add  gTcat  strength  to  such  forms  of 
fence  by  combining  an  upright  and  an  oblique,  or  an  old  and  new  growth, 
crossing  and  strengthening  both  forms  of  thorn  material.  The  young 
shoots  from  the  bottom  of  a  pleached  hedge  tend  outward  in  a  degree 
toward  the  light,  but  the  brush  of  the  laid  saplings  can  be  spread  wide 
enough  to  protect  this  growth,  or  so  much  of  it  as  may  be  required,  so 
that  a  properly  pleached  hedge,  while  making  ample  growth  in  the  bot- 
tom also  protects  it.  Hence  a  healthy  growth  of  Osage  thorn  hedge 
may  be  made  renewable  for  ages  by  successive  and  reasonable  pleaching. 

REPAIEEV^G  HEDGE  FENCE. 

A  hedge  that  has  been  trimmed  from  five  to  seven  years  becomes  so 
thin  and  ineflScient  as  a  fence  in  its  lower  parts,  that  it  must  either  be 
laid  or  repaired.  Such  a  hedge  may  be  repaired  by  thrusting  detached 
brush  cut  from  the  thickest  places  into  the  holes  as  compactly  as  this 
can  be  done  and  driving  down  stakes,  or  working  saj^lings  through 
it  obliquely,  according  to  the  necessity  of  resisting  swine,  or  stray- 
ing hedge-breakers  of  any  sort.  The  process  of  raendiug  requires  fre- 
quent repetition,  when  stock  is  grazed  to  any  considerable  extent  near 
poor  hedges,  and  laying  ^\-ill  soon  be  found  to  be  more  economical  than 
patching  with  repairs,  however  carefully  performed. 

HEDGING  WITHOUT  LAYING 

consists  in  cutting  back  the  quicks  the  first  year  at  six  to  eight  inches 
from  the  ground,  cutting  ofi'  the  vertical  shoots  six  inches  higher  the 
second  year,  and  repeating  the  same  process  and  distance  the  third  sea- 
son, when  the  hedge  row  will  be  about  two  feet  in  height.  It  is  then 
allowed  to  grow  another  foot  higher  when  the  top  growth  is  again  care- 
fully cut  ofi",  after  which  the  hedge  is  kept  down  by  close  trimming  in 
July  and  November  of  each  year.  This  is  hedging  by  negation,  or  re- 
pressing it  instead  of  first  encouragnig  growth,  and  then  training  so  as 
continually  to  maintain  it  in  the  bottom  equally  with  the  top  of  the 


OSAGE    HEDGES.  255 

hedge.  The  plan  involves  the  performance  of  so  much  labor,  and  ap- 
pears so  little  adapted  to  extensive  hedging  that  we  do  not  recommend 
it,  believing  that  it  would  retard  the  extension  of  true  liedging. 

TRAINEN'G  HEDGE  FENCE. 

Osage  thorn  fence,  when  kept  do^rn  by  trimming,  should  be  trimmed 
as  soon  as  the  spring  growth,  sometimes  called  the  midsummer  shoot, 
is  com])leted.  This  may  be  earlier  or  later,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  season,  but  the  interval  of  rest  between  the  first  and  the  second 
stage  of  the  year's  growth  usually  occurs  before  the  first  of  July.  During 
this  interval  of  rest,  directly  after  the  first  p'owth  is  complete,  is  the 
best  time  for  summer  trimming.  The  second  trimming  may  be  per- 
formed at  any  time  between  the  falling  of  the  leaves  and  the  setting  in 
of  severe  freezing  weather,  but  no  trimming  should  be  done  when  the 
sap  is  congealed  to  any  great  extent  by  frost. 

TKI3IMING  TOOLS. 

Some  persons  may  prefer  one  form  of  tool^  others  another.  A  variety 
might  be  suggested,  but  we  sketch  two  only  of  the  best  for  practical 
uses.  Figure  8  represents  the  trimming  hook,  and  Figure  9  the  trimming 
blade.  Both  require  handles  fiom  two  to  three  feet  long,  according  to 
the  height  of  the  operator.  When  the  growth  to  be  cut  off  is  small,  the 
hook  with  a  shorter  handle  may  be  used  with  one  hand,  but  in  all  cases 
when  the  shoots  are  thick  and  vigorous,  the  trimming  blade  is  the  most 
effective  and  the  most  convenient  tool. 

HOW  TO   TEEM  HEDGE  FENCE. 

If,  in  the  process  of  trimming,  the  shoots  are  cut  toward  the  bottom 
gTowth  of  the  wood  as  downward  in  an  unlaid  one,  or  against  the  lean- 
ing direction  of  the  layers  in  a  laid  hedge,  the  ends  from  which  the 
shoots  are  cut  are  more  or  less  split,  bruised,  or  maimed,  and  the  result 
will  be  dead,  stubbed  ends.  To  avoid  such  injuries,  all  trimming 
should  be  performed  by  striking  toward  the  tips,  as  upward  with  unlaid 
hedge,  and  in  the  direction  the  brush  leans  with  such  as  have  been 
pleached.  The  principle  is  the  same  in  trimming  hedge  as  in  prun- 
ing by  hand.  The  wood  cuts  will  heal  well,  if  they  are  smooth,  and 
the  new  gTowth  will  start  at  the  top  instead  of  below  the  ends  that  have 
been  cut. 

PLEACHING  HEDGE. 

The  season  in  which  to  pleach  is  not  when  the  hedge  is  growing,  but 
in  the  fall,  between  the  falling  of  the  leaves  and  the  time  when  winter 
sets  in.  Osage  thorn  hedge  should  not  be  pleached  during  severe  freezing 
weather,  but  pleaching  may  be  done  in  mild  weather,  when  there  is 
but  little  frost  in  the  wood,  and  in  the  winter  in  southern  latitudes.  In 
the  northern  belt,  where  the  Osage  thorn  thrives,  which  is  as  far  north 
as  southern  Wisconsin,  it  is  not  safe  to  pleach  in  winter.  But  if  not 
done  at  the  best  time  in  the  fall,  this  work  may  be  performed  before  the 
buds  sweU  in  the  spring,  as  early  as  the  middle  of  March. 

An  Osage  thorn  hedge  will  attain  a  given  size  earlier  in  some  localities 
than  in  others,  according  to  the  richness  of  soil,  and  other  conditions 
affecting  the  rate  of  growth.    Size  rather  than  age,  therefore,  mnj  de- 


256  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

cifle  the  question  when  to  pleach.  A  hedge  requires  haying  vrhen  the 
stems  of  tlic  saplings  average  two  inches  in  thickness  at  three  feet  from 
the  ground.  Hedges  that  grow  slowly,  as  they  will  in  wet  giound,  if 
tbey  grow  at  all,  may  require  laying  when  the  saplings  are  one-fourth 
smaller,  though  no  younger,  to  thicken  the  bottom  of  the  fence.  Osage 
thorn  quicks  may  attain  this  size  in  six  or  seven  years.  When  the  sap- 
Mngs  are  much  larger,  the  labor  and  expense  of  pleaching  will  be  pro- 
portionally greater. 

HEDGUsG  TOOLS. 

The  tools  required  for  pleaching  or  laying  are  few  and  simple  in  form. 
Figure  1 0  represents  the  jdeaching  hook,  the  point  being  somewhat  beak- 
like in  form,  and  the  hantUe  made  of  wood.  The  uses  of  the  four-toothed 
press  pole,  Figure  11,  will  hereafter  be  stated. 

REPAmrXG  nEDGES  FOK  FIEST  PLEACHEN'G. 

There  being  no  horizontal  or  oblique  old  layers  to  pull  out  when  a 
hedge  is  to  be  first  laid,  the  process  of  preparation  is  very  simple.  It 
consists  in  trimming  off  such  straggling  side  growth  as  may  be  in  the 
way  of  the  Avorkmcu ;  setting  the  stakes  if  a  single  row  or  a  staked 
hedge  is  in  hand,  and  cutting  off  sapliugs  close  to  the  ground  where 
there  are  more  than  one  to  a  foot.  The  thorn  brush  thus  obtained  may 
be  used  to  fill  in  at  the  bottom,  and  in  thin  places. 

LATir^'G  SES'GLE   HEDGE. 

In  single-line  hedge  the  saplings  are  so  wound  between  as  to  press 
against  the  stakes,  the  tips  or  brush  endsbeing  all  turned  to  the  beveled 
or  slanting  side.  For  a  single-thorn  hedge,  the  form  of  Figure  8  is  prefer- 
able. In  this  form  the  ti]>s  or  brr.sh  are  tui'ued  equally  and  alternately 
on  both  sides  of  the  stakes,  and  thirty  degrees  is  about  the  right  incli- 
nation of  the  saplings  v.hen  i)leached.  The  hedge  being  commenced 
right  by  thrusting  brush  down  among  the  live-shoot  stakes  to  rest  the 
first  layers  upon,  the  layers  being  placed  at  the  same  angle  throughout, 
the  work  proceeds  to  comi)letiou.  To  prevent  breaking  vrhere  the  Siip- 
lings  are  cut  and  bent  in  the  act  of  laying  down,  take  care  to  cut  two- 
thirds  off,  as  this  prevents  too  much  sap  from  going  to  the  layers,  and 
causes  a  thicker  and  stronger  degree  of  now  growth  from  the  bottom  of 
the  hedge. 

KELAYl^^G  ILEDGE  FE>'CE, 

This  work  is  the  most  difficult  of  ail  hedging  operations.  The  first 
step  is  to  trim  away  the  straggling  side-shoots,  as  just  described.  The 
hook  (Figure  10)  is  suited  fur  this  v.'ork,  gathering  stragghng  growth 
better  than  a  straight  hedge  tool.  Next  luiil  out  the  old  layers,  drawing 
them  out  by  the  butts,  or  lower  ends.  This  v.ill  be  the  tough  part  oi 
hedging  work,  and  it  seems  ])racticable  to  i)ertbrm  it  by  an  easier,  if  not 
a  quicker,  process,  l)y  the  use  of  horse-pov.er.  A  boy  can  lead  a  horse, 
with  a  suitable  chain  attached  to  the  whililetree,  while  a  man  attaciies 
t!ie  cham  to  the  lower  eiuls  of  tlie  old  layers,  as  fast  as  he  comes  to  them ; 
and  so  on  from  one  end  of  the  hedge  to  the  other.  The  old  stuff,  botii 
live  and  dead,  being  cleared  out,  tlie  stakes  are  seta  few  inches  one  side 
of  the  line  of  sapliugs,  and  the  laying  is  then  proceeded  with,  by  bend- 


OSAGE    HEDGES.  257 

ing  dovni  the  sapliugs  one  by  one,  cutting  each  as  much  as  two-thuxls 
0%  ahout  three  inches  from  the  ground,  this  height  being  required  to 
facUitate  the  bending  to  the  stakes  without  breaking  off  the  remaining 
third,  by  which  the  saplings  are  still  attached  to  their  roots,  and  through 
which  they  are  to  be  kept  alive.  This  very  important  process  should  be 
performed  with  dehberate  care,  and  as  fast  as  each  sapling  is  laid  down, 
the  stub  joiued  at  its  base  by  cutting  is  to  be  cut  off  by  ft  short  side- 
blow  with  the  hooked  edge  of  the  pleaching-hook.  The  first  cut  of  two- 
thii'ds,  to  facilitate  laying  down,  is  made  with  the  reverse  edge,  seen  in 
the  projection  on  its  part.  Figure  10.  It  is  quite  necessary  to  cut  off  the 
stubs,  or  the  young  growth  to  come  forward  will  be  from  the  tips  of  the 
stubs  instead  of  from  the  ground,  v^-here  it  is  required.  If  left  uncut  the 
stubs  will  also  prove  great  obstacles  to  the  work  when,  in  six  or  eight 
yearS;  the  laying  down  process  must  be  repeated. 

PLEACHES'G-  STOUT   OK,  TANGLED  HEDGE  EO"WS. 

When  the  saplings  are  large  there  will  be  found  much  spreading  brush 
on  the  sides  of  the  tops,  and  it  will  be  found  difficult  to  crush  this  growth 
on  the  side  that  goes  under  in  laying  the  sapling  in  the  hedge.  It  oan 
be  cut  oft'  when  brought  down  low  enough,  but  this  will  be  found  slow 
work.  When  the  vertical  stem-growth  is  three  or  more  inches  in  each 
sapling,  the  work  may  be  reduced.  The  sti"ongest  under-branches  must 
be  cut  off'  to  admit  of  laymg  well.  But  the  hedge  (double-row  hedge 
being  now  under  consideration)  being  ready  for  laying,  three  men,  one 
to  cut  and  two  to  pull  down  and  press,  can  get  on  i:)roportionately  easier 
than  one  alone. 

Two  men  use  the  press-pole,  represented  in  Figiu'e  11;  the  other  uses 
the  pleaching-hook.  The  pole  is  thrust  tlirough  behind  each  stout  ver- 
tical sapling,  when  both  men  puU  gently  and  equally.  Thus  bent  back 
a  little,  the  third  man  cuts  it  two-thirds  through,  cutting  obUquely 
dovmward  ^ith  the  pleaching-hook.  The  two  men  steadily  press  the 
saphng  down  to  the  laid  part  of  the  hedge,  the  teeth  in  the  pole  keeping 
it  fi'om  slipping  sideways,  and  also  serving  to  giiidc  it  to  its  assigned 
place,  when  the  men  bear  heavily  on  the  pole,  forcing  down  the  sapling, 
and  crashing  back  the  brush  on  its  under  side,  tiU  both  are  in  the  desired 
position.  The  force  here  employed  is  threefold  as  great  as  one  man  can 
exert  in  the  same  work.  Consequently,  much  of  the  trimming  from  the 
under  side,  to  let  the  brush  sapling  into  its  place,  is  saved,  while  aU  the 
men  are  enabled  to  work  with  less  hindrance  from  thorn  brush,  and  the 
h  edge  is  made  thicker  and  stronger.  The  man  with  the  pleaching-hook  cuts 
off'  the  stubs,  and  attends  to  any  trimming  that  may  be  required,  while 
the  others  are  at  work  pressing  down  the  sapUng  brush.  A  tough  pole 
is  necessary  for  this  work,  and  the  process  appears  more  workman-like 
than  for  two  men  to  bend  down  Osage  thorn  saplings  with  pitchforks, 
thus  wasting  half  their  power. 

heeking-boist:  hedge. 

We  have  spoken  of  pleaching  double-row  hedges,  by  crossing  the 
sapliugs  alternately,  when  each  sapling,  and  each  row,  by  the  "force 
derived  from  thorns  and  roots,  severally  and  reciprocally  supports  the 
other,  and  resists  every  tendency  to  displacement.  This  form  of  fence 
Uiay  be  made  even  stronger  by  placing  a  continuous  line  of  long, 
mediimi-sizsd,  rough-trimmed  saplings  in  the  angle  or  crotch  above  the 
line  where  saplings  cross  one  another.  iN'o  stakes  arc  required.  This 
17 


258  AGEICTLTUEAL   EEPOET. 

form  of  thorn  fence  is  similar  to  the  old  time  "  herring-bone"  rail  and 
stake  fence,  and  the  name  "  herring-bone  hedge"  would  not  be  inappro- 
priate. 

Another  plan  of  forming  txro-row  hedge,  -when  laying  it,  may  here  be 
note<L  The  saplings,  standing  trro  feet  apart  in  each  row,  are  left  at 
intervals  of  six  feet  in  each  line,  to  form  live  stakes  by  cutting  the  tops 
off.  There  will  l)e  layers  enough  when  the  hedge  is  again  laid  to  admit 
of  these  stakes  l>eing  cut  out  if  they  become  stooly  where  i)ieviou.s]y 
cut  off.  Al>out  half  the  saplings  may  be  laid  along  outside  one  stake, 
then  inside  of  the  next,  and  thence  angling  across  to  the  other  row  ;  so 
of  the  saplings  on  each  row,  the  ends  of  the  brush  protecting  the  young 
growth  Vk'Iow  the  place  where  it  hangs  over  oji  either  side.  The  other 
half  of  the  saplings  is  laid  to  cross  one  another  in  the  center  of  the 
hedge,  as  in  the  herring-bone  form,  without  regard  to  the  stakes.  The 
stakes  and  the  layers  can  easily  be  taken  out  when  relaying  become? 
necessary-.  The  stakes  are  the  means  of  adding  side-walls,  as  it  were, 
to  the  hedge.  The  hedge  so  made  cannot  be  otherwise  than  ver>-  strong, 
from  combining  the  herring-lx>neand  staking  features,  and  the  combina- 
tion affords  a  choice  of  two  plans  of  stout  double-row  hedge,  either  of 
which  is  comparatively  easy  of  construction  and  subsequent  manage- 
ment. 

rnrvnrrvr;  WITHOUT  LAYEfG,  AXD  LAYTXG  WITHOUT  TUDOCEXG. 

A  hedge  that  is  left  without  laying  seven  years  will  have  been  trimmed 
fourteen  times.  An  average  hand  will  tiim  a  mile  in  twelve  days.  Mul- 
tiitly  twelve  by  the  number  of  trimmings,  and  we  have  a  charge,  at  a 
dollar  per  day^  of  $108.  The  hedge  so  trimmed  must  be  cut  off  at  the 
gjound,  for  it  cannot  be  easily  or  tolerably  well  laid  after  seven  years 
of  close  trimming.  Ilence,  at  the  end  of  a  seven  years'  course  of  trim- 
ming, wo  have  an  interval  of  two  years  without  any  fence,  except  the 
old  bnish  Ixing  beside  it,  to  protect  the  young  gi^owth  that  is  springing 
from  the  bottom  to  form  the  new  hedge.  AVith  the  untrimme<l  double- 
row  hcilge  we  have  a  little  more  shade,  far  more  protection  against  %vind, 
no  liability  to  trespass  with  jumping  animals,  a  good  fence  dui-iog  our 
life-time,  little  or  no  expense  for  trimming;  but,  at  the  end  of  the  seven 
rears,  there  is  the  expense  of  laying.  A  man  will  jirepare,  stake,  and 
lay  four  rods  of  stout  hedge  per  day,  which  is  a  dollar  for  every  four  rods, 
or  eighty  dollars  per  mile,  in  seven  years.  It  will  l>e  seen  that  a  course 
of  seven  years'  trimming  costs  fifty  per  cent,  more  than  once  laying  with 
no  trimming ;  and.  if  we  charge  one  dollar  per  mile  per  annum  for  a 
little  trimming  away  of  straggling  shoots  from  the  sides  of  the  tall 
hedge,  the  result  will  remain  substantially  the  same. 

HEDGE  A^D  DITCH  FKNCE. 

As  generally  tmdcrstood  by  those  interested,  there  are  large  areas  of 
both  low  ;ind  clayey  soils  in  Missomi,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Min- 
nesota, where  open  ditches  are  requu'ed  as  water-courses.  In  some  of 
those  States  several  of  these  ditches  have  be«n  made  as  a  means  of 
partial  surface  drainage;  and  many  more  would  l>e  made,  .some  of  them 
on  division  lines,  where  the  ground  is  suitable,  if  the  water-courses  could 
be  protected  against  damage  to  their  sides  by  the  treading  of  animals. 

Tliere  are  many  ditches  which  are  water-courses  in  the  spring,  but 
which  dry  up,  and  remain  dry,  during  most  of  the  other  three-(iuaiters 
of  the  year,  except  during  and  for  a  brief  time  after  drenching  rains, 


OSAGE    HEDGES.  259 

but  -vrhicli  might  be  rendered  more  valnable  could  tliey  be  made  to  bold 
stock- water  diu'iug  a  greater  portion  of  the  warmest  season  of  tbe  year. 
Shading,  as  is  well  known,  retards  evaj)oration,  and  these  open  ditches 
can  readily  be  shaded  by  gi-owing  Osage  thorn  hedge-rows  on  either  side, 
and  when  live  or  six  years  grown,  or  before,  if  the  gTowth  is  vigorous, 
laying  them  down  obliquely  across  the  ditch,  making  a  hedge  over  the 
water-channel,  as  shown  by  Figui-e  12. 

The  thorn  brush  would  also  protect  the  ditch  banks  against  injury  by 
animals  in  seeking  water.  The  roots  of  the  horizontal  saplings  and  their 
living  growth  of  thorn  layers  prevent  the  hedge  growth  from  falling 
into  ditches  so  fricged  and  shaded.  If,  in  the  course  of  years,  such 
ditches  should  require  cleaning  out,  the  layers  might  be  reatlily  cleared 
away,  and  a  new  arch  supplied  from  the  fresh,  vertical  growth  which  had 
been  allowed  to  form  in  readiness.  Another  important  advantage  ot 
such  shading  woidd  be  that  the  shade  of  the  horizontal  thorn  biiish 
would  keep  the  frost  in  till  the  general  atmospheric  temi^eratiu-e  would 
be  sufficient  to  thaw  it  out  of  all  merely  shaded  groimd.  In  this  way 
the  sides  of  the  ditches  and  the  tops  and  insides  of  the  ditch  banks,  or 
ridges,  may  be  seciu-ed  against  the  crumbling  and  abrasion  to  which 
they  would  be  subject  by  ti-equent  freezing  and  thawing.  Such  protec- 
tion and  shading  efltcts  of  horizontal  hedges  would  also  be  advantageous 
in  connection  with  outlets  or  open  drain5;  iiarticularly  with  the  drains. 


THE  ESPARTO  GRASS. 


Eags  have  failed  to  supply  the  demands  of  paper-makers  in  this  age 
of  printing:.  A  cheaper,  more  abundant  fiber  is  essential  to  the  unde. 
layed  advance  of  civilization  itself.  Straw  is  cheap  and  abundant,  suited 
to  the  manufacture  of  low  grades,  but  undesirable  for  the  better  qualities 
of  printing  paper.  Wood  has  been  used  to  some  extent,  and  the  swamp 
cane  of  the  south  (Arundinaria  gigantea)  is,  commg  into  extensive  use  as 
papc^  material. 

\Miile  these  and  other  fibers  should  be  tested,  there  is  one  that  has 
maintained  for  centimes  a  high  reputation  for  various  useful  purposes, 
and  within  a  few  years  has  almost  monopolized  the  European  market 
for  pa])er  material— the  Sjyartum  of  Pliny,  the  esparto  of  the  Span- 
iards, known  by  various  scientific  synonyms,  as  MacrocMoa  teuacmima, 
StijM  tcnacissitna,  and  Li/gcum  js^x^rf ;/???.  It  is  also  popularly  known 
in  Spain  as  the  atocha  plant,  and  in  Algiers  as  alfa.  It  flourishes  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,  in  Algeria,  and  in  Xorth  Afiica.  It  is  said  to  be 
found  also  in  Z^aples,  Sicily,  and  Crete.  The  principal  sources  of  supply 
are  the  provinces  of  Granada.  Murcia,  and-  Almeria,  on  the  Mediterrar- 
nean  coast  of  Spain.  Its  fiber  is  exi^orted  also  from  the  French  port, 
Oran,  in  Algeria,  in  latitude  35='  44'  north,  immediately  opposite  the 
region  yielding  it  most  abundantly  in  Spain. 

Tt  ismteresting  to  note  the  fact  that  Xew  Mexico  produces  a  plant 
the  fiber  of  which  appears  to  be  similar  to  that  of  the  Spanish  esparto, 
as  seen  in  the  museiun  of  this  Department.  It  is  known  to  botimists  as 
Stipa  tenacissimu  ;  was  obtained  in  1S51  by  Charles  Wright,  of  the  Mex- 
ican boimdary  commission,  and  may  be  found  among  the  Depaitment 
botanical  collections.  The  latitude  of  the  northern  section  of  Xew  Mex- 
ico is  the  same  as  that  of  southern  Spain,  the  climate  in  some  respects 
suailar.  beiug  warm,  dry,  approaching  aridity,  and  the  soil  is  suited  to 
similar  i^roducts. 

The  esparto  is  presumed  to  be  identical  with  the  sjyartum  of  the 
Latins,  described  by  Pliny  as  useful  in  various  arts  of  the  Carthagenians 
in  their  first  Xvar  in' Spain.  At  that  period  the  mountains  of  Spartacus 
Campus,  includiug  the  temtory  between  Grenada  and  Murcia^  w^re 
covered  with  this  spontaneous  gTOwth;  and  its  uses  in  the  Iberian 
peninsula  were  represented  to  be  innmnerable.  The  historian  expressed 
regret  that  its  great  bidk  j)revented  its  transportation  for  a  greater  dis- 
tance than  thirty  leagues,  and  its  consequent  universal  dissemination  as 
a  valuable  material  for  many  industries.  The  region  referred  to  is  the 
j>recise  locality  of  its  gi-eatest  production  now. 

HABITAT  OP  THE  ESPAETO. 

It  grows  on  sandy  shores,  and  on  the  gravelly  hills  of  the  interior, 
upon  soil  so  i)Oor  as  scarcely  to  be  capable  of  any  other  growth.  It  is  a 
spontaneous  product,  requiring  and  receiving  no  care  whatever,  but 
becoming  more  vigorous  and  abundant  with  yearly  or  semi-annual 
gathering.  The  harvest  is  not  obtained  by  cutting,  but  by  pulling  or 
separating  from  the  root,  a  labor  of  little  difficidty  if  performed  at  the 
right  time,  which  is  the  month  of  May  or  June  at  or  near  the  coast,  and 


THE    ESPARTO    GEASS.  1:61 

July  at  the  liiglier  elevations  of  the  interior.  It  is  particular  in  isbe 
choice  of  soils,  gTO'svingin  one  localitrin  gxeat  liixiiriai>ce,  and  in  another 
enduring  a  dwarfed  and  feeble  existence,  as  seen  in  isolated  i)atches  or 
tufts.  Above  an  altitude  of  three  thousand  to  three  thousand  five  hun- 
dred feet  it  is  rarely  seen,  and  disappears  in  the  vicinity  of  the  line  of 
■winter  snows.  It  may  be  said  to  be  very  hardy,  though  not  so  much  la 
enduring  severe  frosts  as  in  thriving  in  continual  drought  and  gTeat 
poverty  of  soil. 

It  grows  naturally  in  tufts  or  ciiunps.  and  is  gathered  by  pulling.  If 
collected  green,  it  becomes  a  transparent  fiber  of  little  value ;  if  too  dry, 
the  constituent  elements  of  siliea  and  iron  are  with  difficulty  removed. 

The  gatherer  protects  his  legs  and  hands  with  boots  and  gloves,  and 
then  twists  the  stem  around  a  stick  to  obtain  a  better  purchase.  The 
time  of  harvest  is  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of  Jtme.  After 
heing  pulled  it  is  collected  into  bundles,  which  are  formed  into  a  heap  and 
left  for  two  days.  On  the  third  day  it  is  spread  and  exposed  to  the  heat 
of  the  sun  till  dry,  then  rebundled  and  i^laced  under  shelter,  and  after- 
Ivards  macerated  in  sea-water  if  it  can  be  obtained,  again  dried,  -wetted, 
and  beaten  before  it  is  ready  for  use. 

NATiniE  A^^)  USES. 

The  esparto  of  the  interior  is  longer  and  whiter  than  that  of  the  sea 
coast,  but  thinner,  and  of  less  strength. 

.  It  is  estimated  that  fifty  thousand  xiersons  are  employed  in  the  collec- 
tion, preparation ,  and  manufacture  of  this  fiber  in  southern  Spain. 
Large  quantities  of  esparto  thi-ead  are  shipped  to  France,  mainJy  to 
Marseilles,  where  it  is  used  in  making  car]3ets,  ropes,  baskets,  and  pack- 
ing fabrics.  At  Aquilas  it  is  used  for  rope-making  in  place  of  hemj), 
and  is  crisped  to  imitate  horse-hair  for  mattress  material,  for  ■which  pur- 
pose it  is  highly  i;)rized,  being  very  durable,  and  not  liable,  it  is  claimed, 
to  become  a  harbor  for  vermin. 

As  cordage  it  is  regarded  now  vrith  as  much  favor  as  in  the  times  of 
the  Carthagenians,  from  its  valuable  property  of  resisting  decay  in  con- 
stant exposure  to  moisture.  A  considerable  n^ade  is  earned  on  with  the 
Intlies  in  a  style  of  shoe  or  sandal  of  esparto,  '•  found  very  useful  in  hot, 
rocky,  or  sandy  soil.''  The  peasants,  in  a  portion  of  Spain,  use  no  other 
cliaussure.  It  is  regarded  as  gxaceful  and  classical,  if  somewhat  rustic 
This  fiber  is  also  used  in  the  Scotch  carj^et  trade  in  Eadderminster 
and  Brussels  goods. 

Great  improvements  have  been  made  in  its  preparation  for  paper- 
making.  A  process  is  employed  for  extracting  the  glue-like  matter  it 
contains,  leaving  the  fiber  clean  and  ready  for  use.  Formerly  thirty  or 
forty  per  cent,  of  rags  were  itsed  in  the  manufacture,  but  an  excellent 
paper,  strong  and  of  fine  stuface,  is  now  made  ■without  any  admixture  of 
linen  or  other  material. 

Of  all  the  substitutes  for  rags  tested  and  used  at  present  in  Great 
Britain,  the  esparto  scarcely  has  a  competitor.  Some  of  the  largest 
British  papers  are  now  printed  upon  it.  Exi^eriments  have  recently  been 
made  in  softening  the  fiber,  by  passing  it  through  machinery  -without 
the  aid  of  caustic  soda.  So  advanced  are  the  processes  by  which  it  is 
converted  into  paper,  that  it  has  been  claimed  that  a  cargo  arriving  in 
London  in  the  morning  has  been  converted  into  i)aper  diu-iug  the  same 
evening. 

Its  chemical  constituents  are  said  to  be :  yellow  coloring  mattei',  12 :  red 
matter,  G  j  gum  and  resin,  7j  salts  forming  the  ash,  1.5;  paper  fiber,  73.5, 


262  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

The  quantity  imported  into  Great  Britain  has  readied  the  following 
figures:  1804/43.403  toua;  1865,  51,570  tons,  (£209,030;)  18GG,  C'J,833 
tons,  (£311,808.)  The  entire  im])ortatiou  of  paper  material,  of  all  sorts, 
during  the  same  years,  vras  07,819  tons  in  1804,  71,155  in  1805,  and 
94,98j  in  1800 — esparto  constantly  increasing  its  relative  proportion, 
and  attaining  a  maximum  of  more  than  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  total 
foreign  supi^ly. 

PROGRESS  OF  THE  ESPARTO  TRADE. 

The  Department  has  had,  for  several  years,  more  or  less  correspond- 
ence with  the  United  States  consuls  in  Southern  Spain  on  this  subject, 
and  has  received  very  full  accounts  of  the  i>rogress  and  condition  of  the 
esparto  trade,  especially  from  Mr.  Frederick  Burr,  United  States  con- 
sular agent  at  Adra.  AVIieu  the  recent  demand  sprang  into  activity,  the 
fiber  was  obtained  only  from  the  hills  and  on  the  coast;  but  as  con- 
sumption fjuickened  the  demand  and  advanced  the  ])rice,  the  cost  of 
carriage  through  a  region  almost  destitute  of  roads  was  amply  met,  and 
the  business  of  gathering  and  forwarding  extended  forty  miles  or  more 
into  the  intericr.  The  mode  of  transit  is  by  "bullock  carts."  The 
provinces  of  Almeria  and  Miircia  have  furnished  the  greater  portion  of 
the  supply. 

In  1804  the  cost  in  the  interior  was  only  four  reals,  or  fifty  cents,  pei 
quintal,  while  the  fi-eight  to  the  coast  was  ten  reals  more.  At  that  date 
the  average  price,  on  shipboard,  was  about  £4  2s.,  or  $20  50,  per  Eng- 
lish ton.  In  the  previous  year  it  was  i)urchased  at  about  two-thirds  that 
price.    Prices  have  been  constantly  advancing  since  that  date. 

The  croj)  is  purchased  annually  of  individuals  or  municipalities  own- 
ing waste  lands  on  which  it  grows  by  merchants  or  speculators,  who 
employ  the  peasantry  to  collect  the  grass  and  convey  it  to  local  posts, 
ready  for  shipment  by  carts  or  on  the  backs  of  mides  or  donkeys.  For- 
tunes have  been  made  by  the  proprietors  of  these  hitherto  worthless 
lands,  and  by  the  purchasers  of  them,  as  also  by  the  traders  in  this 
species  of  merchandise. 

Mr.  Burr  assumes  that  a  vast  breadth  of  country  in  the  United  States, 
in  the  same  latitude  in  which  it  is  found  in  Spain,  is  adapted  to  its 
growth.  The  following  extracts  are  made  fi'om  his  report  to  this  De- 
partment. 

There  are  two  classes  of  tliis  plant,  tlio  "atoclia,"  properly  so  called,  and  tbe  coarse 
or  "bastard"  atocha.  The  latter  is  much  superior  in  height,  the  grass  growing  to 
the  height  of  about  three  feet,  but  it  is  mferior  in  quality  "and  in  strength  of  tiber, 
thoujjh  used  for  several  piiqjoses. 

Tho  atocha  grass,  which  is  called  esparto,  is  not  cut  like  ordinary  grass,  but  is  pulled 
np  from  its  socket,  as  it  were.,  for  it  very  readily  separates  from  the  plant  a  little  above 
the  roots,  Arhich  it  is  necessary  to  leave  undisturbed  in  the  ground.  The  thin,  wiry- 
grass  thus  gathered  is  spread  out  to  dry  iu  the  sun,  and  is  the  article  knowTi  in  Spanish 
as  psfjarto. 

The  esparto  grass,  from  the  length  and  strength  of  its  fiber,  and  the  facility  -with 
which  it  may  be  twisted  into  ropes,  and  easily  woven  (or  rather  plaited)  into  matting, 
fomis  a  cliea])  and  useful  article  for  many  ordinary  purposes.  In  the  great  mining  dis- 
trict of  the  Sierra  de  Gador,  in  this  province,  and'in  that  of  Cartagena,  and  most  others 
in  Spain,  all  tlie  ropes  used  in  the  mines  are  made  of  esjtarto.  These  ropes  are  very 
slender— about  one  and  a  half  inch  in  diameter— vet  they  servo  perfectly  well  for 
the  descent  and  ascent  of  tiie  miners,  as  well  as  for  raising  the  ores  and  rubbish  from 
below,  and  the  baskets  used  in  llie  latter  operation  are  also  made  of  the  esparto.  As 
the  more  mountainous  parts  of  Si)ain  are  nearly  destitute  of  cart  roads,  the  chief  trans- 
portation IS  on  the  backs  of  mules  and  donkevs,  the  articles  carried  being  always 
packed  in  baskets  or  in  panniers  made  of  the  esparto  grass.  AH  kinds  of  matting  for 
Lonses  and  other  purposes  are  also  made  of  this  useful  article. 

Besides  these  coarser  applications,  very  neat  and  pretty  baskets  are  made  of  this 


THE   ESPARTO   GRASS.  263 

grass,  and  also,  of  one  species,  a  fine  and  even  elegant  matting  for  houses  of  the  hetter 
class,  as  carpets  are  not  used,  and  indeed  are  not  desirable  in  this  hot  southern  climate. 
For  this  purpose  the  grass  used  is  dyed  of  various  colors,  and  it  is  then  woven  into 
various  simple  but  tasteful  patterns.  This  superior  matting  has  much  the  same  ap- 
pearance as  carpets,  but  is  infinitely  preferable  in  a  warm  climate  both  for  coolness  and 
for  cleanliuess.  Indeed  this  Spanish  mattiug  is  much  prettier  than  the  eane  matting 
used  in  ail  European  houses  in  the  East  Indies,  though  it  is  not  so  durable  as  the 
latter. 

The  atocha  plant  flourishes  at  Oran,  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa,  in  latitude  35° 
44'  N.,  and,  it  may  be  said,  generally,  in  all  the  southern  part  of  Spain  ;  sparingly,  even 
a.s  f;u'  north  as  Madrid,  (latitude  40^  30',)  where  one  of  the  principal  streets,  leading 
to  the  en\irou8,  is  called  "  Calle  de  Atocha."  This  would  place  the  geographical  zoue  of 
this  grass  from  34=^  or  35"^  to  about  40'^  north  latitude,  according  to  my  present  infor- 
mation, for  it  may  possibly  extend  still  further  both  north  and  south.  But  it  is  im- 
portant to  observe  that  the  most  abundant  region — that  in  the  provinces  of  Almeria 
and  Murcia — v.-hich  now  furnishes  the  chief  supply  of  this  article — is  situated  adjoining 
to  and  between  the  thirty-seventh  and  thirty-eighth  parallels;  and  that  it  is  here  where 
it  appears  to  grow  in  the  greatest  abundance  and  luxuriance.  It  is  needless  to  remark 
that  the  above  zone  is,  in  Europe,  chiefly  occupied  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  while  in 
the  United  States  it  embraces  the  entire  breadth  of  a  vast  continent. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  south  of  S])ain  is  the  hottest  in  Europe,  particularly  that 
of  the  provinces  on  the  Mediterranean  coast ;  nor  is  heat  alone  its  characteristic,  for  it 
is  equally  remarkable  for  its  extreme  dryness  .and  want  of  rain;  so  much  so  that  the 
cultivation  of  l;irge  and  fertile  tracts  depends  entirely  upon  irrigation.  In  what  is 
called  the  Secanos,  or  lands  somewhat  elevated,  and  thus  dependent  entirely  on  the 
rains,  I  have  known  the  crops  to  be  lost  for  three  years  in  succession,  so  little  rain 
having  fallen.  In  fact  so  arid  are  many  tracts  in  the  south  of  Spain  that  they  present, 
thongh  on  a  miniature  scale,  a  sort  of  parallel  to  the  deserts  of  Africa  and  the  east. 
This  resemblance  often  struck  me  when  I  first  arrived  in  Spain,  after  a  residence  of 
some  years  in  India  aiul  oriental  countries. 

On  anj  near  the  coast  tlio  temperature  during  the  hot  summer  months  is  usually 
85°  to  90°  Fahrenheit,*  and  in  the  winter  months  the  climate  is  so  mild  that  the  ther- 
mometer seldom  marks  less  than  45°  to  50°  Fahrenheit.  A  few  miles  inland  among  the 
mountains,  however,  the  climate  is  much  colder.  Theclimateof  this  part  of  the  Spanish 
cojuitcan,  probably,  behest  inferred  from  its  vegetable  productions.  Thus  the  sugar-cane 
flourishes  here,  and  there  are  many  ami  increasing  sugar  manufactories  in  this  pari  of  An- 
dalusia. In  one  locality,  the  plain  of  Motril,  thii'ty  miles  west  of  Ailra,  the  cotton  plant  has 
been  cultivated  with  some  success,  though  upon  a  very  small  scale,  not  being  found 
profitable.  All  along  this  coast,  too,  groups  of  the  date  palm  are  occasionally  seen. 
This  elegant  tree,  though  now  neglected  and  diminishing  in  numbers,  was,  most  prob- 
ably, planted  by  the  Moors  during  the  period  of  Arab  dominion  in  Spain.  Indeed  it  is 
well  known  that  the  numerous  and  venerable  olives  which  abound  Lu  this  neighborhood 
existed  on  the  confiscated  property  of  the  Moors  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Gran- 
ada. Among  other  semi-tro])ical  productions  of  these  provinces  may  be  named,  the 
nopaul  and  the  aloej  which  are  abundant,  esjtecially  along  the  coast,  though  they  are 
not  equal  in  size  and  luxiuianco  to  whatl  have  been  accustomed  to  see  in  India  and 
the  tropics. 

Elcratio-ii  above  the  sea  level. — The  naturally  hot  and  arid  climate  of  the  south  of  Spain 
is  modified  in  a  very  remarkable  manner  by  the  occuiTence  >i  lofty  mountain  ranges 
in  the  interior.  In  Andalusia  especially,  we  have  the  Sierra  Nevada  range,  the  highest 
summits  of  which  rise  up  almost  to  the  curve  of  perpetual  congelation.  Thus,  from 
plantations  of  su^ar-caue  near  the  coast  may  be  seen,  in  the  hottest  summer  mouths, 
patches  of  snow  which  never  melt,  and  at  a  distauce  of  not  more  than  thirty  to  sixty 
miles.  These  snowy  patches  nuuk  the  lofty  peaks  of  La  Veleta  and  of  Muley  Hassan, 
which  rise,  respectively,  11,420  and  11,700  English  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Thus,  in  traveling  a  few  miles  inland,  and  even  without  losing  sight  of  the 
sea,  a  difference  of  climate  may  be  experienced  equivalent  to  that  of  many  degrees  ot 
latitude,  while  a  total  change  may  be  observed  in  all  the  vegetable  productions  of  the 
soil. 

In  considering  the  natural  climate  of  the  atocha,  the  circumstance  of  elevation 
above  the  sea-level  is,  therefore,  most  important,  and  I  'have,  fortunately,  been  able  to 
fix  the  elevation  and  consequent  temperature,  which  marks  its  upward  limit,  with  con- 
siderable precision. 

It  will  be  seen  that  we  have  here  two  distinct  climates — that  of  the  cofist  and  that 
of  the  mountains.  In  the  former,  except  as  a  somewhat  rare  phenomenon  of  a  ^n^ 
hours  in  uuration,  snow  never  falLs.  But  in  the  latter,  snow  is  abundant  for  many 
mouths  in  the  yt-ar,  and  lits  for  very  long  periods,  according  to  the  elevation,  till,  on 
the  summits  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  it  never  disappears.     The  falls  of  snow  aio  generally 

»  That  is,  the  temperature  in-doora  and  in  the  shade,  as  usually  taken. 


264  AGRICULTUEiX.   REPORT. 

limited  to  a  certain  zone  of  altitndc,  above  whicli,  in  Tv-:i>tcr,  we  nsnaUr  see  all  whito 
and  spotted,  -wlule  Lelo-x,  ia  most  c;ises,  nothing  fiaU-s  but  raiu.  This  altitmk-,  c^i>eii- 
aDy  near  the  coast  where  I  reaide.  I  have  taken  some  ]>ains  to  lis.  (for  it  uiay  not  hold 
good  in  the  interior,;  and  find  it  to  be,  very  approximately,  alxmt  3,500  feet,  that  is, 
near  the  Mtiditerranean,  and  where  the  warm  exliahitions  of  that  sea  greatly  modify 
the  temperarore.  I  ghoold  plate  the  usual  limits  of  the  snow  at  3..^»00  feet  above  its 
level ;  bnt  in  the  interior,  if  only  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  distant,  the  enow  level  is, 
doubtless,  somewhat  lower. 

Xow  it  is  very  important  to  our  present  purpose  to  observe,  as  I  have  lately  done 
when  considering  the  subject,  that  it  is  at  about  this  elevation  where  the  snow  nsnallj 
commences,  that  the  atocha  plant  ceases  to  grow. 

It  wni  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  atocha,  though  a  hardy  plant,  growing  here  indif- 
ferently in  the  plains  and  on  the  mountains  near  the  coast,  is  coulined  'jiretty  uinch 
nithiucertain  limits  of  temfierature,  and  will  not  bear  the  cold.  In  fact  it  requires  a 
hot  and  somewhat  dry  chmate,  such  as  I  have  deseiibed  as  jtrevailiug  in  the  south  oi 
Spain.  So  far  as  this' climate  prevails  the  atocha  seems  to  gxow  equally  on  the  moun- 
tains and  in  thepilains,  but  its  luxuriance  is  checked  in  appioaching  the  altitude  of  tbe 
winter  snows,  and  at  aTjout  that  elevation  its  growth  ceases  alt«gether. 

Congemial  t^oiU  and  geological  structure  of  coiintrij. — ^Although  the  growth  of  the 
atocha  extends  over  a  large  expanse  of  country,  it  is  only  in  j^articuLir  situations  that 
this  grass  attains  that  degree  of  luxuriance  an<i  abundance  which  is  essential  to  render 
it  important  in  a  commercial  point  of  view.  This  iudicites  that  it  is  eminently  a  jilant 
that  seeks  and  requires  a  congenial  eoiL  On  this  subject,  in  addition  to  my  own  partial 
observations.  I  have  made  many  inquiiies,  and  find  that  there  are  soils  on  which  the 
atocha  will  not  grow  at  all :  others  on  which  it  grows  but  sparingly,  while  cm  others 
again  it  is  the  prevailing  tr**d  or  product  of  the  soil,  being  STiontaneously  produced  by 
nature  in  vast  abnndance. 

I  have  before  mentioned  the  mountainous  nature  of  this  country,  and,  as  soils  are 
merely  the  detriros  of  the  subjacent  and  neighboring  rocks,  I  consider  that  the  most 
general  and,  perhaps,  exact  idea  of  those  in  this  district,  will  be  obtained  by  a  brief 
reference  to  its  geographical  structure,  which  I  now  proceed  to  describe. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  range,  which,  under  diiferent  names,  may  be  said  to  determine 
the  configuration  of  the  coast  of  Spain  from  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  west,  to  the  plains 
of  Murcia,  east,  consists,  in  its  highest  and  central  portion,  of  a  vast  maiis  of  micaceous 
schists  l»elow,  approaching  to  gneiss,  while,  on  its  upper  suiiace  there  reposes  an  enor- 
mous mass  of  shaly  rocks,  often  soft  and  decomposing  into  a  stiff  blue  clay.  These 
shaly  rc^cks,  the  thickness  of  which  is  very  considerable,  are  covered,  in  places,  by  a 
dark  sub-crystalline  limestone,  generally  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  mountains, 
and  constituting  pre-eminently  the  metalliferous  or  lead-producing  rock  of  the  south  of 
Spain.  These  three  rocks,  '.nk^  «7af««.  sliak-i:  and  Umofiones.  at  various  elevations,  from  the 
towering  heights  of  the  Sierra  Xevada  to  minor  ranges  not  more  than  fifteen  h'ondred  to 
two  thousand  feet  in  height,  constitute  all  the  elev.ited  portions  of  the  provinces  of  Gran- 
ada, Almeria,  and  Murcia,  while  theplains  alongthe  coast  and  the  inland  valleys  generally 
consist  of  yellowish  tertiary  marls.  These  mails  are  sometimes  covered  by  a  thin  su- 
perficial deposit  of  detritus  of  more  recent  date,  which,  when  of  a  siliceous  nature,  or 
cemented  by  silicc-ous  matter,  form  a  very  sterile  soil  almost  destitute  of  vegetation. 
I  have  never  been  able  to  trace  any  line  of  demarcation  between  the  micaceous  schists 
and  the  sui»erlncumbent  shales,  and  am  inclined  to  think,  therefore,  that  they  all  form 
one  great  series,  tbe  lower  y*art  of  which  has  Ijeen  thorouglily  acted  upon  by  metamor- 
phic  influence.  Nor  is  there  any  distinct  line  between  the  shales  and  the  sui>erin- 
cnmbent  limestones,  for  near  the  line  of  junction  there  are  frerjuent  alternations  of  the 
two  rocks,  till,  as  we  rise  in  the  series,  the  limestones  prevail.  Quartzose  roclis  and 
their  usual  concomitants,  siliceous  sands,  do  not,  that  I  am  aware  of,  occur  in  all  this 
district.  Three  soils,  therefore,  jjrevail  in  these  provinces,  argillaceous,  calcareous,  imd 
argiUaceous-caloareous,  from  the  frequent  admixture  of  the  two  former,  and  also  from 
the  wide  occurrence  of  tertiary  marls  in  the  plains  and  valleys. 

This  sketch  of  the  geological  structure  of  the  country  will.'  I  thiuk,  give  a  sufficient 
idea  of  the  general  nature  of  the  soils  ia  the  south  of  Spaiu,  in  which  the  atocha  flour- 
ishes with  icost  luxuriance.  It  may.  therefore,  be  found  useful  in  selecting  the  dis- 
tricts in  the  territory  of  the  United  .States,  where  similar  soils  and  conditions  ])revail, 
and  which  are  thus  best  adapted  for  the  introduction  of  this  semi-tropical  species  of 
grass. 

The  subject  of  soils  Ls  however,  so  important  that,  in  addition  to  the  above  general  con- 
siderations, and  to  what  I  have  myself  observed,  I  have  made  many  inquiries  of  others, 
fiom  which  the  following  seems  to  l>e  the  general  result : 

Two  kinds  of  soil  are  considered  decideilly  adverse  to  the  growth  of  the  atocha — a 
wet  or  marshy  soil  and  a  pebbly  soil,  I  mean  any  of  those  nninerons  alluvial  soils  on 
the  surface  of  which  pebbles  are  abundantly  scattere<L 

Reddish-colored  soils,  or  those  much  impregnated  with  oxides  of  iron  are  not  consid- 
ered favorable. 


THE    ESPARTO    GRASS.  265 

Calcareous  soils  aro  considered  to  produce  good  esparto,  and  of  a  very  strong  liber. 

Argillaceous  soils,  wlietlicr  tlioso  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  sbaly  rocks  or 
those  fomied  by  the  -wide  dcj)osition  of  tertiary  marls,  are  impregnated  v.-ith  nitrous 
matter  or  saltpeter,  and  are  considered  favorable  to  the  gi'owth  of  the  atoclia,  the  grass 
being  shorter  but  the  tiber  stronger. 

The  leading  facts  in  the  production  of  esparto  may  be  stated  as  follows:  1.  The  atocha 
grass  requires  a  decidedly  hot  and  a  somewhat  dry  climate.  2.  That  it  grows  equally 
well  in  the  plains  of  the  coast  and  the  interior  and  in  the  mountains,  but  is  strictly 
limited  to  a  certain  moderate  elevation.  3.  That  it  flourishes  equally  both  in  calca- 
reous and  in  argillaceous  soils,  and  in  those  soils  where  both  calcareous  and  argillaceous 
matters  are  natui'ally  blended.  4.  That  besides  several  soils  which  may  be  considered 
unfavorable,  there  seem  to  be  others  which  are  decidedly  inimical  to  its  growth. 

Season  of  the  crop  and  quantity  produced. — The  atocha  which  grows  in  the  plains  comes 
early  to  maturity,  and  the  grass  is,  therefore,  plucked  or  gathered  in  May  and  .Tune. 
But  in  the  colder  climate  of  the  mountains  the  crop  Ls  much  later,  the  grass  not  being 
gathered  till  July  and  even  August. 

The  proper  time  for  obtaining  the  seed  is  considered  to  be  in  June,  and,  as  it  falls  and 
perishes  rapidly,  the  operation  will  present  some  difliculty,  as  it  must  be  executed  with 
all  possible  rapidity,  or  the  critical  time  for  its  collection  will  have  i>ast.  The  best 
time  for  gathering  is  in  the  month  of  Jtme  and  the  early  part  of  July. 

Although  of  a  dry  and  wiry  nature,  the  esparto^  like  all  other  kindi  of  grass,  requires 
drying  in  the  sun,  by  which  it  loses  about  one-fourth  of  its  weight.  After  drying  it  is 
tied  up  in  bunches  and  conveyed  to  the  nearest  shipping  port,  Avhere,  from  the  month 
of  June  to  the  end  of  the  year,  numerous  vessels,  cluefly  English,  are  employed  in  its 
shipment. 

The  quantity  of  esparto  proditced  from  a  given  extent  of  land  will  vary  greatly,  the 
grass  being,  in  some  places,  very  luxuriant  and  abundant,  while  in  others,  wh«ro  the 
soil  is  less  congenial,  it  is  more  thinly  dispersed  in  tufts  and  patches.  People  practi- 
cally acquainted  with  the  business,  with  whom  I  have  spoken,  seem  to  think,  however, 
that  in  a  good  congenial  soil  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  quintals  may  be 
obtained  from  a  fanega  (5,500  square  yards)  of  ground;  while  in  less  congenial  soils  tiie 
product  would  hai-dly  amount  to  one  hundred  quintals — perhaps  a  great  deal  less.* 

This  grass  seems  to  last  for  an  unlcnown  number  of  years,  so  that,  where  it  has  taken 
possession  of  the  soil,  it  becomes  a  perpetual  growth.  Thus,  in  any  soil  congenial  to  its 
growth,  the  atocha  is  self-propagating,  and  without  further  cultivation  or  attention  of 
any  sort  it  furnishes  a  never-ending  annual  crop  of  esjaarto. 

All  persons  with  whom  I  have  spoken  agree  that  the  esparto  improves  by  a  regular 
yearly  gathering,  and  that  the  plant  is  found  to  become  stronger  in  consequence.  But 
the  gathering  requires  some  little  care.  The  grass  (which  readily  separates)  must  bo 
phicked  up,  but  without  pulling  up  or  injuring  the  roots.  If  the  roots  be  disturbed,  as 
may  be  the  case,  by  careless  or  ignorant  people,  or  those  who  greedily  seek  to  increase 
their  wages  by  pulliug  up  the  entire  plant,  thus  augmenting  the  apparent  weight  of 
esparto  gathered,  the  atocha  is  destroyed,  and  no  more  grass  will  be  gathered  on,  that 
spot.  This  contingency,  however,  does  sometimes  happen  Irom  the  rapacity  of  the 
laborers  employed — their  payment  being  by  weight.  Tlie  necessity  of  providing  against 
such  wanton  destruction  will  be  evidSnt  enough  from  what  I  have  stated,  and  partic- 
ular caution  should  be  observed  in  this  respect  during  the  early  years  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  atocha  into  America,  and  while  the  propagation  of  the  gTass  may  still  be 
confined  to  veiy  few  localities. 

Eecently  official  inquiries  concerDing'  its  use  M  Great  Britain  have 
met  vi-ith  tlie  following-  response  from  tlie  United  States  consul  at  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne. England : 

United  States  Consulate,  Xewcastle-itpon-Tijne,  May  15, 1869. 

Sm :  According  to  your  request  I  have  instituted  inquiries  relative  to  the  possibility 
of  transplanting  the  esparto  grass  for  culture  to  America,  and  the  economy  of  its  use  in 
the  mannfactiue  of  paper. 

I  have  commt;nicated  with  Dr.  Hooker,  director  of  the  royal  gardens  at  Kew,  on  this 
subject,  and  with  Daniel  Oliver,  keeper  of  the  royal  herbarium,  both  of  whom  have 
responded  most  kindly.  I  have  also  received  communications  from  Spain  and  visited 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  successful  paper-mills  of  England,  where  the  esparto  grass 
is  exclusively  used.  There  are  important  points  of  information  that  I  have  not  yet 
received,  such  as  the  rain-fall,  degrees  of  heat  and  cold,  &c.,  of  the  best  esparto-producing 
disti-icts. 

The  soil  adapted  to  its  growth  is  a  very  sandy  soil,  and  slopes  or  hillsides  (not  too 
steep)  are  said  to  be  the  best,  in  a  warm  but  not  too  dry  climate. 

*  ilr.  BniT  exiwessos  a  doulit  as  to  the  correctness  of  this  estimate,  as  the  land  is  never  measured. 
Ten  or  more  tons  to  the  acre  ts  probably  an  excessive  estimate. 


266  AGEICULTUEAL   EEPORT. 

This  gras6  is  gathered  or  harvested  by  pulling,  not  by  the  rodts,  Uut  by  a  quick  jerk 
of  the  hand  to  disjoint  it  above  the  roots,  so  as  not  to  destroy  the  latter,  and  also  to 
avoid  a  uiLxtnre  of  the  hard,  woody  portion  of  the  plant,  which  would  have  to  be  sep- 
arated from  the  grass  before  suited  for  tise  at  the  paper-mill.  The  hands  must  be  pro- 
tected by  heavy  gloves,  as  the  glass  is  very  sharp.  Considerable  skiU  is  retjuired  In 
pulling  the  gnxss  without  destroying  the  roots.  K  properly  gathered,  there  is  ao  woody 
fiber  to  be  rejected  in  the  jirocess  of  manufacture. 

Tlvi  grass  is  ibied  just  as  hay  would  be,  and  bound  in  bundles  by  ropes  twisted  from 
the  grass  itself,  and  then  is  ready  for  the  paper-mill.  It  costs  from  §20  to  $:}0  per  ton 
in  England,  in  Spain  about  S5  less  per  ton.  Last  year  the  amount  imported  into  Eng- 
land was  yo,000  tons. 

The  ])rocoss  of  manufacturing  paper  from  this  grass  is  no  more  difiBcult  than  from 
rags,  and  far  more  pleasant;  no  infectious  or  contagious  diseases  or  poisonous  insects 
are  carried  by  it,  and  tbe  processes  are  so  similar,  except  in  the  amount  of  chemicals 
required,  that  a  description  is  almost  neeclless. 

I  have  been  thsough  the  works  of  Messrs.  "William  Hurry  and  Albert  Richardson,  at 
Jarrow-on-Tyne.  Durhaju  County,  England,  and  the^e  gentlemen  kindly  jioiuted  out 
all  the  steps  in  the  jirocess,  and  gave  mo  specimens  of  the  grass  and  paper.  They  i)ro- 
duce  thirty  tons  of  paper  per  week,  using  from  tifty  to  sixty  tons  of  es])arto  grass.  No 
ra^s  are  used.  The  average  cost  of  the  esparto  is  §25  per  ton.  The  machinery  is  pro- 
pelled by  a  one  hundred  horse-jtower  steam  engine.  Eighty-three  women  and  girls  are 
employed  in  sorting  and  boiling  the  glass  ;  fourteen  men  and  boys  in  washing  and  beat- 
ing; thirty  in  tinishing;  seventeen  on  machines  and  cutting;  eight  mecbanics;  six 
engineers  and  tireiaen  ;  and  ten  ordinary  laborers — one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  in  alL 
This  estimate  includes  the  manufacture  of  all  their  own  cliemicals. 

The  tirst  step  is  the  assorting  of  the  grass,  or  se]mratiug  it  from  roots,  weeds,  and 
flowers.  Fifty  girls  are  needed  for  this  part  of  tha  work.  The  grass  is  laid  upon  tables 
of  wire,  so  that  all  small  bits  of  dirt  or  leaves  may  fall  through  as  the  work  of  separa- 
tion goes  on.    The  loss  of  vreight  sustained  in  this  process  is  three  to  five  per  cent. 

The  grass  is  then  put  into  large  sacks  and  goes  below,  where  it  is  put  into  boQers. 
Formerly  the  boilers  were  open,  broad,  circular  vessels,  but  are  now  cylindrical  and 
closed,  so  that  a  pressuie  of  steam  of  twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds  to  the  square  inch 
can  be  given  to  add  to  the  effect  of  tbe  chemicals.  The  boiling  is  by  steam.  In  these 
boilers  ten  per  cent,  of  caustic  soda  (N.  0.  A.)  is  introduced ;  that  is,  ten  pounds  of 
caustic  soda  to  one  hunrlred  pounds  of  esparto  grass,  more  or  less  soda  according  to  the 
fineness  or  coarseness  of  the  grass  aud  tiie  time  given  in  boiling.  The  grass  Ls  boiled 
ordinarily  five  or  six  hours  in  the  soda,  being  kept  revohing  or  stirred  in  the  boiler. 
The  water  is  then  run  off  and  pure  water  supplied,  and  the  grass  again  boiled  for  about 
an  hour,  to  get  rid  of  the  resinous  soap  formed  in  the  first  boiling  by  the  gmn  of  the 
plant  uniting  with  the  soda.  It  is  further  washed  with  cold  water  and  then  dis- 
charged into  large  oval  tubs  or  vats,  aud  again  washed  with  pure  water.  Then  bleach- 
ing powder  is  added — two  to  two  and  a  half  hundred-weight,  containing  thirty-five  [ht 
cent,  of  chlorine,  (chloride  of  lime.)  to  a  ton  of  esparto.  It  is  revolved  in  three  bleach- 
ing tubs  till  white,  the  tubs  containing  500  pounds  to  1,000  ]-)ounds  each.  Four  to  eight 
hours  are  required  for  this  jirocess;  four  or  five  hours  will  be  sutUcient  unless  it  is 
thonirht  desirable  to  use  a  smaller  quantity  of  blCaching  powder.  The  fiber,  when  thus 
bleached  while,  is  pressed  to  free  it  from  the  bleaching  liquor,  and  then  placed  in  the 
beating  engines,  where  it  is  washed  for  half  an  hour  to  free  it  from  the  remaining  blt*ach- 
ing  li(inor,  aud  then  revolved  in  the  beating  engine  the  same  as  rags  are  treated,  until 
it  is  reduced  to  a  suOieiently  fine  pulp.  TUe  size,  alum,  and  color,  (when  color  or  toning 
is  required,)  are  added,  aud  the  i)ulp  is  run  off  into  vats  or  reservoirs  ready  for  use. 

In  reducing  the  pulp  to  paper,  my  attention  was  called  to  but  one  ]ioint  of  difficidty 
not  encountered  in  reducing  rag  pulp.  This  occurs  just  after  the  pulp  changes  from 
the  lifpiid  state  and  takes  the  sheet  form.  The  material  at  this  stage  is  less  tough  and 
tenacious  than  when  made  from  rags,  aud  the  ditheulty  is  in  getting  it  to  enter  tlie 
press-rollers.  But  a  little  management  and  oxiierience  overcomes  tho  dilliculty,  aud 
the  pai)ei-  when  linished  is  evon  stronger  than  tliat  made  from  rags. 

The  amount  of  jiajier  produced  is  fifty  to  fifty-five  per  cent,  of  tho  weight  of  the 
esparto  gra.ss  as  it  reaches  the  mill.  The  loss  of  weight  is  as  follows :  three  to  five  per 
cent,  roots,  weeds,  flowers,  &c. ;  twenty-five  per  cent,  extractive  matter  soluble  in  the 
cauatic  soda,  and  twenty  per  cent,  destruction  of  fiber  in  bleaching,  and  mechanical 
loss.  • 

All  qualities  of  paper  are  produced  except  the  very  thin  writing  paper,  which  may  be 
produced  with  a  little  more  mechanical  skill.  I  inclose  samples  of  the  paper  from 
Messrs.  Kicliardson  &  Co's.  mills.  No.  1  is  an  excellent  quality  of  white  printing  or 
book  jiapcr;  No.  2,  toned  printing  or  book  pajier;  No.  3,  account-book  paper;  No.  4,  a  speci- 
men of  the;  best  i)aper  that  could  be  made  from  esparto  grass  in  IdGO,  which  was  niana- 
factured  by  Kouthedge,  at  Eynsham,  Oxfordshire.  Messrs.  Richardson  used  a  uuxture 
of  rags  at  first,  which  can  be  done  in  any  pi  Mportion,  but  for  the  last  tluee  years  they 
have  used  only  esparto  grass.    They  procure  the  grass  from  the  east  coast  of  Spiuu,  iVow 


THE   ESPAETO   GRASS.    •  267 

Cartagena  to  Almeria ;  the  best  comes  from  Almeria.  Tliey  liave  used  a  little  from 
Morocco  anfl  Algiers,  but  it  required  more  soda  and  bleaching  powder,  auv'  never 
became  so  white  as  that  from  Spain.  The  esparto  grows  not  only  in  Spain  and  North 
Africa.,but  in  various  localities  along  the  Mediterranean,  in  Italy,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  &c., 
and  Portugal. 

But  the  question  which  most  of  all  interests  Americans  is  its  propagation  in  the 
United  States.  Dr.  Hooker  has  written  mo  that  he  has  no  doubt  but  that  the  esparto 
grass  would  thrive  in  the  United  States,  and  be  strongly  advises  that  the  introduction 
be  made  by  seed,  not  roots,  and  says  it  should  be  started  in  the  nursery  and  the  young 
plants  set  out  afterwards.  Mr.  Oliver,  who  is  also  one  of  the  best  botanists  in  this 
country,  thinks  one  of  the  two  species,  Liirjcum  sparUim,  (soft,)  being  a  creeping  rhizo- 
matous  grass,  might  be  transplauted  by  being  sent  over  in  Wardian  cases  well  rolled 
in  sand,  or  in  cases  tilled  with  sandy  soil  and  buried  in  nearly  piu"e  sand.  The  other 
species,  Macrochloa  teiiacmima,  is  sujiijosed  to  be  ciEspitose,  and  he  thinks  this  mode  of 
packing  might  not  suit  it  so  well.     He  also  recommends  trying  seed. 

If  the  Liigeum  sjiarfuvi  is  a  cvtioping  rhizoniatous  grass  it  would  be  likely  to  spread 
very  rapidly,  aud  once  rooted,  a  few  plants  woiild  soon  cover  a  large  tract  of  country 
I  send  you  some  samples  of  both  species  of  the  grass.  No.  1,  best  quality  of  grass, 
clean,  ready  for  use ;  No.  2,  specimen  taken  where  the  previoiis  crop  had  not  been 
gathered,  so  that  the  dead  grass  is  mixed  with  it,  but  the  latter  decomposes  and  dis- 
appears in  the  process  of  manufacture,  and  only  lessens  the  i)er  cent,  of  pai»er  per  ton  ; 
No.  3,  specimen  contains  butts  of  the  grass  and  roots  that  should  not  be  gathered  with 
the  grass,  also  some  heads  ;  No.  4,  the  same  of  the  other  spocics ;  No.  5,  wild  sage,  often 
found  growing  with  the  esparto. 

I  remain  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  W.  McCHESNEY. 

Hon.  Horace  C.vprox,  Commissioner. 

niPOETS  INTO  THIS   COUKTEY. 

Small  quantities  of  esparto  liave  been  brought  to  this  country.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  import  duties  are  practically  prohibitory,  other- 
wise large  quantities  "would  probably  be  used. 

In  18G-1  thirty-three  tons  "vvere  shipped  to  the  United  States  from  the 
port  of  ]\Ialaga.  The  following  extract  of  a  letter  from  the  lirm  of 
Loring  &  Co.,  of  Boston,  \vill  give  an  idea  of  the  value  of  this  hbcr  to  the 
country,  if  it  could  be  acclimated  here : 

Daring  the  years  18G3  and  18G4  we  were  induced  to  make  the  experiment  of  intro- 
ducing the  esparto  grass  as  a  material  for  makiug  jiaper,  aud  imported  between  three 
hundred  and  four  luiudred  tons.  We  found  it  admirably  suited  for  the  pin-poso,  but 
the  heavy  duty  imposed  on  it,  lijoper  ton.bei-anso  a  tiber,  and  ten  per  cent,  ad  valorem, 
and  the  increased  duties  on  the  chemicals  recpiired  for  its  conversion  into  pulp,  were 
greater  burdens  than  the  article  could  bear,  aud  we  were  coinpuUeil  to  abau<lon  the 
business.  The  consuiiiption  in  Great  Britain  has,  in  the  mean  time,  run  up  to  over 
seventy-five  thousand  tons  per  aninuu.  and  it  is  not  only  used  extensively  in  all  the 
white  paper  made,  but  likewise  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  jiapier  machd  aiticlea. 
Belgium  and  Franco  also  consume  it  extensively. 

IMPORTATION  OP  SEED. 

Attempts  to  obtain  seed  for  experiment  by  this  Department,  both 
from  Spain  and  the  seedsmen  of  Paris,  have  several  times  proved  abor- 
tive. At  last  a  small  quantity  has  been  obtained,  aud  will  bo  tested, 
"with  the  hope  of  ]iropagating  the  plant  successfully,  and  introducing  it 
among  the  light  hill  lands  aud  on  the  mountain  slopes  of  the  South. 
It  "was  obtained  of  Messrs.  Vilmorin,  Andreux  &  Co.,  of  Paris,  "who  thus 
refer  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  it: 

As  we  told  you  in  our  fomipr  letter,  seed  of  this  plant  is  not  in  commerce.  I\Iany 
times  we  tried  to  procure  it  both  in  Spain  and  in  Algeria,  but  always  were  informed 
that  it  does  not  yield  fertile  seed,  and  was  ])ro])agated  only  by  division  of  the  old 
plant,  some  Avay  sinular  to  the  propagation  of  sugar-cane,  and  it  is  by  a  mere  chance 
that  we  have  got  the  seed  we  have-forwarded  to  you.  A  friend  of  ours,  when  in  Sjiain 
some  ten  or  twelve  years  ago,  cut  some  of  the  Qower-stems  of  the  esparto  grass,  and  on 
his  return  to  Fi-ance  tried  to  sow  the  seeds  he  found  in  these  specimens,  and  a  very 
few  did  grow.  He  cultivated  carefully  the  young  plants,  but  all  the  seed  he  could  col- 
lect remaine<l  sterile;  ho  at  last  tried  aititieial  fecundation,  aud  succeeded  this  year  to 
a  certain  extent.  In  continuing  the  experiment,  he  has  been  able  to  collect  the  seeds 
we  have  got  this  year. 


THE  NUN  OF  YUCATAN. 


A  commauication  from  Dr.  Arthur  Scliott,  late  of  tlie  scieutific  com- 
mission of  Yucatan,  furnishes  some  descriptive  statements  concerning 
an  insect,  and  the  nature  and  uses  of  a  gTease-like  or  ^Yax-like  product, 
■vrith  the  result  of  a  chemical  examination  of  its  properties.  It  is 
assumed  to  be  allied  to  the  Coccus  cocJnnilUfer,  or  cochineal  insect,  yield- 
ing the  -well-known  dye  bearing  that  name  ;  but  no  specimens  have  yet 
been  received  in  the  JDepartment  for  examination  and  identification,  and 
therefore  its  real  place  in  the  classification  of  the  insect  kingdom  can- 
not be  vouched  for.  As  one  of  the  natural  productions  of  America, 
which  may  possibly  attain  some  commercial  importance  as  vrell  as 
economic  value  in  the  arts,  it  is  vrorthy  of  further  examination.  The 
following  is,  in  substance,  the  letter  of  Dr.  Schott : 

Among  the  numerous  interesting  natiu-al  irroductions  of  Yucatan, 
not  the  least  remarkable  is  the  niin,  (pronounced  neen,)  the  knowledge 
of  which,  and  of  its  technical  application,  has  survived  the  national 
independence  of  the  gifted  Maya  race.  The  niin  is  the  grease  of  an 
insect  bearing  the  same  generic  name.  Though  heretofore  not  entirely 
nnknown  to  their  Spanish  rulers  in  Yucatan,  the  obtaining  of  the  raw 
material,  as  well  as  its  uses  for  domestic  and  technical  purposes,  has 
remained  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  descendants  of  the 
Mayas.  The  niin  may  be  considered  akin  to  the  cocliineal,  also  the  X)ro- 
duct  of  a  similar  insect;  but  they  differ  essentially  in  their  natui-e,  one 
serving  as  a  well-known  dye,  while  the  other  finds  its  api^Ucation  as  a 
drying  oil. 

The  natnre  of  the  niin  ^ri]l  be  clearly  understood  by  the  annexed 
scientific  analysis,  made  and  communicated  by  Mr.  V.  G.  Bloede,  analyt- 
ical chemist,  of  Xew  York.  The  matter  examined  by  that  gentleman 
consisted  of  a  small  quantity  which  Dr.  Schott  brought  some  tune 
before  from  the  city  of  jMerida,  Yucatan,  vrhere  it  was  fui-nished  him 
by  the  kindness  of'  Selior  Don  Jose  Hont,  a  druggist  and  extensive 
land  proprietor  of  that  rich  peninsula.  Mr.  Bloede's  repoi?t  of  his  analy- 
sis is  as  follows : 

The  Yucatan  niin  is  a  ycllowisli-brown,  fatty  mass,  liaving  a  iieculiar  oily  odor.  In 
its  general  ]»iopertie3  it  seems  closely  alUed  to  liog's  lard  or  suet.  It  is  neuti'al  to  test- 
paper,  neitlier  presenting  acid  nor  alkaline  reaction,  though  Avhen  exposed  to  the  air 
it  acquires  a  very  faint  tendency  to  manifest  the  former.  Its  melting  point  is  about 
120'^  Fahrenheit,' though,  -when  once  melted,  it  still  remains  in  a  semi-lluid  state  with 
the  tempeiaturc  as  low  as  80-^  or  85^  Fahrenheit.  When  cooled  to  10'^  Fahrenheit,  it 
becomes  liard  and  brittle,  like  suet.  At  ordinary  temperature,  that  is,  about  GO^ 
Fahrenheit,  it  is  of  a  thick,  pasty  consistency,  like  ordinary  lard.  Its  specific  gravity 
at  GU-^  Fahrenheit  is  about  .'J2. 

ItK  solvents. — In  regard  to  solvents,  the  niin  x>resents  the  same  general  properties  as 
any  ordinary  animal  fat.  It  is  not  soluble  in  either  hot  or  cokl  alcohol,  even  after 
extended  maceration.  It  is  freely  soluble  in  both  hot  and  cold  ether,  with  which  it 
forms  a  yellow,  oily  licjuid.  It  is  very  soluble  in  turpentine,  with  vrhich  it  forms  an 
oily  liquid  possessing  iJcculiarly  valualjlo  properties  for  mixing  delicate  oil  colors,  ot 
which  I  shall  speak  hereafter.  It  dissolves  Ireely  in  benzine ;  chloroform,  also,  is  among 
its  best  solvents. 

Chomkal  jiropcrticn.—Tha  niin,  in  its  classification  in  organic  chemistry,  must  undoubt- 
edly bo  ranked  among  the  drying  oils,  though  its  absorption  of  oxygen  takes  place 
rather  more  slowly  than  with  many  other  oils.  Nor  is  this  slowness  in  drying  acceler- 
ated to  any  extent  by  boiling  it  with  oxide  of  lead.  It  is  the  first,  or  nearly  tlio  first, 
example  v.e  have  of  a  thoroughly  drying  animal  butter  or  solid  fat.    Like  some  others 


NnX    OF   YUCATAN.  269 

of  the  animal  fats,  it  (Contains  a  distinct  volatile  acid  peculiar  to  itself.  As,  for  instance, 
butter  contains  butyric  and  caproic  acid ;  goat's  fat  hiioic  acid ;  so  the  niin  contains 
an  acid  of  a  peculiar,  pungent  smell,  which  might  be  aptly  terined  niinic  a-cid.  Its 
chemical  composition  fliflers  little  from  ordinary  animal  fats.  Like  others,  it  contains 
a  fluid  oil— oleine — and  a  solid  containing  stearic,  margaric,  and  other  fatty  acids.  A 
portion  of  the  acids  may  be  obtained  by  dissolving  the  niin  in  tiiq>entine  or  ether. 
The  oily  portions  pass  into  solution,  ■svliile  a  solid  precipitates,  consisting  of  the  acids 
indicated,  which  may  bo  separated  from  the  fluid  by  filtration. 

Saponification. — A  peculiarity  of  the  niin  seems  to  be  its  diflicult  saponification.  The 
strongest  ammonia  procurable  has  no  saponifying  action  on  it.  Even  if  the  fat  be 
digested  in  ammonia  for  several  days,  no  liniment  is  formed,  but  a  marked  transition 
from  yellow  to  red  seems  to  be  the  only  change  prodiiced.  This  change  of  color 
depends  merely  on  the  action  of  ammonia  on  the  coloring  matter  of  the  niin,  which, 
like  the  yellow  turmeric,  (Curcuma  longa,)  changes  to  red  as  it  assumes  an  alkaline 
reaction. 

With  potash,  too,  it  saponifies  but  slowly  and  imperfectly,  and  a  concentrated  Irre  is 
necessarj-.  ^Yith  soda  it  forms  a  soap  only  after  extended  boiling  with  a  strong  lye. 
It  is  only  after  several  hours'  boiling  with  oxide  of  lead  that  it  forms  the  so-called 
'•  lead  soap,"  and  then  the  product  is  very  imperfect.  From  these  facts  we  can  at  onco 
deduce  that  the. niin  cannot  be  coBsidered  a  '"good  saponifying  fat,"  but  belongs  to  the 
"  drying  oils. " 

Effects  of  high  heat. — When  the  niin  is  melted  in  a  porcelain  dish,  and  the  resijjting 
oil  exposed  to  continued  and  high  heat  (between  250'^  and  350^  Fahrenheit)  for  an 
hour,  or  until  a  considerable  portion  of  it  has  evaporated,  the  residue  in  the  dish  will 
then  be  found  to  have  assumed  a  tough,  flexible,  vamish-like  condition — a  gelatinous 
mass  no  longer  soluble  in  turpentine,  or  aflected  by  heat  or  cold,  at  least  to  a  great 
extent. 

If  a  piece  of  this  gelatinized  niin  is  placed  on  a  piece  of  porcelain,  moistened  with 
turpentine,  and  ignited,  another  remarkable  change  takes  place :  for,  if  the  plate  is 
slightly  inclined  as  the  mass  bums,  a  thick  yellow  resinous  oil  or  gum  flows  from  it, 
which  possesses  most  remarkable  adhesiveness,  closely  resembling  a  thick  solution  of 
India-rubber,  but  which  does  not  dry,  retaining  its  half-fluid  consistency  for  several  days. 
This  is  a  most  singular  change,  and  one  that  is  worthy  of  further  investigation. 

Change  of  air. — When  the  turpentine  solution  of  the  niin  is  exposed  to  the  airjn  thin 
stratas  for  a  few  days  it  acquires  the  properties  of  a  resinous  varnish ;  in  £ict,  the 
change  is  so  complete  that  when  some  of  the  solution  is  poured  on  a  piece  of  glass  it 
dries  almost  equal  to  fine  shellac  varnish.  This  change  is  due  to  the  absorption  of 
oxygen.  If  further  developed,  this  property  will  undoubtedly  make  the  niin  of  the 
greatest  commercial  value.  The  ftlTn  of  varnish  is  very  elastic,  and  at  the  same  time 
hard,  which  renders  it  sux^erior  to  some  of  the  other  gums.  An  alcoholic  solution  can 
also  be  formed,  but  this  is  more  difficult. 

Suggestions  as  to  use. — The  extreme  oiliness  of  the  niin  will  undoubtedly -make  it  very 
valuable  for  various  purposes  in  the  arts ;  and  its  "  drying"  solution  in  turpentine  has 
no  equal  for  mixing  tine  colors  for  artists.  This  turpentine  solution  of  the  niin  pro- 
duces a  remarkable  brightness  in  the  colors  prepared  'with  it,  and  they  dry  rapidly. 
But  the  chief  value  of  the  niin,  which  will  give  it  commercial  importance,  is  its  prop- 
erty of  fonning  a  resinous  varnish  when  treated  as  before  described,  rendering  it 
superior  to  shellac  for  some  purposes.  Another  valuable  application  of  the  niin  could 
be  found  in  the  manufacture  of  water-proof  fabrics.  A  piece  of  the  most  porous  Swe- 
dish filtering  paper,  saturated  with  a  solution  of  the  niin  diluted  in  tui-pentine,  will  not 
allow  a  drop  of  water  to  pass  through,  even  after  standing  in  it  for  days.  An  excellent 
way  of  water-proofing  would  be  to  saturate  the  article  with  melted  niin.  and  then 
expose  it  in  an  oven  to  considerable  heat  until  the  grease  gelatinizes.  By  these  means 
the  niin  becomes  insoluble  not  only  in  water,  but  also  in  most  of  its  solvents.  K  the 
niin  can  be  obtained,  as  Dr.  Schott  says,  in  "unlimited"  quantities,  it  will,  doubtless, 
in  time  become  of  great  commercial  value. 

I  have  given  here  but  a  few  of  the  most  important  facts  developed  by  my  experi- 
ments :  but  I  believe  there  would  he  hundreds  of  other  applications  suggested,  if  the 
general  properties  of  the  substance  were  made  known.    With  hopes  that  the  niin  will 
prove  of  value,  hoth  in  art  and  science, 
I  remain  yours,  &c., 

^^CTOS  G.  BLOEDE,  Analytical  Chemist. 

Brooklyis,  January  4, 1868. 

The  Maya  "word  niin  applies  not  solely  to  the  grease  above  referred  to, 
but  also  to  the  insect  fi-om  which  it  is  obtained.  As  far  as  observations 
go,  the  latter  entomologically  belongs  to  the  lower  species  of  Senuptero, 
genus  Coccus,  vhere  we  find  it  associated  with  the  well-known  cochi- 
neal, {.Coccus  cGchiniUifcr,)  and  also  with  the  South  Asiatic  Coccus  lacca. 


270  AGEICrLTUEAL   EEPOBT. 

With  this  it  seems  to  have  still  closer  affinities,  for  this  lac  insect  princi- 
pally lives  on  an  euphorbiaceous plant,  {Aleiirites  laccifera,  or  triloba,)  and 
also  on  the  banyan  tree,  {Ficus  Indic<i,)  upon  which  it  prodnces*  the  gum 
lacca  of  commerce.  The  life  of  the  uiin.  on  the  other  hand,  seems  to  be 
exclusively  wedded  to  the  anacardiaceous  genus,  Spondias,  (which  em- 
braces the  mango  fmit  tree,  the  hog  plum  of  the  AVest  Indies.  &e.)  of 
which  one  or  two  species  arc  extensively  cultivated  all  over  the  tropical 
regions  of  this  continent,  and  the  adjacent  archii>elago  of  the  We«t 
Indies.  Thus  both  insects,  the  one  of  Asia  and  the  other  of  America, 
besides  producing  somewhat  similar  articles  of  commerce,  ofier  in  com- 
mon the  advantage  of  living  on  plants  which  are  otherwise  useful,  and 
cultivated  for  the  sake  of  their  fraits;  a  circumstance  which  in\ites 
more  readily  the  propagation  of  an  almost  imlimited  number  of  these 
respective  foster  plants.  The  cultivation  of  the  Sjjondias,  called  by  the 
Spanish  cinieh,  and  by  the  3Iayas  ahal,  and  probably  refemble  to  the 
species  Mombtu.  is  by  nature  made  so  easy  that  even  thick  cuttings 
geraiinate  quickly  in  almost  any  soil.  The  gum,  exuding  spoutaneou^y 
from  the  stem  and  branches  of  the  ciruelo,  is  often  used  in  Yucatan  as 
an  equivalent  for  gum  arabic,  while,  by  the  instrumentality  of  the  niin 
insect,  (j.  c,  by  animalizatiou.)  it  becomes  a  resinous  drying  oil,  insola- 
able  in  water  or  alcohol,  hot  or  cold. 

The  gathering  of  the  niin  insect  and  obtaining  its  grease  presents 
no  difficulty  whatever,  as  children  even  can  be  intrusted  with  it.  The 
grease  is  obtained  by  broiling  or  boiling  the  insects,  during  which  pro- 
cess it  can  be  readily  taken  otit".    Dr.  8.  says: 

'•  ]^Jy  acquaintance  with  the  niin  insect  having  been  but  cursory, 
does  Kot  permit  me  to  give  a  scientific  descrii)tion  of  it.  2so  winged 
specimens  have  come  under  my  notice,  and  I  suppose,  therefore,  that 
only  females  were  observed.  These  are  about  one  inch  long,  with  a 
cross  diameter  of  about  oue-foui'th  of  an  inch.  Their  color  varies  from 
a  somewhat  pellucid  chi'ome  yellow  to  rich  orange,  though  subdued  b\ 
a  closely  adhering  coat  of  fine,  silky,  white  web,  in  which  they  art 
thiekly  enshrouded,  and  which  appears  to  serve  as  a  soft  protecting 
cocoon,  much  like  that  of  the  cochineal  insect.  The  aspect  of  a  uiin 
colony  on  the  twigs  and  Ui'anch  tops  of  the  cirnelo  has,  therefore,  much 
similarity  to  that  which  I  have  often  observed  of  certain  species  of  opun- 
tia  (prickly  pear)  on  which  cochineal  insects  were  li\ing.  The  plants, 
especially  their  upper  iiarts,  look  as  if  covered  by  a  heavy  deposit  ot 
mildew. 

"  The  principal  crop  of  the  niin  insect  falls  in  the  rainy  season,  t.  c, 
between  the  months  of  April  and  September,  during  which  time  its 
principal  growth  and  development  are  dprived  from  the  foster-plant, 

"xVs  to  the  uses  for  which  the  niin  grease  might  be  employed  in  art 
and  science  a  wide  field  for  speculation  may  be  oi>ened,  as  Mr.  Bloede, 
in  his  analysis,  has  already  indicated.  The  Indians  and  Mestizos  of  the 
peninsula,  especially  the  inhaliitauts  of  one  or  two  villages  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Yzmcl,  have  heretofore  almost  exclusively  used  it  to  mix  the  paints 
employed  in  adorning  small  articles  of  household  use,  such  as  bowls  and 
drinking-cups  made  li'om  the  halves  of  the  globular  finiit  of  the  calabash 
tree,  {Crcscajtia  cujetc.)  and  in  preparing  a  varnish  for  those  and  other 
articles.  This  use  of  the  niin  gi^e-ase,  hovrever,  seems  not  to  be  confined 
alone  to  Yucatan,  but  is  met  with  in  other  parts  of  tropical  America.  I 
was  told  that  the  Indiiins  and  half-breed  population  in  the  vicinity  of 
Vera  Cruz  excel  the  Mayas  in  the  skill  and  taste  they  exhibit  in  the  use 
of  this  aiticlc  in  adorning  drinking-cups  and  other  trinkets,  both  inside 
and  out.    lYom  these  modest  articles  of  Indian  finerv  it  would  be  a 


NITS'   OF   YUCATAN.  271 

short  step  only  to  the  maniifacmre  of  crockery,  made  of  papier  mache, 
similar  to  the  admirable  tea-cups,  bowls,  and  other  dishes  of  the  Japanese, 
employiag-  the  niiu  varnish,  which  endures  for  any  leng^th  of  time  the 
effects  of  hot  or  cold  water  and  of  alcohol,  to  give  a  protecting  and  x^re 
serving  finish  and  beauty. 

••  Besides  the  uses  of  the  niin  already  mentioned,  it  is  also  kept  as  a 
drug  in  the  apothecary  shops  of  Yucatan,  where  it  is  held  for  surgical 
piu'i:)oses  and  general  external  use  instead  of  other  drying  oils,  like  that 
of  linseed  for  preparing  \'ulnerary  plasters  and  cerates  in  general. 

'•There  is  hardly  room  for  doubt  that  the  niin  coidd  be  procured  in 
siifiacient  quantity  for  commercial  demands.  The  breeding  of  the  insect 
producing  the  article  depends  entirely  on  the  multiplication  of  a  fruit 
tree  which  is  already  under  extensive  cultivation  all  over  the  ti'opics 
of  this  continent  and  adjacent  islands ;  localities  the  gTcater  part  of 
which  is  easily  accessible  to  maritime  commerce.  T\'ithin  the  si)ace  of 
a  few  years  a  steady  enterprise  would  establish  a  fixed  market  price  for 
the  niin.  so  that  women  and  children,  and  in  fact  the  whole  popula- 
tion, would  contribute  in  the  collection  of  the  insect  or  the  oil  itself,  as 
soon  as  they  could  rely  upon  a  just  exchangeable  return  for  their  labor." 


STATISTICS  OF  BEE-KEEPING. 


The  business  of  bee-keeping  bas  always  been  deemed  an  interesting 
and  profitable  braneb  of  rural  effort ;  it  is  even  assuming  national  im- 
portance as  a  contribution  to  the  food  supply  of  an  increasing  popula- 
tion. It  is  also  eminently  Tvori:hy  of  fostering  attention,  as  a  means  of 
agreeable,  healthy,  and  profitable  employment  for  women  dependent 
upon  their  own  exertions  for  a  living,  or  ambitious  of  a  business  career 
suited  to  their  tastes  and  to  their  physical  stien  gth.  To  ascertain  the  con- 
dition of  bee-keeping,  to  learn  of  its  progress,  and  collect  at  least  frag- 
mentary statistics  of  the  business,  the  foUowing  inquiries  were  made  ot 
bee-keepers  in  all  parts  of  the  country: 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  many  hives  of  bees  are  there  in  your  county  ? 

2.  Did  your  stock  originat/e  from  native  wild  bees,  or  from  swarms 
intioduced  from  other  sections  ? 

3.  Have  Italian  bees  been  intioduced  into  your  county  ! 

4.  Are  Italian  bees  found  to  be  more  docile,  or  more  productive,  than 
other  bees  ? 

5.  Of  what  form  and  material  are  your  hives :  movable  frames,  com- 
mon boxes,  stiaw,  or  ''gums  -'  ? 

6.  If  patented,  whose  patent  is  preferred  ? 

7.  ^hat  is  the  average  product  in  honey  and  wax,  and  the  average 
price  per  pound,  one  season  with  another  ? 

8.  "Were  swarms  abundant  as  usual  last  spring  ? 

9.  From  what  plants  do  your  bees  procure  their  food  in  spriijg.  in 
summer,  in  autumn  ?  and  is  any  crop  grown  mainly  for  the  use  of  bees  ? 

10.  Is  the  disease  called  foid  brood  prevalent  among  your  bees  ?  If 
so,  has  any  remedy  or  preventive  been  found  ? 

11.  Axe  your  bees  usually  wintered  on  their  summer  stands  ?  K  so, 
what  means  of  protection  are  adopted  ? 

12.  Please  give  instances  showing  pecuniary-  returns,  cost,  and  net 
profit  of  bee-keeping. 

In  1850,  the  amount  of  honey  and  wax  reported  in  the  census  returns 
Avas  14,853,790  pounds;  in  iSGO,  23,366,357  pounds  of  h6ney,  and 
1,322,787  pounds  of  wax.  Xew  York  stood  at  the  head  of  the  list,  witli 
2,369^751  pounds;  and  niae  other  States  are  credited  with  more  than  a 
mUiion  pounds  each,  in  the  following  order  :  Xorth  Carolina,  2,055.969 : 
Kentnckv,  1,768,692;  Missouri,  1,585,983;  Tennessee,  1,519,390;  Ohio, 
1,459,601;  Virginia,  1,431,591;  Pennsylvania,  1,402,128;  Illinois,  1,346,803 : 
Indiana,  1,224,489. 

The  statistical  census  of  1860  returned,  from  Massachusetts,  59,125 
pounds  of  honey;  the  State  census  of  1865  gave  80,356  pounds,  Talued 
at  $23,224— about  29  cents  per  pound. 

The  census  of  1860  gives  Iowa  917,877  pounds;  the  local  returns  of 
1865  made  an  aggregate  of  1,128,399  potmds,  from  87,118  hives  of  bees. 
This  gives  an  average  of  surplus  honey  to  each  hive  of  about  thirteen 
pounds. 

The  circulars  were  sent  to  known  apiarians  in  neariy  every  State,  and 
returns  were  received  from  fotir  hundred  and  eighty -nine  counties,  in 


STATISTICS    OF    BEE    KEEPING. 


273 


tliirty-two  States.  The  aggregate  number  of  hives  reported,  was  722,385. 
At  the  same  ratio  for  the  unreported  counties,  the  aggregate  for  the 
country  woukl  be  nearly  three  millions  of  hives.  But  reports  have  un- 
doubtedly come  from  counties  having  somewhat  more  than  any  average 
population,  including  many  in  which  special  attention  has  been  paid 
to  bee  cultiu'e;  and  a  careful  estimate  shoidd  therefore  place  the 
total  number  of  hives  at  a  lower  figure.  Two  millions  would  be  as  low 
as  these  retiu-ns  appear  to  warrant.  This  is  but  one  to  every  twenty  of 
the  present  total  population,  while  the  assessors'  returns  of  Iowa — the 
only  official  statement  for  comparison — ^present  a  ratio  of  one  hive  to 
ten  of  the  population. 

Estimating  the  total  number  of  hives  at  two  millions,  and  the  surplus 
honey  taken  at  only  fifteen  pounds  per  hive,  (which  is  but  two-thirds  of 
the  average  reported.)  the  value  of  honey  annually  i>roduced  in  the  United 
States,  at  the  average  valuation  of  t-^entj'-five  cents  per  pound,  would  be 
87,500,000.  AVere  a  rational  system  of  bee-keeping  in  use,  crops  culti- 
vated for  bee  pasturage,  and  the  bees  carefully  Avintered,  this  amoimt 
could  easily  be  increased.  The  profits  arising  fi'om  the  sale  of  sm7)lus 
honey  averages  from  fifty  to  two  hundi-ed  j)er  cent,  of  the  caj)ital 
invested.  The  middle,  northern,  and  southern  States  are  particularly 
adapted  to  profitable  bee-keeping. 

The  following  table  i^resents  in  detail  some  of  the  more  important 
points  furnished  in  l^ese  returns : 


States. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

Connecticut 

Delaware. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Iowa 

Indiana 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Maisachnsetts. . 

Jlichigaa 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina. 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania. . . 
Rhode  Island... 
South  Carolina. 

Tennessee 

Texas „ 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West  Virginia.. 
Wisconsin 


18 


18 

11 

12 

42 

5 

4 

14 

34 

32 

25 

1 

2 

23 

13 

8 

18 

12 

26 


18,100 

4,100 

3,900 

1,500 

3,800 

13,215 

53,  (K5 

29, 144 

34,2.15 

1,530 

31,050 

7,100 

7,800 

9,040 

24, 441 

11,300 

14,950 

36,925 

'5,150 

3,870 

61,328 

77,553 

81,475 

62,690 

800 

5,500 

27,600 

22, 240 

15, 140 

17,900 

14.100 

32,864 


6c 


Product. 


Honey. 


1  county. 

No. 

Yes. 


12  counties. 
16  counties, 
11  counties. 
2  counties. 

2  counties. 

1  parish. 

3  counties. 

7  counties. 
9  counties. 
6  counties. 

10  counties. 
3  counties. 

2  counties. 

8  counties. 
1  county. 

23  counties. 
15  counties. 


2  counties. 
2  counties. 
7  countie.s. 

2  counties. 

3  counties. 
18  counties. 


21 
23 
50 
5 
23.5 
23 
25.8 
35.8 
20 
41 

25.6 
21 

25.3 
27.6 
30.9 
23 
19.1 
24.3 
17 

4a  3 

21.8 

16 

16.9 

22 

10 

18.8 

26.5 

44.3 

21.5 

22 

23 

26.8 


Cts. 

17 

15.6 

.38.7 

35 

17 

17 

25 

23 

22 

30 

21 

27.6 

24.6 

29.8 

23 

27 

14.8 

21.3 

29.6 

29.5 

20.5 

17.6 

24.7 

30 

39 

18.8 

19.5 

31 

26.2 

22 

20 

26 

20.5 


Cts. 
25.7 
22.6 
60 


32 
40 
30.5 


33.3 

48 

28 

36 

21 

21.3 

40 


32 
26.4 
30 
34 


25 

31.5 

21.8 

39 

45 

28 

i  3a5 


274  AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

The  reports  show  that  in  the  southern  States,  where  bee-keeping  is  in 
its  primitive  state,  it  would  yield,  if  properly  conducted,  the  largest 
return.  The  abundance  of  \nld  plants  yielding  honey,  the  long  seasons, 
and  mild  cUmate  there  are  all  very  favorable  to  protitable  bee-keeping. 

The  chief  expense  of  an  apiaiy  in  starting  is  the  cost  of  the  hives. 
When  these  are  procured  they  form  a  permanent  capital ;  the  hive  will 
last  for  years.  13ee-keeping  will  be  found  profitable  only  to  those  who 
engage  in  it  largely,  but  both  profitable  and  interesting  to  any  per- 
son ha\iug  room  sufficient  even  for  one  hive.  He  can  supply  his  table 
all.  the  year  with  honey,  and  find  in  the  nature  and  workings  of  these  little 
insects'  subjects  for  most  interesting  study  and  critical  investigation. 

HIVES. 

The  common  box  hive  is  the  one  most  generally  used.  It  is  usually 
made  of  one-and-a-half-inch  pine  boards,  though  other  materials  are  used, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  maker  or  the  cost  of  the  material.  The 
si2e  of  the  hive  varies  much,  but  generally  contains  two  hundred  cubic 
inches,  with  cross-bars  placed  in  the  center  to  aid  in  supporting  the 
combs.  In  general,  they  are  simple  boxes.  This  form  is  varied  at  times, 
however,  by  placing  oii  the  top  of  the  hive  drawers  or  boxes  for  sui'plus 
honey.  In  these  hives  the  bees  are  left  to  take  care  of  themselves,  as 
very  little  can  be  done  to  aid  them.  The  old-fiishiojied  basket  or  straw 
hive  is  seldom  used,  and  it  wUl  soon  be  wholly  discarded,  save  by  a  few 
bee-keepers,  who  may  retain  it  rather  as  a  cimosity  than  for  any  practi- 
cal use. 

In  the  southern  States  the  favorite  form  of  hive  is  the  "  giun."  This 
consists  of  a  hoUow  log.  generally  a  portion  of  a  c\in-ess  stump,  about 
two  feet  in  length  and  a  foot  in  diameter :  upon  the  top  of  the  hoUow  is 
placed  a  board,  and  at  the  bottom  is  cut  a  small  notch  for  the  entrance 
of  the  bees,  and  the  hive  is  complete.  Three-fourths  of  the  hives  in 
these  States  are  of  this  description.  This  form  of  hive  served  the  pur- 
pose before  the  appearance  of  the  moth  and  foul-brood,  but  no  reliance 
can  now  be  placed  upon  it.  K  the  moth  is  gaining  the  upper  hand,  foul- 
brood  raging,  honey  supply  low.  or  queen  lost,  there  is  no  remedy — the 
bees  must  perish.  '  The  do-nothing  system  in  bee-keeping,  as  in  other 
branches  of  agricultui'e,  will  lead  to  the  ruin  of  the  bee-keeper.  Those 
apiarians  who  use  the  movable-comb  hive  and  a  scientific  method  of  bee- 
keeping have  been  the  most  successful. 

The  reports  show  that  tbe  movable-comb  hive  of  the  Eev.  L.  L.  Lang- 
stroth  is  generally  preferred  by  the  bee-keepers  of  the  United  States. 
The  Bee-keepers'  Association  oi"  Tennessee,  at  theii^  recent  convention, 
by  a  unanimous  vote  gave  this  hive  the  preference  over  all  other  forms. 
Patent  hives  have  been  the  curse  of  bee-keeping  in  this  country.  Many 
of  the  reports  say  that  the  bee-keepers  in  their  Aicinity  have  abandoned 
all  manner  and  style  of  patent  hives  and  gone  back  to  the  plain  box  and 
rude  '"gum." 

Patent  bee-palaces,  moth-traps,  and  self-di\'iders  have  done  as  much 
as  the  bee-moth,  perhaps  more,  to  hinder  the  progTCSS  of  bee-culture  in 
this  country.  That  hive  only  can  claim  superiority'  over  the  common 
box  which  permits  the  bee-keeper  to  have  ready  access  to  every  portion 
of  the  hive,  allows  the  transfer  of  frames  from  one  hive  to  another,  will 
winter  bees  well,  is  not  complicated  in  its  structure,  and  is  not  expensive. 

The  movable-comb  hive  is  used  by  abont  one-fourth  of  the  bee-keepers 
of  the  country,  and  its  introduction  is  rapidly  exteudhig.  "^Vlienever  its 
use  becomes  general,  bee-keeping  will  become  profitable. 


STATISTICS   OF   BEE   KEEPING.  275 


HOKEY. 


The  returns  of  the  yield  of  honey  are  very  imperfect,  as  few  bee-keepeis 
have  kept  an  account  of  the  yiekl  of  their  hives.  The  product  of  the 
past  season  has  been  less  than  usual.  The  late  spring  and  frost,  and  the 
scorching  heat  of  the  summer,  ruined  the  forage  of  the  bees,  and  many 
colonies  were  unable  to  obtain  honey  sufficient  for  their  winter  supply, 
and,  unless  fed  during  the  winter,  will  perish.  This  has  been  the  case 
principally  with  the  black  bees.  The  Italians,  notwithstanding  the 
unfavorable  season,  were  able  to  gather  a  supply  of  honey  sufficient  for 
themselves  and  to  yield  theu*  owners  a  small  surplus.  The  average  jield 
of  honey  throughout  the  United  States,  is  22.8  pounds  per  hive.  The 
average  price  is  twenty  to  twenty-five  cents  per  pound.  Honey  for  mar- 
ket purposes  is  generally  stored  in  small  boxes  or  supers,  about  five  inches 
square.  This  brings  the  highest  market  price.  The  honej^comb  taken 
fi'om  the  common  box  hive  or  "gum"  is  necessarily  in  a  broken  condi- 
tion, and  does  not  present  to  the  purchaser  so  clean  and  inviting  an 
appearance,  and  hence  commands  a  lower  -pviee. 

Twenty  pounds  of  lioney  being  required  to  make  one  pound  of  wax, 
the  economy  of  saving  and  utilizing  combs  is  rendered  evident.  In  order 
to  accomplish  this  saving,  a  honey-emptying  machine  has  been  invented, 
and  has  now  been  so  simplified  in  its  construction  that  it  is  within  the 
reach  of  aU.  By  this  machine  honey  is  emptied,  by  centrifugal  motion, 
out  of  the  combs,  leaving  them  in  a  sound  condition,  so  that  they  may 
be  inserted  again,  and  used  for  years  in  succession,  thus  effecting  a  great 
saving  in  the  consumi^tion  of  honey,  and  giving  the  market  a  purer  article 
than  when  rendered  by  heat. 

The  reports  upon  the  production  of  wax  are  still  more  imperfect  than 
those  on  honey.  The  yield  is  principally  derived  from  hives  that  are 
"  brimstoned"  in  the  fall,  or  from  old  combs  that  are  unfit  for  use.  The 
demand  for  wax  is  always  greater  than  the  sux^ply,  especially  in  regard 
to  bleached  wax,  and  it  always  commands  a  good  price.  Little  or  no 
attention  has  been  given  to  this  branch  of  agricidture. 

The  provident  economy  of  the  German  makes  this  apparently  trivial 
item  yield  a  good  retium.  The  German  apiarian  never  goes  to  his  hives 
without  having  by  him  a  small  box  or  dish  in  which  he  carefully  depos- 
its every  particle  of  wax,  however  small,  which  may  be  taken  from  the 
hives,  and  also  aU  the  droppings.  Thus,  at  the  end  of  the  season,  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  wax  has  been  saved,  which  in  this  coimtry  is  not 
only  wasted  but  permitted  to  lie  about  the  apiary  and  become  the  breed- 
ing place  of  moths  and  a  source  of  foul-brood.  The  bee-keepers  of 
America  should  profit  by  this  hint,  and  avert  injury  and  loss.  Tlie  aver- 
age price  is  thirty  cents  per  iDound. 

WINTEEING  BEES. 

Nine-tenths  of  the  bee-keepers  of  the  United  States  pay  no  attention 
whatever  to  winteriug  their  bees.  The  hives  are  permitted  to  remain  on 
their  summer  stands,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  a  slight  shed  for  a 
covering.  They  are  thus  exposed  to  ail  the  variations  of  temperature 
and  the  inclemency  of  the  weather.  The  result  of  this  neglect  is  that 
manj^  hives  perish  annually,  and  those  that  siuwive  are  so  weakened  that 
they  are  unable  to  recruit  till  the  honey  season  is  passed. 

To  make  bee-hiving  successful,  it  is  necessary  to  have  strong  swarms 
early  in  spring.  This  result  can  be  obtained  only  by  carefid  and  judi- 
cious wintering.    The  object  sought  in  wintering  bees  is  to  maintain  in 


276  AGRICULTUEAL  REPORT. 

the  hive  throughout  the  vrinter  a  uniform  temperature,  which  will  keep 
the  l3ees  in  a  continuous  semi-dormant  state.  This  uniformity  of  tem- 
perature is  obtained  in  several  difierent  ways— by  protecting  the  hives 
on  their  summer  stands,  or  by  removing  them  to  rooms  or  places  prepared 
for  them.    Hives  may  l>e  prcitected  on  their  summer  stands — 

First.  By  plastering  up  aUthe  cracks  and  oix'nings,  except  the  entrance, 
with  mortar  and  surrounding  the  sides  of  the  hives  with  straw.  This 
can  be  done  only  with  common  Ijoxes  or  gums. 

Second-  By  placing  the  hives  in  a  shed,  closed  on  all  sides  except  the 
firont,  where  the  coveiing  extends  to  within  three  feet  of  the  ground.  A 
correspondent  in  Pennsylvania  states  that  he  has  wintered  successfully 
Lu  this  manner  one  hundred  colonies. 

Third.  By  siurounding  the  hive  with  a  dead-air  space,  thus  prevent- 
ing outside' influence.  A  frame  of  light  boards  is  made  to  surmount  the 
hive  on  its  four  sides,  leaving  an  inch  or  more  space  between  the  hive 
and  frame,  which  space  is  fOlwl  with  some  good  non-conducting  material, 
as  sawdust,  dry  leaves,  &:c.  The  honey -lx»ard  is  removed  and  straw  or 
corn-cobs  i>laced  on  the  combs  beneath  the  cap.  This  plan  has  been  sue- 
cessftdly  adopted  by  a  num1>er  of  bee-keepers. 

Some'  apiarians  winter  their  bees  with  considerable  success  on  their 
summer  stands,  by  simply  giving  them  thorough  ventilation.  Mr.  John 
T.  Eose.  of  Petersburg.  3ionroe  county,  Michigan,  says  in  regard  to  this 
method:  ••  I  winter  them  on  their  summer  stands,  and  seldom  lose  a 
swarm.  I  lx)re  in  the  side  of  the  frame  hive  an  inch  hole,  three  inches 
from  the  top.  in  the  middle  of  the  hive  lengthwise,  and  worm  an  inch- 
square  stick  through  the  combs  for  winter  passages ;  make  a  frame  the 
size  of  my  hive,  three  inches  deep,  without  top  or  bottom,  remove  the 
honey-lx)ard,  and  set  the  frame  on  the  top  of  the  hive,  and  fill  it  with  dry 
corncobs ;  put  on  the  cap,  and  they  are  safe." 

The  plan  which  has  proved  most  successful  and  economical  is  that  oi 
wintering  bees  in  a  room  or  cellar  prepared  for  the  pmpose.  The  apart- 
ment must  l3e  dark,  diy.  and  of  a  low  uniform  temperature,  not  falling 
below  32^  and  never  exceeding  40-  Fahrenheit.  Bees  thus  located  con- 
simie  one-third  less  honey  and  come  out  in  the  spring  strong  and  healthy. 
Care  must  l>e  taken  to  give  the  hive  placed  in  cellars  proper  ventilation; 
otherwise  the  most  disastrous  resTdts  will  ensue,  the  bees  Ix-coming  rest- 
less, consuming  honey,  and  leaving  the  hives,  and  thus  perishing  in  the 
room.  Mr.  E  Dart,  of  Wisconsin, says:  '-My  Ix^es  are  wintered  in  a  dry 
cellar,  thirty-two  by  thirty-six  feet,  holding  one  hundred  swarms.  I  carry 
them  into  the  cellar  the  first  of  December  and  bring  them  out  during  the 
month  of  March,  on  warm,  .sunny  days.  I  pack  them  closely  on  benches 
in  the  cellar,  leaving  the  box  and  working-holes  open,  and  see  that  aU 
the  swarms  have  honey  enough  to  support  them  until  taken  back  to  their 
summer  stands.  I  visit  them  but  once  a  month,  and  see  that  they  are 
not  disturbed.  When  breeding  commences,  the  last  of  February.  I  change 
the  air  in  the  cellar  every  night.  By  this  management  I  do  not  lo.se  a 
single  swarm  through  the  winter.  Many  of  my  swarms  did  not  consimie 
six  ix)unds  of  honey  while  iu  the  cellar  last  winter."  Bees  Avintered  on 
their  summer  stands  will  consume  through  the  winter  thirty  iK)unds  of 
honey,  while  those  wintered  in  cellars  will  consimie  but  little  over  six 
pounds  i>er  hive,  thus  eflecting  a  .saAing  of  twenty-four  poimds  to  the 
hive,  gi\"mg,  iu  an  apiary  of  one  hundred  colonies,  L*,400  ix)unds  of  honey, 
which,  at  twenty  cents  per  iwund,  would  amount  to  $480,  a  sum  suffi- 
cient to  pay  for  the  building. 

yorth  of'  forty  degrees  of  latitude  it  is  necessary  to  give  winter  pro- 
tection, if  Ijees'are  to  be  kept  with  profit.    The  cellar  or  root-house  can 


STATISTICS    OF   BEE   KEEPING.  2  (  / 

generally  be  used  for  storing  tlie  colonies.  Henry  C.  Blyuii.  Cohmiltia 
County,  Xe^v  York,  states  that  lie  is  buildin.e:  a  v»iiitering  lionse,  wirli 
triple  walls  all  around,  filled  with  straw  and  sawdust,  the  whole  two 
feet  thick,  and  then  elapboarded  on  the  ontside  of  the  studding-.  The 
gTeatest  attention  is  paid  to  wintering,"  bees  in  Wisconsin.  3Iichigau.  and 
^linnesota,  where  they  coidd  not  be  kept  without  protection,  excei)t  at 
continual  loss.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  bee-keepers  will  begin  to  pay 
more  attention  to  this  important  subject.  It  would  annually  eflect  a 
saving  of  thousands  of  pounds  of  honey. 

In  the  South  the  winters  are  so  mild  that  the  bees  need  little  or  no 
protection  during-  that  season.  They  need,  however,  protection  in  the 
summer  from  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun.  This  is  accomplished  by  placing 
the  hives  under  sheds  or  large  trees.  The  greatest  attention  shoidd 
also  be  given  to  ventilation,  iu  order  to  prevent  the  heat  from  melting 
the  combs. 

Eev.  J.  T.  Allison,  of  Ogle  County,  Illinois,  writing  in  reference  to 
bmying  bees,  says:  ''This  season  a  neighbor,  who  keeps  no  bees,  told 
me  that,  when  li\Tiig  with  his  father,  some  twenty  years  since,  he  and 
his  brothers  were  going  to  take  up  a  stock  late  in  the  fall :  as  an  exiDeri- 
ment,  they  drammed  the  bees  out  into  an  empty  hive,  and  with  them 
clustered  in  the  top.  buried  the  hive  in  the  gTOimd  so  deep  that  there 
were  six  inches  of  dirt  over  the  toji  of  it,  and  they  left  it  thus  buried  tiU 
the  following  April.  When  brought  out  of  their  winter  quarters  the 
bees,  he  said,  were  alive,  and,  after  warming  up,  llew  freely:  but  having 
nothing  to  eat,  and  not  being  fed,  they  died  in  the  course  of  three  days." 
Can  this  be  true?    We  give  it  as  a  sing-ular  case. 

FOrX-BEOOD. 

Kie  returns  show  that  this  contagious  disease  is  not  extensively  prev- 
alent in  the  United  States.  It  has.  however,  made  its  appearance  in 
various  portions  of  many  States:  in  Floyd  Coimty.  Georgia;  Fayette 
and  Hancock  Counties,  Illinois:  Anne  Arundel  County.  Maryland;  Wi- 
nona and  Wright  Counties,  Minnesota:  Clark  County,  3Iissoiui;  Iredell, 
Caldwell,  Columbia.  Ciu'rituck,  and  Herford  Counties,  yorth  Carolina; 
yew  York,  Schenectady,  and  Montgomeiy  Counties.  Xew  York;  Cumber- 
land, Jefiersou.  Luzerne,  Washington,  and  Warren  Counties,  Pennsyl- 
vania; Eichland  County,  South  Carolina:  Milwaukee  and  Walworth 
Counties,  and  Sullivan  Township.  Wisconsin;  and  Hartford  County. 
Connecticut. 

Putrid  foid-brood  is  a  disease  which  attacks  the  young  brood  of  the 
hive,  showing  itself  fiilly  after  the  larvte  have  been  sealed  up.  It  may 
be  known  by  the  viscous,  gelatinous,  and  yeast-like  appearance  of  the 
decomposing  brood,  the  unpleasant  odor  arising  from  the  hive,  and  by 
the  sunken  covers  of  the  cells.  The  cause  of  foul-brood  has  been,  until 
recently,  involved  in  doubt,  but  late  discoveries  in  Germany  have 
thrown  much  Light  upon  its  origin.  Mr.  Lamprecht  alleges  that  he  has 
discovered  the  cause  of  the  disease.  His  theory  is  this:  "The  chyme, 
which  the  workers  prepare  fi'om  honey  and  pollen  by  partial  digestion, 
and  with  which  the  larvce  are  fed,  contains  a  nitrogenous,  jylastic.  forjna- 
tivc  suhsrance,  from  ichick  all  the  organs  and  tissues  of  the  larva  are  derived 
and  composed  *  *  •  and  iirecisely  because  of  this  its  comi)licated 
composition  it  is  peculiarly  susceptible  of  rapid  decomposition  when 
exposed  to  air  and  moistiu-e;  that  is,  to  undergo  fermentation  and  putre- 
faction. It  is  hence  obvious  that  poUen,  even  though  having  undergone 
only  a  partial  decomposition,  must  afi'ect  the  bodies  of  bees  and  larvie 


278  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

differently  from  what  it  did  or  would  do  in  its  natnral  condition;  and 
there  is  no  longer  a  doubt  that  it  is  from  pollen,  thus  imrtially  decomposed^ 
that  the  foul-hrood  originates.  That  it  can  readily  undergo  decomposition 
is  mauitest.  Moisture,  emanating  in  part  from  unsealed  honey,  and  in 
part  li'om  the  perspiration  of  the  bees,  becomes  condensed  in  the  hive 
from  external  cold,  and  in  the  fall  and  toward  spring  it  is  frequently 
found  hanging  in  drops  on  the  combs,  just  as  we  find  it  condensed  on 
the  windows  of  our  dwelling-houses.  If  one  of  these  di-ops  falls  into  a 
cell  containing  pollen,  decomposition  of  the  latter  speedily  commences, 
and  is  then  communicated  by  the  bees  to  the  pollen  in  the  other  cells ; 
and  the  cause  of  foid-brood  is  hence  abundantly  present  in  a  hive  thus 
ciiTumstanced." 

The  discovery  of  Dr.  Preuss,  an  eminent  physician  and  mycologist,  is 
that  a  microscoi)ic  fungus,  Cryptococcxis  alvearis,  developed  fi-om  ferment- 
ing matter,  feeds  upon  the  young  larvte,  and  thus  causes  foid-brood;  and 
that  by  means  of  the  numerous  sporules  of  the  fungus,  the  disease  is 
spread  through  the  hive,  and  finally  through  the  apiary.  To  show  the 
character  of  this  microscopic  pest  we  quote  the  following  from  the  article 
of  Dr.  Preuss,  published  in  the  Bienenzeitung,  and  translated  by  ]\Ir.  T. 
W.  Woodbury : 

"  The  foul-brood  fun gus,  which  I  have  named  Cryptococcus  alvearis, 
belongs  to  the  smallest  of  the  fungoid  forms.  It  is  round  and  dust- 
shaped,  and  has  a  diameter  of  ^^  millimeter,  or  y^L-  line;  consequently 
1,095  can  lie  side  bv  side  within  a  Ehenish  line,  but  within  a  square  line, 
1,095x1,095,  that  'is,  1,199,825,  or,  in  round  numbers,  1,200,000.  The 
cubic  line,  according  to  this,  woidd  contain  1,440,000,000,000  fungi,  and 
a  cubic  inch  of  foul- brood,  which  consists  of  1728  lines,  would  contain 
2,488,320,000,000,000.  If  we  reckon,  further,  that  a  cubic  inch  of  comb 
contains  50  ceUs,the  contents  of  each  would  be  49,7GG,400,000,000;  in 
round  numbers,  fifty  bdlions ;  or,  deducting  one-fifth  for  wax,  forty  bUlions 
of  fungi." 

There  is  no  cui-e  for  this  disease  when  it  has  once  obtained  headway. 
Destruction  of  the  bees  and  honey  and  thorough  purification  of  the 
hive  is  the  only  remedy  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease.  As  a 
means  of  preventing  the  disease.  Dr.  Preuss  gives  the  following  direc- 
tions: Feed  no  fermenting  honey;  feed  no  meal,  especially  when  the 
hive  is  threatened  with  disease;  destroy  carefully  every  particle  of  dead 
and  moldering  matter;  and  avoid  weakening  bees  duiing  the  brooding 
seasons,  so  that  they  will  not  be  able  properly  to  maintain  the  heat 
necessary  for  the  development  of  the  brood. 

With  the  light  now  thrown  upon  the  nature  of  this  disease  by  these 
recent  discoveries,  bee-keepers  may  be  able  to  conquer  the  contagious 
malady  whenever  it  makes  its  appearance. 

THE  DISEASE  OF   1868. 

During  the  past  season  a  disease  suddenly  appeared  in  Indiana,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Tennessee,  sweeping  away  whole  apiaries.  So  quiet  were 
its  operations  that  the  bee-keepers  became  aware  of  its  existence  only 
by  the  disappearance  of  their  bees.  The  hives  were  left,  in  most  cases, 
full  of  honey,  but  with  no  brood  and  little  pollen ;  the  whole  appearance 
of  the  hive  causing  the  casual  observer  to  suppose  that  the  bees  had 
"emigrated;"  but  close  observation  showed  that  they  had  died.  We 
give  a  number  of  accounts  from  various  coiTCspondents,  principally  from 
Indiana  and  Kentucky,  where  this  disease  first  raged. 

Jesse  R.  Kewson,  JBartholomew  County,  Indiana,  says:    "With  an 


STATISTICS    OF    BEE    KEEPING.  279 

exi)erience  of  twenty-five  years,  I  liave  not  seen  so  disastrous  results 
among  bees  as  in  the  present  year.  We  generally  feel  tliat  all  is  well 
witli  our  bees,  if  tbey  bave  succeeded  well  in  layiug  up  a  winter  supply 
of  food.  I  bave  lost  nineteen  stands  since  tbe  first  of  Xorember;  in 
some  of  tbem  as  many  as  forty  pounds  of  boney  were  left,  looking  very 
nice,  and  tasting  as  well  as  any  I  ever  saw ;  no  sign  of  motb  or  any- 
tbing  wi'ong  tbat  I  could  see.  The  bees  seem  to  die  witbout  a  cause. 
Tbe  stand  twenty  years  old  is  yet  living.  We  find  in  nearly  every  stand 
plenty  of  food,  but  wbat  ails  tbe  bees  ?  "Wbat  tbe  remedy  ?  K  sometbing 
is  not  done  to  stop  tbis  fatality,  tbis  pleasing  and  useful  pastime  will  be 
taken  from  us,  and  our  tables  will  be  robbed  of  boney." 

A.  Leslie,  Pike  County,  Indiana,  says:  "Nearly  all  our  bees  bave 
died  in  tbis  county,  perisbing  mostly  in  November,  supposed  to  be  for 
want  of  bee-bread." 

S.  G.  Bates,  Boone  County,  says:  '-Tbe  mortality  among  tbe  bees 
tbis  winter  cannot  be  accounted  for,  since  tbey  bave  plenty  of  food. 
Out  of  twelve  bives  I  tbis  day  took  tbree  bundred  pounds  of  boney; 
not  a  young  bee  to  be  found ;  tbe  comb  clear  and  bealtby.  My  opinion 
is,  tbat  tbe  queen,  from  some  reason,  not  baving  deposited  eggs,  is  tbe 
cause  of  tbeii-  dcatb.-' 

T.  J.  Connett,  of  Austin,  Scott  County,  Indiana,  says:  "Tbere  is  a 
disease  prevailing  to  an  alarming  extent  among  our  bees  tbis  fall  tbat  is 
entu-ely  new,  nobody  being  able  to  find  any  cause  or  remedy.  Old  and 
substantial  swarms  die,  leaving  tbe  bive  full  of  boney  and  bee-bread. 
Full  tbree-fourtbs  of  tbe  swarms  are  dead,  as  far  as  I  bave  beard  from 
tbem." 

J.  N.  Webb,  Newcastle,  Henry  County,  Kentucky,  says:  "Tberew^ere 
no  swaiTus  last  spring,  so  far  as  is  known.  Tbe  bees,  however,  contin- 
ued to  work  and  lay  up  tbeir  stores  until  some  time  in  AugTist,  or  early 
in  September,  wben,  to  tbe  consternation  and  utter  suqnise  of  tbe  bee- 
raiser,  tbey  were  all  found  to  bave  died.  Many  swarms  left  weU-stored 
stands  of  excellent  boney,  amply  sufficient  to  cany  tbem  tbrougb  tbe 
winter:  and  wbat  is  more  strange,  comparatively  few  of  tbe  bees  were 
found  dead  at  tbe  bives.  Wbat  was  tbe  cause  of  tbe  wbolesale  destruc- 
tion of  tbis  useful  and  interesting  insect,  dying  in  tbe  midst  of  plenty, 
away  from  its  bive,  we  cannot  understand.  Up  to  tbe  time  wben  tbe 
discovery  was  made,  no  frosts  bad  come,  no  atmospheric  cbange  bad 
taken  plac^,  out  of  tbe  ordinary  course,  and  in  fact  notbing  to  wbich  it 
may  bave  been  rationally  attributed." 

T.  Hidlman,  jr.,  of  Terre  Haute,  Indiana,  writes  as  follows:  "In  Sep- 
tember last,  wben  tbe  first  cold  weatber  set  in,  my  bees  began  to  die. 
First,  I  found  in  one  of  my  best  stands,  witb  all  tbe  frames  full  of  sealed 
boney,  and  some  boney  in  boxes,  tbe  bees  aU  dead.  After  tbat  tbe  bees  be- 
gan to  die  in  all  my  stands,  mostly  pure  Itabans,  and  some  bybrids.  First, 
about  one-tbird  of  tbe  bees  would  be  found  dead;  next,  I  would  find  tbe 
queen  lying  dead  before  tbe  bive :  and  in  about  a  week  more,  tbe  wbole 
colony  would  be  found  dead  in  and  around  tbe  bive.  Sometimes  tbe 
queen  would  live  witb  a  bandful  of  bees.  Tbe  bives  were  full  of  boney, 
gathered  tbe  latter  part  of  tbe  season ;  and  the  smallest  had  enough  for 
tbe  bees  to  winter  upon.  In  this  way  I  bave  lost  forty  stands,  and  bave 
now  only  fifteen  skeleton  colonies,  which  I  think  wiU  also  perish  before 
spring.  At  first  I  thougbt  I  was  tbe  only  victim,  but  I  bave  ascertained 
that  all  tbe  bees  in  this  neighborhood  bave  died,  and  as  far  as  tbirty 
miles  north  and  eighteen  south.  Yesterday  I  saw  a  letter  from  Ken- 
tucky, fi'om  a  man  wbo  thougbt  his  bees  bad  stampeded  in  tbe  same 
manner  as  mine,  to  tbe  hive  of  mother-earth.     Some  colonies  had  broods, 


280  AGEICULTUEAL   EEPORT. 

others  had  not.  Late  in  October  all  the  queens  commenced  laj-in^ 
aj^ain.  To  some  colonies  I  gave  three  queens  in  about  two  weeks,  and 
they  lost  each  in  turn.'' 

The  true  cause  of  the  disease  has  not  l3een  discovered.  Some  attrib- 
ute it  to  the  want  of  ix>llen ;  some  to  poisonous  honey ;  and  some  to  the 
unusually  hot  summer.  TThatever  may  ]ye  the  cause,  the  effect  has  been 
most  disastrous,  throughout  these  two  States. 

BEE  PASTUEAGE. 

Apiarians,  to  secure  a  good  crop  of  honey,  are  beginning  to  raise  crops 
for  the  pasturage  of  their  bees.  The  rapid  spread  of  improved  agiicul- 
ture  has,  in  many  localities,  destroyed  the  wild  honey-yielding  plants,  so 
that  the  profits  of  bee-keeping  are  made  to  depend  upon  the  honey-pro- 
ducing qualities  of  cultivated  jilants.  The  three  plants  upon  which  the 
chief  reliance  is  jjlac^^d  are  buckwheat,  mustard,  and  Alsike  clover. 
Buckwheat  is  the  crop  most  generally  sown,  though  Alsike  clover  seems 
destined  to  supersede  it  in  suitable  soils.  The  advantages  of  the  Alsike 
are  that  its  honey  is  of  a  finer  quabty  than  that  of  buckwheat,  and  that 
it  afibrds  most  excellent  fodder,  and  fine  fall  pasturage  for  cattle.  Mus- 
tard is  raised  to  some  extent,  and  yields  a  fair  supply  of  honey. 

J.  King,  of  Dubuque, ^owa,  states  that  he  has  grown  with  profit  the 
purjjle  cane  rasjjberry.  Mrs.  Tupper,  of  Iowa,  says  she  has  sown  Alsike 
clover,  and  *•  esteems  it  above  aU  other  jilants."  J.  T.  Rose,  of  Monroe 
County,  Michigan,  thinks  the  culture  of  Alsike  clover  should  be  greatly 
encouraged,  as  it  is  valuable  for  hay  as  well  as  for  bees.  He  says  that  it 
does  not  kill  out  iu  winter,  as  does  the  red  clover  in  his  State. 

J.  E.  Gardner,  of  3Iontgomery  County,  Virginia,  says:  "I  sowed,  in 
April.  1S67.  five  pounds  of  Alsike  or  hybrid  clover,  used  upon  one  acre 
of  moderately  rich  land.  Last  spring  it  came  forward  rapidly  and 
bloomed  i»rofusely  about  the  time  white  clover  came  into  bloom".  My 
bees  worked  on  it  from  early  mom  until  evening,  seeming  to  prefer  it  to 
the  white  clover.  I  cut  the  first  crop  for  seed,  but  owing  to  the  wet 
spring  it  did  not  yield  much  seed.  The  second  growth  was  very  rapid, 
and  it  again  bloomed  very  fuU,  giving  the  bees  a  fine  pasturage  until 
frost.  I  consider  it  a  valuable  plant  for  bee-pasturage,  as  by  cutting  it 
at  the  proper  season  it  will  make  a  fine  show  of  bloom  in  the  faU,  after 
the  clover  is  gone.  It  is  also  as  valuable  a  hay  crop  as  red  clover,  and 
wUl  stand  the  winter  better  from  having  a  fibrous  root,  which  takes  a 
strong  hold  in  our  clay  soil.  If  the  farmers  in  the  county  could  be 
induced  to  sow  this  variety  instead  of  red  clover,  bee-keeping,  I  am  sat- 
isfied, could  be  made  i^rofitable  by  using  properly  constructed  hives,  and 
introducing  the  Italian  variety  of  the  bee  into  this  country  generally. 

White  clover,  the  linden-tree,  the  golden  rod,  and  the  aster  are  the 
main  support  of  the  honey-bee.  White  clover  and  the  linden-tree  ;sield 
the  best  honey,  whde  that  from  the  honey-dew  is  of  an  inferior  quality. 

yiT.  R.  Rogers,  of  Webster,  North  Carolina,  accompanies  his  report 
with  a  specimen  of  a  plant,  of  which  he  says:  "There  is  a  minute  plant 
growing  around  me,  that  I  have  seen  nowhere  else,  which  keeps  green 
all  winter ;  and,  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  open  weather  in  February, 
covers  the  earth  with  a  dense  and  beautiful  carpet  of  green,  bearing  a 
great  profusion  of  white  bloom.  Every  warm  day  in  early  spring  the 
l>ees  from  all  the  neighborhood  literally  swarm  upon  it,  drinking  the 
nectar  from  its  tiny  cups.  I  do  not  know  its  name  or  its  botanic 
position." 

Professor  Porter,  of  Lafayette  college,  Pennsylvania,  names  this  plant 


STATISTICS    OF   BEE   KEEPING.  281 

PMcelia  pari'ijlora,  Pursli.  "We  hope  bee-keepers  will  pay  attention  to 
plants  ii]ion  wliich  bees  feed,  and  send  specimens  to  the  Department,  in 
order  that  a  complete  list  of  honey  and  pollen  yielding  i-)lants  may  be 
obtained. 

The  following  list  comprises  some  of  the  plants  from  which  bees  gather 
honey  and  pollen  dm-ing  the  feeding  seasons: 

Spring. — WiUow,  alder,  aspen  or  poplar,  elm,  maple,  marsh-marigold, 
hepatica,  anemone,  dandelion,  erythroniiim,  (albidv.mj  service-berry, 
fAmelancJiier  Canadensis.)  currant,  gooseberry,  strawberry,  peach, 
cherry,  apple,  pear,  China-tree,  (2Ielia  Azedarach.J  black-gum.  fXyssa 
multijlora,)  whortleberry,  cottonwood,  cornel  or  dog^wood,  narcissus, 
honeysuckle,  oak,  red-bud,  fCercis  Canadensis.)  hazle,  yellow  jasmine. 
fJasminum  ordoratissimum.J  sweet-myrtle,  (Myrica  gale.)  magnolia, 
fglauca.)  hawthorn,  box-elder.  fXcgundo  aceroides.J  locust,  azalea. 

Summer. — Ked  clover,  white  cloVer.  raspberry,  blackberry,  cockspur. 
thorn,  whortleberry,  black-haw,  f  Viburnum  j^runifoJium.J  self-heal, 
(Brunella.)  azalea.*^  sour-wood,  (Oxydendrum  arhorcum.J  cinquefoil, 
cucumber,  narrow-leaved  plantain,  horse-chestnut,  strawberry,  pea, 
honey-dew,  (on  live  oak.)  chincapin,  fCastanea  pumila.)  persimmon, 
linden,  bee-balm,  (2Missa  officinalis.)  maize,  sorghum,  heliotrope,  iron- 
weed,  (^"r(?r?jo«!'«.yl  smart-weed,  f Polygonum  Persicaria.y  buttertly-weed, 
fAsclepias  tuherosa.)  viper's  bugloss,  (Ecliium  vuJgare.)  cotton  plant, 
buckwheat,  sumac,  catnip,  Spanish  needles,  (Bidens  tipinnata.)  'beg- 
ga.T''s  lice.  fCynoglossum  Morisoni.J  boneset,  starwort.  fSteUaria.J  silk- 
weed,  (Asdepias  cornuti.)  thistle,  sage,  cardinal  flower,  balsam,  moun- 
tain mint,  fJIonarda  didyma.)  sweet  marjoram,  lavender,  spearmint, 
peppermint,  thyme,  dandelion,  chickweed,  pennyroyal,  sweet  clover, 
speedwell,  (Veronica.)  poppy,  turnip. hollyhock,  sunflower,  dahlia, phlox. 

Autumn. — Aster,  golden-rod,  dandelion,  white  clover, red  clover,  cinque- 
foil, chickweed,  pennyroyal,  artichoke,  phlox,  chrysanthemum. 


SILK  CULTURE. 


That  tlie  culture  of  silk  can  be  profitably  carried  ou  iu  tlie  Uuited 
States  is  clearly  established.  The  success  of  the  experiments  in  Cali- 
fornia has  far  surpassed  the  most  sanguine  ex]:)ectations  of  those  engaged 
in  them.  Mr.  Prevost,  the  pioneer  silk  grower  of  that  State,  and  for- 
merly engaged  in  the  same  pursuit  in  France,  maintains,  after  twelve 
years'  experience,  that  Calitbrnia  is  "the  best  silk  country  in  the  world," 
and  that  the  manufactured  article,  even  in  its  best  grades,  can  be  pro- 
duced cheaper  than  in  Europe.  At  an  early  period  silk  was  raised  in 
Virginia.  In  1718  experiments  iu  Louisiana  were  successfid,  and  a  good 
article  of  silk  was  produced.  For  about  forty  years,  silk  of  a  superior 
quality  was  raised  iu  Georgia,  continuing  to  be  the  leading  and  most 
profitable  product  of  the  colony  until  it  was  prostrated  by  the  revolution- 
ary war.  In  most  of  the  colonies,  prior  to  the  revolution,  the  culture  of 
silk  was  more  or'less  successful,  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina  especially 
so.  Cocoons  of  an  excellent  quality  were  produced  in  Pennsj'lvania,  New 
Jersey,  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut.  In  1771  a  silk  establishment 
was  started  in  Philadelphia  for  thie  manufacture  of  silk  of  native  growth, 
which  for  a  series  of  years  received  a  large  amount  of  cocoons.  The  cul- 
ture and  manufacture  of  this  valuable  commodity  are  still  carried  on  iu 
parts  of  New  England,  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey. 
Philadelphia,  Paterson,  New  Jersey,  Hartford,  Manchester,  and 
Mansfield,  Connecticut,  are  noted  for  their  extensive  silk  manufactures. 
The  manufactured  silk  product  of  the  United  States  in  1840  was  valued 
at  $250,000.  In  1844  it  had  increased  to  $1,500,000.  In  1860  the  pro- 
duct in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Massachusetts,  and  Con- 
necticut was  estimated  at  over  $5,000,000  ;  the  leading  article  manufac- 
tured being  sewing  silk.  Since  that  date  the  manufacture  of  silk  in  those 
States  has  been  making  steady  progress,  embracing  a  wide  range  of  arti- 
cles, as  ribbons,  braids,  trimmings,  fringes,  and  different  varieties  of  dress 
goods. 

It  is  a  source  of  great  encouragement  that  the  diseases  which  threaten 
the  total  destruction  of  the  native  species  of  silk-worms  in  Europe  do 
not  prevail  in  this  country.  Mr.  Prevost  asserts  that  while  from  twenty- 
five  to  seventy -five  per  cent,  of  silk-worms  are  destroyed  by  disease  and 
the  unpropitious  climate  of  Europe,  few  ever  perish  in  California.  The 
article  from  a  California  correspondent,  published  herewith,  fully  sets 
out  the  advantages  possessed  by  that  State  over  the  silk-growing  coun- 
tries of  Europe. 

THE  SELK  INTEREST  AT  THE  PARTS  EXPOSITION. 

The  report  of  Hon.  Elliott  C.  Cowdin,  one  of  the  commissioners  rep- 
resenting the  United  States  at  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of  1867, 
and  to  whom  vras  assigned  the  subject  of  silk  and  silk  manufactures, 
contains  much  valuable  information  concerning  the  i^rogress  and  present 
condition  of  silk  husbandry  and  manufactures  in  foreign  countries,  and 
throws  out  many  suggestions  which  cannot  fail  to  be  useful  to  those 
entering  upon  the  cultiu'c  or  the  transformation  of  silk  in  this  coraitry. 

The  progressive  development  of  silk  industry  is  carefuUy  noted.    In 


SILK   CULTURE.  283 

1812  there  were  in  seven  of  the  principal  towns  of  France  27,000  silk 
looms ;  in  1824  Lyons  alone  had  nearly  25,000,  and  in  1839,  40,000.  In 
the  latter  year  there  were  85,000  looms  in  the  kingdom,  employing  abont 
170,000  workmen,  and  the  production  was  estimated  at  $46,300,000.  In 
1850  the  silk  goods  produced  were  estimated  at  $75,000,000 ;  in  1855,  at 
$100,500,000— the  number  of  looms  in  the  empire  having  increased  to 
225,000,  and  the  number  of  workmen  employed  to  half  a  million.  In 
1860  the  product  was  estimated  at  $140,000,000.  The  United  States 
purchased  of  French  tissues  alone,  in  1859,  $27,000,000;  in  1860, 
$20,800,000 ;  on  account  of  the  war  of  the  rebellion,  our  purchases  fell 
to  $5,000,000  in  1861.  The  commissioner  states,  as  the  result  of  his  ob- 
servations, that  though  the  rebellion  has  been  suppressed,  the  fiscal 
measures  resulting  therefrom  still  have  their  effect  upon  the  silk  hus- 
bandry and  manufacture  of  France,  operating  as  they  do  at  the  same 
period  with  the  scarcity  of  indigenous  silk,  and  the  prevalence  of  mys- 
terious disease  among  the  silk-worms. 

The  operations  of  England  in  silk  are  confined  to  manufactures  of  the 
raw  material,  her  uncongenial  climate  not  permitting  the  rearing  of  silk- 
worms. In  1823  Great  Britain  exported  of  silk  goods  $702,000;  in 
1844,  $3,682,000;  in  1850,  $14,800,000;  in  1858,  $11,950,000;  in  1861, 
$11,560,900;  in  1865,  $10,880,000.  A  recent  treaty  with  France  has 
seriously  interfered  with  some  branches  of  the  silk  industry  of  Great 
Britain.  In  yiqw  of  the  fact  that  the  manufacturers  of  England  are 
wholly  dependent  upon  foreign  importations  of  raw  silk,  it  is  well  ob- 
served that  an  instructive  lesson  is  taught  the  citizens  of  our  country, 
where  everything  combines  to  render  the  prosecution  of  this  industry 
pre-eminently  successful. 

The  following  table  is  given  to  show,  as  near  as  can  be  ascertained, 
the  value  of  raw  silk  i^roduced  annually  in  the  nations  of  the  earth : 

Chinese  empire $81, 200, 000 

Japanese  empire 17, 000, 000 

Persia 5, 000, 000 

Asia  Minor 5,  200, 000 

Syria 1, 800, 000 

Turkistan  (in  China) 400,  000 

Turkistan  (independent,  in  Asia) 1, 400,  000 

Corean  Archipelago 100, 000 

France         25,600,000 

Italy 39,  200,  000 

Turkey  in  Europe 7, 000, 000 

Spain  and  Portugal 3, 200,  000 

Pontifical  States 1, 300, 000 

Greece,  Ionian  islands 840,  000 

Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis,  Mediterranean  coast 300, 000 

Basin  of  the  Danube,  Austria,  Bavaria,  Servia,  Hungary . .  1, 280, 000 

India 24,  000,  000 

America 80,  000 


Total 214, 900, 000 


BRANCHES  OF  SILK  MANUPACTURE. 

In  silk  industry  there  are  seven  distinct  branches,  or  specialties :  1st, 
the  rearing  of  the  silk- worms ;  2d,  the  filature  or  reeling  of  the  silk  from 
the  cocoons ;  3d,  the  throwing  or  spinning  of  the  silk  thread ;  4th,  the 


284  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

dyeing  of  the  silk ;  5tb,  the  preparation  of  the  silk  threads  for  the 
looms ;  Gth,  the  "vreariug  of  silk  goods ;  7th,  the  spiuuing  of  waste  silk. 
Conimissiouer  Cowdiii  reports  the  condition  of,  and  progress  made  in, 
the  branches  severally,  as  manifested  at  the  Paris  Exposition. 

In  regard  to  the  Urst,  for  piu'poses  of  reproduction  it  is  important 
to  choose  cocoons  of  the  largest  size,  and  those  the  most  successfully 
reared  and  least  atiected  with  any  malady  during  the  coiu^se  of  their  de- 
velopment. These  cocoons  are  recognized  by  the  regularity  of  their 
form,  the  roimduess  of  their  extremities,  the  fineness  of  grain  on  the 
siu'face,  and  the  solidity  and  thickness  of  the  layers  or  silky  envelopes. 
The  male  cocoons  differ  from  the  female  in  shape  and  size ;  the  former 
being  smaller,  and  presenting  a  cavity  upon  theii"  back ;  the  latter  pre- 
sent the  figure  of  an  olive  or  the  egg  of  a  small  bird.  After  collecting, 
the  cocoons  should  be  of  a  golden  yellow  color,  and  exhibit  no  spot  or 
stain  of  any  l^ind.  After  having  put  a  certain  number  of  male  cocoons 
on  one  side,  and  of  females  on  the  other,  weigh  botli  parts  to  find  the 
average  weight  of  each,  and  every  time  this  average  is  exceeded  there 
is  a  presumption  that  excellent  cocoons  are  obtained  for  reproduction, 
all  other  things  being  equal.  Cocoons  of  an  exceptional  bulk  are  generally 
the  result  of  two  grubs  united  under  the  same  envelope.  Their  product 
is  known  as  "doubles.-'  and  is  always  inferior,  being  valued  at  hardly 
oue-thii'd  the  price  of  the  normal  product.  An  Itaban  silk  husbandman 
exhibited  at  the  Exposition  an  apparatus  designed  to  prevent  these 
doubles  in  tlie  breeding  of  worms.  It  is  an  arrangement  of  cells  made 
of  bght  wood,  each  one  having  only  the  bulk  necessary  for  a  single 
gTub.  Each  iusect,  therefore,  at  the  proper  time,  has  its  own  case,  and 
doubles  are  rendered  impossible.  The  inventor  also  claims  that  his  sys- 
tem aflbrds  facilities  for  the  choice  of  the  best  reproducers,  and  prevents 
coupling  between  grubs  of  the  same  family,  consangiiiiiity  being  bj* 
many  considered  as  one  cause  of  the  rapid  deterioration  of  the  breed. 
The  coupling  accomplished,  the  females  are  removed  and  made  to  lay, 
each  in  her  own  ceU,  in  such  a  way  as  to  admit  of  the  eggs  of  each  lay- 
ing being  separately  weighed.  For  good  chances  of  success  each  laying 
should  M  eigh  at  least  sixtj-  or  seventy  gTams  (per  kilogTam  of  cocoons,) 
each  gram  to  contain  thirteen  hundred  and  fifty  to  fifteen  himdred  eggs. 

The  best  known  varieties  of  silk- worms  are  seven  in  number.  The  com- 
mon silk-worm  {Bomhyx  mori)  is  the  species  most  in  use,  and  produces 
the  best  silk :  it  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry  tree,  and  attains 
its  full  gi'owth  in  about  six  weeks.  The  castor-oil  plant  silk-worm 
(Bomhyx  arrindia)  is  a  native  of  Bengal  and  British  India,  and  lives  on 
the  food  indicated  by  its  name.  It  has  been  successfully  propagated  in 
Europe,  where  its  silk  ])roduct  is  found  to  be  supple  and  durable,  but 
almost  destitute  of  luster.  The  ailanthus  silk-worm  [Bomhyx  Cynthia) 
is  indigenous  to  the  temperate  regions  of  China.  It  produces  an 
elongated  cocoon,  of  a  reddish  shade,  from  which  a  strong  and  durable 
tissue  is  made.  This  worm  was  introduced  in  France  in  lSo8,  and  its 
silk  is  gi-owing  in  importance  and  industrial  value.  The  Tusseh  silk- 
\vorm  {Bomhyx  mylitta)  lives  in  a  wild  state  in  Bengal,  ami  in  the  woods 
of  the  hot  regions  of  India.  Its  food  is  the  leaves  of  the  jujube  tree. 
Their  cocoons  i)roduce  a  fine  and  brilliant  silk.  Every  etibrt  to  repro- 
duce this  worm  in  France  has  failed.  The  wild  silk-worm  of  Japan 
{Bomhyx  Yama  Mai)  has  been  successfully  reared  in  France.  The  leaves 
of  the  oak  and  similar  trees  are  its  only  food.  It  is  easy  to  raise,  and 
furnishes  a  cocoon  of  greenish  yellow,  and  can  be  reeled  into  a  beautiful 
silk.  The  Bomhyx  Cecropia  is  indigenous  to  the  temperate  regions  of 
Xorth  America,  and  found  principally  in  the  Carolinas,  Louisiana  and 


SILK    CULTURE.  285 

Virginia.    Its  food  is  the  elm,  the  wOlovr,  aud  other  trees.    The  cocoon 
is  of  loose  textiu^e  and  coarse  sUk. 

THE  MAIsTTACTUKE   OF   SILK. 

To  transfer  cocoons  into  the  raw  silk  of  commerce  a  basin  and  reel 
only  are  used ;  the  former  containing-  warm  water  to  soften  the  gum  of 
the  envelope,  so  that  the  silken  layers  of  the  cocoon  may  be  set  free. 
In  reeling,  a  certain  number  of  threads  of  the  cocoons,  in  proportion  to 
the  standard  of  ravr  silk  intended  to  be  produced,  are  imited  by  ijressinre 
and  twisting.  This  union  of  raw  threads  is  known  as  f/regc  or  raw  silk. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  threads,  issuing  wet  and  gumm% 
from  the  basin,  from  adhering  together ;  a  sufficient  distance  between 
the  basin  and  the  reel,  to  permit  a  partial  drying  must  be  allowed,  and 
a  guide-thread  be  so  arranged  as  to  scctire  a  zigzag  movement,  which 
prevents  the  threads  li'om  crossiug  one  another.  The  following  sugges- 
tions in  regard  to  this  branch  of  the  work  are  given  :  The  degiee  of  pre- 
vious preparation  should  vary  with  the  durability  of  the  silky  couches, 
having  regard  to  the  age,  breed,  and  origin  of  the  cocoons.  If  prepared 
too  much,  the  result  would  be  that  more  silky  matter  would  be  yielded 
by  the  first  layers  than  there  shoidd  be.  This  supertluous  matter  would 
be  only  waste,  and  would  possess  a  value  much  inferior  to  that  of  fine 
silk.  If  the  cocoons  ju^e,  on  the  contrary,  insufficiently  prepared,  they 
present  a  resistance  to  the  winding  ofi",  which  causes  the  breaking  ot 
the  thread,  and  leads  to  a  new  soiu-ce  of  waste.  The  workmen  oiight 
to  possess  gTcat  skiQ  in  joining  a  new  thread  to  thread  in  work.  He 
should  be  competent  to  select  the  most  opportune  moment  to  assure  the 
regidarity  of  the  product,  so  that  the  trace  of  these  successive  connec- 
tions maybe  imperceptible  to  the  eye,  and  thus  avoid  knots,  coarseness, 
curls,  or  dots.  X or  wdi  rare  skill  in  these  particidars  produce  the  effect 
desked  imless  the  wheel  revolves  with  a  lixed  and  steady  velocity  of  at 
least  five  hundred  meters  per  minute.  Without  this,  the  thread,  instead 
of  being  smooth  and  brilliant,  would  be  rough  and  dull.  A  too  slow  move- 
ment would  not  dress  the  thread  sufficiently,  clasped  as  it  is  very  tightly 
by  its  pecuhar  position,  and  fixed  under  the  form  of  a  figiu-e  S  in  the  layers 
of  the  cocoon.  A  movement  too  slow  causes  those  undidations  which 
give  the  dull  appearance ;  while  the  development  of  the  thread  in  the 
straight  line  by  the  more  rapid  movement  permits  the  reflection  of  the 
light  in  those  perfect  and  determined  conditions  which  give  brilliancy 
to  the  finest  silk. 

At  the  Paris  Exi)osition  almost  every  European  nation  was  repre- 
sented by  different  mechanisms  employed  in  the  manufactm-e  of  sdk. 
Mr.  Cowdin  is  carefid  to  name  the  uses,  and  particidarly  describe  the 
best  of  these. 

Avery  ingenious  apparatus,  invented  by  G.  Honneger,  of  Switzerland, 
for  the  sorting  of  silk  threads  was  exhibited.  This  rnachine  receives  on 
the  one  part  a  series  of  silk  skems,  to  each  of  which  correspond  a  num- 
ber of  bobbins  or  reels,  equal  to  that  of  the  varied  buJk,  supposed  to  be 
contained  in  the  skein.  Each  bobbin  wiQ  receive  the  portion  of  the 
thi-ead  of  the  titre  for  which  it  shall  have  been  designated.  For  this 
purpose,  the  thread  which  is  rendered  from  the  skein  to  the  bobbins  is 
guided  automatically  by  a  mechanism  for  gauging,  extremely  sensitive, 
and  so  arranged  that  the  gregc  or  raw  silk  in  "passing  acts  upon  a  lever 
which  directs  the  silk  upon  the  proper  bobbin.  The  variation  in  the 
bulk  of  the  product  is  the  point  of  departure  in  the  variation  of  the 
gtude  lever,  which  directs  the  thread  to  the  reel  proper  to  receive  it. 


286  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

By  the  employment  of  tliis  macMiie,  it  is  thought,  the  cheap  silk  of  fhe 
East  may  lind  more  extensive  applications,  and  contriliute  to  a  new 
development  in  silk  industry. 

Professor  Alcan  exhibited  an  apparatus  for  testing  the  tenacity  and 
elasticity  of  tilaments  and  threads,  and  detennining  the  degTce  of  ten- 
sion most  suitable  to  be  employed  on  any  given  thread.  The  instrument 
is  described  as  one  of  rare  precision,  very  simple,  and  not  expensive. 

The  throwing  of  sOk  is  intended  to  give  a  i^eculiar  appearance  to 
the  threads,  •which  partly  determines  what  is  called  the  grain  of  the 
stuff.  It  requires  accm-ate  knowledge  and  rare  skill.  The  machines 
exhibited  at  the  Exposition,  used  in  this  branch  of  silk  indu.stry,  were 
those  employed  in  the  best  factories,  especially  those  of  Switzerland. 
These  consisted  of,  1st,  a  series  of  tavelles  to  wind,  clean,  and  equalize 
the  threads  during  their  automatic  winding  off;  2d,  an  apparatus  to 
unite  and  double  tbe  threads,  with  a  mechanism  for  instantly  stopping 
the  machine  whenever  a  thread  breaks  ;  3d,  a  machine  to  give  the  first 
twist  to  the  double  threads  in  the  direction  determined  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  tram  or  woof;  4th,  a  second  machine  to  retwi.st  together  two 
threads  already  twisted  separately,  thus  producing  organzLne.  The 
object  of  these  machines,  which  are  simple  in  their  construction,  is  to 
obtain  constantl}*  an  evenly  twisted  product. 

The  attempt  to  unite  in  a  single  operation  the  winding  oft'  of  cocoons 
and  the  throwing  of  silk  has  not  been  successful.  Commissioner  Cow- 
din  refers  to  the  mechanism  exhibited  by  the  Italians  and  French,  and 
claimed  as  solutions  of  the  problem,  as  possessing  minor  interest,  and 
affording  little  encouragement.  It  is  his  opinion  that  the  desired  X)ro- 
cess,  which  is  enticing  in  appearance  as  a  gxeat  saving  of  time,  laljor, 
and  money,  is  deceptive,  demanding  an  expense  much  gTcater  than  that 
of  the  separate  operations,  and  that  it  would  yield  inferior  products  of 
inconsiderable  value.  Simultaneous  twisting  and  throwing,  however, 
may  be  employed  with  a  certain  success  when  the  cocoons  are  of  an  in- 
ferior quality  and  difiicidt  to  wind  off',  such  as  double  cocoons,  so  that 
the  operator  in  twisting  them  directly  can,  at  the  best,  obtain  silk  of  a 
very  inferior  grade,  fit  only  for  working  common  cordonnet,  (braid,  bind- 
ing, twist,  lace,  &c.) 

The  "waste"  occasioned  by  the  various  manipulations  of  silk  until  it 
becomes  stuff,  has  long  been  utilized,  and  also,  more  recently,  since 
silk  became  very  high,  the  chiffons,  or  rags  of  that  material.  In  the 
show-cases  of  the  Exposition,  France  and  Switzerland  displayed  threads 
made  from  waste,  which  rivaled  in  beauty  of  appearance  the  most  lus- 
trous silks,  and  at  one-half  the  price.  The  result  is  obtained  by  atten- 
tion to  details  in  the  manufacture.  A\Tien  the  threads  from  waste  have 
been  produced  with  the  gTcatest  care,  well  pui'ified,  well  combed,  per- 
fectly prepared  and  spim,  a  thin  layer  of  warm  gelatine  or  isinglass  is 
applied  to  them  when  stretched  and  in  motion.  Sweepings  of  threads, 
formerly  thrown  away  because  the  workmen  could  not  unravel  them, 
are  now  made  valuable  by  the  use  of  ingenious  and  effective  machines. 
These  machines  take  the  rag  or  piece  of  silk  at  their  entrance,  and  re- 
store it  at  the  exit  in  the  form  of  filaments,  classed  in  lengths  and  fine- 
ness proper  to  be  submitted  to  the  machines  for  decomposing  the  chiffon 
or  rag.  These  machines  were  not  exhibited  at  the  Exposition  by  the  in- 
ventors, from  fear  of  imitation  by  countries  where  inventions  "are  not 
protected  by  patents. 

Referring  to  the  dyeing  of  silk,  ]\Ir.  Cowdin  says: 

"The  invention  of  those  colors  derived  fi^om  coal  has  principally  con- 
tributed to  or  caused  a  revolution  in  the  art  of  dveing.    The  new  materials 


PILE  CULTUEE.  287 

have  permitted  dyers  to  obtain  colors  of  unprecedented  splencior,  com- 
bining shades  of  marvellous  variety  "with  extreme  delicacy.  Looking 
through  the  Exhibition  we  might  almost  say,  in  the  presence  of  results 
obtained  iu  this  direction,  there  is  now  nothiug  impossible.  StiU,  close 
by  the  side  of  products  so  admirable  in  respect  to  dyeing,  we  saw,  on  the 
contrary,  much  still  left  to  be  accomplished.  We  refer  to  the  attempts 
made  for  some  time  to  gild  and  silver  threads  of  silk.  Some  specimens  of 
silk  of  this  kind  exhibited  denote  processes  still  in  a  crude  state,  which 
do  not  yet  supply  any  product  capable  of  being  used  to  advantage." 

The  plain  silks  of  France,  Switzerland,  and  Xorthern  Germany  attracted 
gTcat  attention  on  account  of  their  thorough  finish  and  general  excellence. 
They  were  exhibited  with  the  special  notice  that  the  weaving  was  done 
by  motive  power.  The  improvements  iu  the  looms  of  these  nations 
secui"es  cleanness,  piu'ity,  and  brilliancy.  A  French  apparatus  has  been 
introduced  to  polish  plain  stufts  automatically.  This  machine  possesses 
all  the  advantages  of  hand-polishing,  acting  with  only  a  little  polish  and 
in  parts.  Automatic  looms  for  the  manufacture  of  velvet  stiifis  are 
of  two  kinds,  one  for  working  two  pieces  at  a  time,  and  the  other  a 
piece  singly.  By  the  former,  various  articles  in  silk,  and  the  most  beau- 
tifid  plushes  for  hats  are  made.  For  the  manufacture  of  sti-iped  and 
plaid  silks  the  Scotch  looms  excel  all  others.  In  the  silks  for  toilette, 
especially  in  fa(;onn€fi,  or  figiu-ed  goods,  a  fineness  and  neatness  that 
seemed  almost  impossible  has  been  attained  by  French  industry  alone. 
Ingenuity  has  been  tasked  to  simplify  the  Jacquard  loom  and  render  it 
capable  of  producing  still  more  extensive  results. 

At  the  Exjiosition,  products  of  the  silk-ribbon  loom  were  exhibited 
by  the  manufacturers  of  Saint  fitienne,  Basle,  Prussia.  Alsace,  and  other 
sections.  Saint  £tienne  contains  90,000  inhabitants,  and  gives  employ- 
ment to  23,G22  persons,  of  which  the  gTcater  part  are  women  and  girls. 
It  has  15,000  looms.  The  value  of  its  productions  in  ISGG  was  $12,000,000, 
five-sixths  of  which  were  sold  to  the  United  States,  England,  and  to  the 
city  of  Paris.  Basle,  with  a  popidation  of  65.000,  has  0,000  looms.  At 
Alsace  steam  was  first  employed  in  the  manufactm-e  of  ribbons.  Some 
of  the  ribbon  factories  run  200  looms  by  a  steam-engine  of  thirty  horse- 
power, and  employ  GOO  persons. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  commissioner,  foiu*  of  the  seven  industrial 
branches  employed  in  the  transformations  of  silk  can  from  this  period 
develop  themselves  in  America  without  any  ditficulty,  and  soon  take 
the  high  position  ah-eady  attained  by  cotton  industry,  namely : 

1.  The  throwing  of  silk,  consisting  in  the  employment  of  apparatus 
more  simple  and  also  less  tliflicult  to  direct  than  the  greater  part  of  the 
machines  in  the  factories  of  the  United  States.  It  is  as  easy  for  the 
United  States  as  for  England  to  obtain  immediately  a  supply  of' raw  sUk 
in  China,  Japan,  and  even  in  the  Levant  and  India. '  It  is  not  improbable 
that  Xew  York  may  become  as  important  a  depot  for  Asiatic  silks  as 
London  now  is.  This  may  be  accomplished  through  the  medium  of  the 
Pacific  railroad.  The  raw  material  having  thus  reached  New  York,  wiU 
be  distributed  not  only  among  oiu-  own  manufacturers,  but  portions, 
doubtless,  will  be  exi^orted  to  foreign  countries.  Let  England  be  taken 
as  an  example  in  this  industry.  In  less  than  fifty  yeai's  "the  silk  manu- 
facture of  Great  Britain,  which  does  not  upon  "her  own  soil  prodnce  a 
single  pound  of  raw  material,  has  anived  at  such  a  degree  of  develop- 
ment as  to  give  employment  to  a  large  amount  of  capital  and  to  about 
110,000  looms,  and  cUrect  occupation  to  some  200,000  persons,  not  includ- 
ing those  engaged  in  the  ribbon  and  silk  hosiery  mannfactnre. 

2.  The  dyeing  of  silk,  already  an  established  branch  of  American  Indus- 


288  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

tiy,  needs  only  the  encouragement  to'  be  derived  from  the  establishment 
of  co-operative  branches  to  compete  successfully  ^ith  European  skill. 

3.  As  to  the  regeueration  and  spinning  of  silky  \vaste  of  all  kinds,  the 
United  States  tind  themselves  in  as  good  a  posiriou  as  most  other  coun- 
ti'ies  to  imdertake  a  work  of  this  sort,  inasmuch  as  they  possess  equal 
facilities  for  procuring  the  waste  and  raw  silk.  This  branch  of  industry 
in  France  gives  emplo^Tneut  to  more  than  30,000  workmen,  and  the  annual 
production  exceeds  $iiO,000,000. 

4.  With  regard  to  the  automatic  weaving  of  plain  stuffs,  the  United 
States  already  compete  successfully  with  the  more  experienced  nations 
of  Eiu'ope.  Looms  exhibited  by  American  constructors  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  were  highly  appreciated  for  their  ingenious  contrivances 
and  remarkable  improvements. 

Three  specialties  remain,  therefore,  to  excel  in  which  time  and  effort 
only  are  necessary,  viz  :  The  rearing  of  silk-worms,  the  reeling  of  the 
cocoons  into  raw  silk,  and  the  weaving  of  figiu-ed  goods.  As  has  already 
been  shown  in  this  article,  the  culture  of  the  mulbeny  in  many  portions 
of  this  country  has  proved  very  successful — in  some  eminently  so.  The 
cocoons  of  California  are  equal  to  any  in  the  world.  Isative  silk  once 
supplied  in  sufficient  quantities  to  enlist  the  inventive  genius  and 
mechanical  aptitude  of  our  people,  will  speedily  solve  the  problems 
presented  in  the  remaining  specialties  just  cited.  The  country  which 
produces  the  most  skillful  and  careful  spinners  of  wool  and  cotton  manu- 
factures will  not  despair  of  arriving  eventually  at  the  successful  produc- 
tion of  the  many  kinds  of  silk  goods  within  its  province. 

MAis^UFACTUEDsG  ri>[  THE  UXITED  STATES. 

The  present  processes  in  American  silk  manufactui'e  are  thus  described 
in  the  New  York  Tribune,  with  a  reference  to  the  localities  and  personnel 
of  the  business  at  the  present  time : 

"  The  first  process  is  to  sort  the  raw  silk  into  sizes,  great  care  being 
required  in  every  stage  that  the  threads  be  equal  in  size,  as  inequality 
would  produce  a  manufacture  of  uneven  and  unmanageable  twist.  It  is 
then  soaked  in  soapy  water  to  dissolve  the  gum  and  render  the  tluead 
pliable  and  elastic.*^  The  skeins  are  slipped  upon  octagonal,  ^vicker 
'swift'  reels,  a  dozen  or  more  of  which  revolve  on  an  axis  fastened  on  the 
legs  of  each  table.  A  thread  from  each  reel-skein  passes  upward  over  a 
smooth  metal  or  glass  rod,  fijsed  on  the  lateral  edge  of  the  table  to  its 
revohing  bobbin,  upon  which  it  is  wound.  After  this  process  the  thread 
is  guided  between  the  contiguous  edge  of  two  sharp  steel  knives,  resem- 
bling scissors,  which  cleans  it  of  gummy  lumps  and  clinging  waste,  to 
another  bobbin.  This  i^rocess  occasions  considerable  waste.  The  finer 
and  more  regular  threads  are  now  taken  for  making  organzines,  which 
are  the  waq>s  of  woven  goods.  Coarser  threads  are  taken  for  trams  or 
woofs.  The  most  inferior  are  used  for  the  mauufacture  of  sewing-silks. 
Loose  and  broken  ends  are  corded  like  cotton  and  siiuu  into  tiuss  for 
embroidery.  The  twisting  or  '  thi'owing '  process  is  done  by  passing 
the  thread  of  raw  silk  from  an  upright  bottom  through  the  eye  of  a 
craned  wire  fiyer,  which  rapidly  spins  with  the  top  of  the  bobbin  revoJv- 
iag  above.  This  thread  is  called  a  'single,'  and  for  organzines  receives 
from  twelve  to  nineteen  twists  to  the  inch.  Organziues  or  trams  ;ire 
made  by  twisting  together  two  of  these  twisted  threads  in  an  opposite 
dii'ection  to  the  former  single  twist,  at  the  rate  of  fi'om  ten  to  seventeen 
tiu'ns  to  the  inch;  the  two  threads  having  previously  been  wound  paral- 
lel upon  one  bobbin.     Organzines  receive  tight  twisting,  to  induce 


SILK    CULTUEE.  289 

Strength  and  elasticity.  A  swing  of  two  twists  to  the  inch  sometimes 
saves  live  cents  to  the  pound  in  the  cost  of  labor,  but  may  occasion 
greater  loss  in  weaving.  Two  or  three  threads  of  raw  silk  twisted 
loosely  two  or  four  times  to  the  inch  is  tram,  shute,  or  woof.  In  weav- 
ing, the  woof  has  little  or  no  strain  upon  it,  and  it  fills  up  the  warp 
better  by  being  soft  and  loose.  The  twist  iu  silk  threads  is  set  by 
dampening  and  diwing.  Skein  sewing- silk  is  made  of  three  to  ten  threads 
twisted  together,  and  two  of  these  latter  doubled.  Sewing-machine 
silk  is  ti'ebly  twisted.  Button-hole  twist  is  the  same,  with  a  tighter 
twist.  Twists  in  the  single  threads  of  se^ring-siiks  are  ten  to  fifteen 
to  the  inch:  and  the  doubled,  eight  to  twelve.  The  organzines  are 
reeled  into  skeins  of  one  or  two  thousand  yards  each,  care  being  taken 
to  make  them  of  the  exact  length,  as  that  compared  with  their  weight 
determines  the  quality  of  the  goods  to  be  woven.  The  American  sew- 
ing-silk machine  is  a  great  improvement  over  the  old-fashioned  one. 
By  the  aid  of  a  few  girls,  the  former  at  once  doubles  and  twists  the  silk, 
and  reels  it  into  skeins  of  equal  length ;  and  it  turns  out  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  pounds  a  week.  The  cost  of  throwing  raw  silk  into 
organzines  is  four  to  five  dollars  per  pound,  a  great  proportion  of  that 
going  to  labor.  Trams  cost  less.  Alter  weighing,  the  threads  go  to  the 
dyer,  who  is  charged  with  the  weight ;  also  with  the  number  of  skeins. 
As  the  manutactiu'er  knows  how  much  of  each  color  should  be  returned, 
little  fraud  or  error  can  hapiieu.  Up  to  the  time  the  silk  goes  to  the 
dyer,  there  is  a  loss  of  three  to  nine  per  cent,  from  cleaning,  breaking, 
&c.  It  loses  eighteen  to  twenty-live  per  cent,  of  the  weight  in  dyeing 
by  the  boiling  off  of  the  worm  gum,  which  is  made  up  greatly  by  sur- 
charging with  sugar  or  dye.  In  the  dye-house  the  silk  skeins  are  tied 
to  prevent  tangling,  and  boiled  for  foiu'  or  five  hours  in  coarse  linen  bags, 
by  which  the  hemi^y  colors  attain  a  luster.  Yellowish  colors  are  '  coun- 
teracted' to  pure  white  by  the  use  of  a  little  blue  dye.  This  white 
dyeing  costs  sixty  cents  a  poimd — less  than  any  other  color.  Of  white 
colors  the  manufacturer  receives  back  from  the  dyer  twelve  ounces 
for  every  pound.  The  aniline  or  bright  colors  cost  81  oO  to  83  50  a 
pound  to  dye.  The  bright  gTcens  are  the  most  expensive.  They  also 
retnrn  twelve  ounces  to  the  pound.  High  colors  are  cheapened  in  the 
weight  by  the  addition  of  three  ounces  of  sugar  to  twelve  of  silk.  Drabs 
and  slate  are  dyed  with  sumac  at  a  cost  of  a  dollar  a  pound,  and  return 
fourteen  ounces.  Blacks  are  dyed  with  nitrate  of  iron  and  cutch,  and 
also  logwood,  a  bluish  shade,  esjiecially  for  velvets,  being  desirable. 
Blue-blacks  retiu-n  fomteen  ounces ;  plain  blacks  the  full  complement, 
losses  being  compensated  by  surcharging.  Surcharging  can  be  carried 
to  the  extent  of  trebling  the  weight  of  the  silk.  After  dyeing,  the 
skeins  are  dried  on  bars  in  a  close-steamed  room,  and  then  liistered  by 
passing  over  hot  cylinders.  Sewing-sUk  is  softened  by  wriugmg,  and 
tied  into  skeins  for  sale.  Trams  and  organzines  are  then  rewound  upon 
bobbins,  and  again  rewound  to  give  a  proper  tension  to  the  thread 
before  weaving. 

PI^ESE^'T   CO^T)ITION  A^'D  PROSPECTS. 

"Such  is  the  extent  to  which  the  American  trade  has  usually  been 
carried,  though  pongees  and  foulards  were  woven  in  Connecticut,  and  rib- 
bons in  Baltimore,  twenty  years  ago.  Dming  the  last  ten  years  the  manu- 
facture of  ribbons  has  increased  rai^idly.  The  Cheney  Brothers,  of  Hart- 
ford, are  making  great  quantities  of  parasol  coverings ;  the  Dole  Com- 
pany, at  Paterson,X.  J.,  are  making  tailors'  trimmings,  scarfs,  and  braids, 
10 


290  AGRICULTTKAL   REPORT. 

Dexter,  Lambert  &  Co.,  of  the  same  city,  make  this  season  3,000  yards 
of  knotted  fringes,  and  2,500  yards  of  bullion  fi'in.aes.  per  day,  dri\-ing 
foreign  goods  ont  of  the  market.  The  processes  of  trimming  manufac- 
ture are  too  intricate  and  tedious  for  popular  description.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  goods  will  show  a  delicately  knotted  thread,  on  a  base  of 
cotton  wound  with  silk.  Broad  silks  are  woven  upon  the  ])lain  loom, 
and  figiu^d  ones  upon  the  Jacquard.  The  oi>erations  are  deUcate  and 
costly.  To  get  the  proper  length  of  warp  for  i)ieco.  and  at  the  same  time 
to  lay  a  suflicient  number  of  the  warp  threads  together,  amounting 
sometimes  to  o,0;!0  or  G.OOO,  the  threads  from  a  great  nimiber  of  bobbins, 
rolling  in  a  fi-ame  like  the  old  school  counting-frame,  are  reeled  back- 
ward and  forward  together  on  a  large  reel.  These  again  are  rewound 
upon  a  large  drum  to  give  them  tension  and  lay  them  the  right  distance 
apart,  the  operation  being  afterward  completed  by  passing  each  thread 
by  hand  Ix^tween  the  teeth  of  a  large  brass  comb,  and  while  they  are 
stretched  cleaning  them  by  hand  with  small  scissors.  Narrow  goods  are 
woven  upon  a  small  adaptation  of  the  plain  or  the  Jacquard  looms,  a 
dozen  or  more  of  which  are  operated  upon  the  same  table.  Watered 
goods  are  made  by  laying  a  piece  of  woven  plain  goods  upon  another, 
and  passing  them  between  iron  cylinders,  one  heated,  the  tension  and 
abrasion  of  the  surfaces  producing  the  wateretl  etiect.  In  chine  goods, 
the  tigure  is  painted  upon  the  close  warp  and  woven  in  by  the  woof. 
"  Shot"  goods  are  woven  with  the  warp  oi  one  color,  and  the  woof  of 
another.  For  the  best  ribbons  Italian  wari^s  are  used.  Bandannas  and 
other  loose  goods  are  made  of  waste  and  cocoon  covers,  scutched, 
chopped,  and  spun  like  cotton.  This  '•  spun"  is  also  used  l)y  some  Ameri- 
can manufacturers  for  the  woofs  of  broad  goods.  The  Mui'ray  mill,  at 
Paterson,  was  about  to  be  used  in  this  trade  before  it  was  recently 
burned.  Inferior  silks  are  i:)roduced  altogether  from  "  spun,^  but  the 
latter,  being  loose  in  textui-e,  is  best  if  used  as  a  woof,  with  a  web  of 
pure  silk  warp,  when  it  makes  a  good  article. 

"At  the  present  time  American  silk  fabiics  are  competing  favorably  with 
European  goods,  in  braids  and  trimmings  we  have  driven  foreigners 
out  of  the  market,  and  oiu-  ribbons  are  purchased  as  freely  as  theirs. 
But  it  is  with  broad  silks  that  the  manufacturer  will  exiierimeut.  and 
produce,  and  succeed ,  during  the-  next  ten  years.  P.  G.  Gi venaud.  of  West 
Hoboken,  X.  J.,  and  John  X.  Sterns,  of  First  Avenue,  New  York,  now 
turn  out  respectively  several  thousand  yards  of  ^toa*  grain  silks  per  week, 
which  no  man  in  the  trade  can  tell  from  the  best  imported  articles,  and 
which  retail  on  Broadway  for  $5  per  yard.  With  the  present  tarill"  of 
sixt^'  per  cent.  American  manufactmer.s  can  throw  and  weave  silk  goods 
at  a  profit  ot  fifteen  i>er  cent.  There  are  now  in  Philadelphia  tliu'ty  trim- 
ming factories,  those  of  Graham,  Horstmann,  (carriage  and  military 
trimmings.)  and  Hensel  &  Cornet,  being  the  largest.  At  Hartford  and 
South  Manchester,  Conn.,  the  Cheney  Brothers,  who  have  been  engaged 
in  the  business  for  thirty  years,  emjiloy  1,000  hands,  and  have  the  follow- 
ing capacity  per  annum:  00,000  pounds  of  thrown  silk,  00,000  pounds  of 
•'  iiatent  spmi."  100,000  iiieces  of  belt  ribbons,  and  000,000  yards  of  wide 
goods,  comiirising  dress  silks,  gros  grains,  poplins,  foulards,  and  pongees. 
The  Dole  Manufacturing  Company,  which,  in  ISCo,  built  at  Paterson, 
N.  J.,  a  mill  probably  as  large  as  any  in  Europe,  having  a  mean  length 
of  37o  feet,  and  a  height  of  four  stories,  turn  out  3,00<.)  pounds  of  manu- 
factured threads  per  month,  1,000  gross  of  silk  bra.ids.  GOO  gross  of  hat 
bands,  and  3,300  yards  of  serge,  performing  within  the  mill  every  oper- 
ation necessary  to  produce  the  goods  from  the  raw  thread,  and  employ- 
ing 300  hands,  mostly  children  of  Paterson  machinists.    John  N.  Stems, 


SILK    CULTURE.  291 

of  New  York,  is  making  400  yards  of  woven  goods  per  day,  find  31.  Give- 
nand  over  300.  Dexter,  Lambert  &  Co.,  at  Paterson,  N.  J.,  make 
G0,000  to  75,000  yards  of  tli'ess  trimmings  per  month,  and  during  tlie 
•past  spring  season,  manufactured  12,000  dozen  yards  of  bullion  trim- 
mings. Hamil  &  Booth's  Passaic  Mill,  beside  making  trams  and  organ- 
zines,  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  dress  goods.  Nearly  all"  the 
Paterson  mills  are  engaged  in  this  specialty,  the  Dole  Company  having 
introduced  a  large  number  of  improved  American  looms ;  and  the 
Murray  mill,  which  was  burned  in  May,  but  will  be  rebuilt,  will  be 
employed  in  weaving  broad  goods  of  net  warps  and  "  spun"  fillings. 
American  dyers  are  succeeding  in  producing  as  fine  shades  of  color  as 
the  French.  Claude  Greppo,  at  Paterson,  y»ith  thii-ty-five  dyers,  some 
of  them  from  France,  is  daily  turning  out  350  pounds  of  dyed  silk,  the 
colors  of  which  are  equal  to  any  producd  at  Lyons  or  Saint  Etienne.  The 
American  velvet  mill  started  at  Paterson  a  few  years  ago  failed.  New 
York  City  contains  probably  fifty  establishments  for  various  grades  of 
the  manufacture ;  many  of  them  are  small.  At  Schenectady,  Troy,  and 
Yonkers,  are  also  several  mills.  Paterson  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
tiade  and  contains  fifteen  factories.  The  operatives  are  mostly  children 
of  mechanics,  the  majoritj' of  them  girls,  who  earn  from  $1  to  67  per 
week.  Li  the  trimming  and  wea^ing  mills,  skdlfd  operatives  brought 
from  Lyons  receive  as  much  as  835  a  week  for  piece  work  during  the 
spring  season,  and  girls  trained  to  the  labor  can  earn  89  and  810  a  week. 
Some  of  the  mills  in  Connecticut  and  Hoboken  employ  operatives,  as  in 
Europe,  to  take  the  materials  and  weave  the  goods  at  home." 

THE   AIS~XUAL  PEOBUCTIOIN"   OF   SILK. 

The  annual  production  of  raw  silk  is  estimated  at  8211,000,000,  oi 
which  America  is  credited  with  a  mere  trifle  at  present ;  but  twenty 
years  will  probably  make  a  great  change.  Eighty  years  ago  the  viilue 
of  the  silk  goods  manufactiu-ed  annually  in  France  was  85,000,000;  now 
it  is  $150,000,000.  The  silk  industry  has  not  made  so  much  progress  in 
Germany,  Spain,  or  Italy,  yet  it  has*^  also  made  gTcat  advances  in  those 
countries,  and  it  i)romises  to  make  great  advances  here. 

This  manufacture  is  so  gTeat  and  profitable,  and  is  extending  so 
rapidly,  that  the  people  of  the  United  States  should  make  their  best 
etibrts  to  get  possession  of  a  part  of  it. 

SILK  CULTUEE  IN  CALIFORNLi. 

The  breeding  of  the  silk-worm  in  California  has  been  commenced  so 
extensively,  and  so  profitably,  and  there  is  so  much  probability  of  its 
rapid  extension,  that  it  is  already  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  promising 
industries  and  important  resources  of  the  State.  It  has  thus  become  an 
interestmg  branch  of  our  national  agriculture,  and  a  i)roper  subject  for 
study  by  those  who  desire  to  keep  pace  with  the  material  progress  of  the 
country.  It  pays  well,  and  carries  with  it  many  branches  of  manufac- 
tures which  require  costly  machinery,  high  mechanical  skill,  and  artistic 
labor,  all  of  which  will  contribute  to  enrich  the  nation.  The  br.siuessis 
capable  of  great  development.  The  market  has  never  yet  been  over- 
stocked, nor  is  it  likely  that  it  ever  wiU  be,  so  long  as  it  is  fashionable 
to  wear  the  textile  fabrics  now  in  use.  The  best  raw  silk  sells  readily 
for  its  weight  in  silver,  and  France  obtains  seven  times  as  much  money 
from  her  cocooneries  and  silk  factories  as  Mexico  does  from  her  mines. 


292  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


rNTRODUCTION  IT^TO    CALIFOENIA. 

Among  the  pioueer  settlers  of  California  "svas  Louis  Prevost,  an  en-  ^ 
thtisiastic  Frenebmaii,  vrho  bad  bred  tbe  silk-worm  iu  bis  native  coun-* 
try.  Soon  after  establisbing  bimself  iu  tbe  valley  of  Santa  Clara,  be 
became  convinced  tbat  tbe  climate  and  country  were  peculiarly  adapted 
to  tbe  production  of  silk ;  so  be  imported  mulberry  seed,  made  a  nursery, 
and  set  out  some  of  tbe  trees  in  a  plantation,  ])ut  liad  mucb  difficulty 
in  getting  live  eggs.  He  succeeded  in  interesting  Hemy  Hentscb,  a 
Swiss  banker,  in  bis  scbemes ;  and  tbat  gentleman,  in  1S37,  imported  a 
lot  of  eggs,  all  of  wbicb  were  dead,  or  were  batcbed  on  tbe  voyage,  and 
tbe  worms  died  before  reacbing  California.  Anotber  shipment  tbe  next 
year  shared  tbe  same  fate.  In  tbe  third  shipment  a  few  eggs  arrived  in 
good  order,  and,  in  18C0,  Mr.  Prevost  bad  tbe  delight  of  seeing  himself 
in  possession  of  California  cocoons,  which,  in  size,  luster,  color,  and 
every  desiral)lc  quality,  were  far  superior  to  the  average  of  the  European 
cocoons.  Altliougb  be  had  not  given  half  so  much  time  to  tbe  worms 
as  is  given  in  Prance,  they  were  all  very  healthy,  and  he  did  not  hesitate 
to  advise  all  his  friends  to  go  into  tbe  silk  business  as  a  source  of  i^rofit. 
Unfortunately,  after  bavbig  failed  for  several  years  iu  his  attempts  to  get 
live  eggs,  be  bad  dug  up  most  of  bis  mulberry  trees,  so  that  he  was  not 
prepared  to  feed  many  woims,  and,  besides,  be  bad  not  enough  money 
or  tbe  credit  to  justify  him  iu  devoting  himself  entirely  to  an  occupation 
which  would  not  give  him  a  return  for  several  years.  His  progress  was, 
therefore,  slovr.  In  tbe  fall  of  18G0  he  bad  5U0  eggs ;  be  becau  the  Year 
1862,  with  2.000:  1863,  with  3,000;  186i,  with  about  the  same  number, 
and  1865,  with  100,000. 

PIlESE^'T  CONDITION  OF  TniS  ENTERPRISE  IN  CALIFOENTA. 

Within  the  last  three  years  the  increase  has  been  gi-eat,  more  than 
3,000,000  worms  havmg  been  bred  in  18G8.  At  the  State  fair,  held  at 
Sacramento  in  September  last,  twenty-eight  persons  exhibited  cocoons, 
and  the  places  represented  were  San  Jose,  Sacramento,  Santa  Barbara, 
Santa  Cruz,  Hornitos,  San  Gabriel,  Los  Angeles,  Nevada,  Placerville, 
and  Portland,  (3regon.  The  cocoons  were  of  several  varieties,  including 
tbe  new  French,  old  French,  white  Jai^anese,  green  Japanese,  Chinese, 
Turkish,  yellow  Portuguese,  white  Portuguese,  yellow  Mouutam,  Val- 
reas,  white  Oak,  and  viild  California — varieties  most  of  which  are  of 
no  practical  value,  tbe  old  French  being  equal  iu  tbe  heaUbiuess  of  the 
worms,  and  superior  in  tbe  quantity  and  quality  of  tbe  sillc  fiber,  to  any 
other.  Among  tbe  exhibitors  were  J.  N.  JJoag,  of  Yolo  County,  three 
miles  from  Sacramento,  who  bred  1,000,000  vrorms,  in  1868;  "\V.  M.  Haynie, 
of  Sacrameuto,  who  bred  800,000 ;  Louis  Prevost,  of  San  Jose,  who  bred 
.300,000;  G.  E.  Goux,  and  A.  Packard,  of  Santa  Barbara.  100,000  each: 
D.  F.  Hall,  of  San  Gabriel,  200,000;  aud  Mr.  Garev,  of  Los  Angeles^ 
20,000.  The  gentleman  last  named  expects  to  feed  100,000  in  1869 ; 
and  many  others  will  double  and  treble  their  i)roductiou.  The  main 
obstacle  to  ])rogress,  at  present,  is  the  scarcity  of  mulberry  trees ;  but 
plants  gTOw  so  ra})idly  in  Cabibrnia  that,  v»ben  the  cutu-e  agTicultural 
population  is  satislied  that  the  breeding  of  the  silk-worm  will  pay  better 
than  auythiug  else,  the  production  of  cocoons  can  be  raised  to  a  very 
large  figure  iu  :i  few  years.  It  is  probable,  from  arrangements  and  pre- 
parations tbat  are  now  l)eing  made,  and  from  opi^iions  exi)ressed  by  silk- 
growers,  that  the  number  of  cocoons  vdll  double  annually,  for  several 


'  SILK   CULTURE.  293' 

years  to  come'.  This  xtould  give  6,000,000,  in  1869 ,'  12,000,000,  in  1870 ; 
and  24,000,000,  in  1871.  It  is  supposed  that  there  will  be  enough  mul- 
berry trees  to  feed  so  many,  but  this  may  be  an  erroneous  supposition. 
Hitherto  the  business  has  been  profitable,  or  at  least  since  1865.  The 
eggs  have  commanded  a  ready  sale,  at  $8  or  810  per  ounce,  until  last 
summer,  when  the  price  fell  to  $1 ;  now  $12  are  demanded,  but  this  is 
too  much.  When  the  Pacific  railroad  is  done,  oflering  speedy  convey- 
ance, in  a  cold  climate,  to  Europe,  the  price  will  probably  be  not  less 
than  SG.  Heretofore,  the  shipment  of  eggs  to  Europe  has  been  accom- 
panied by  much  loss,  because  many  were  hatched  or  killed  by  the  heat 
of  the  tropics.  Even  at  $4  per  ounce,  however,  the  business  will  be 
profitable. 

THE  B03I13YX  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  in  California  the  Bomhyx 
mori  requires  about  fifty-five  days  to  complete  the  course  of  its  existence ; 
four  days  in  the  egg ;  thirty-five  in  the  caterpillar  ;  twelve  in  the  chry- 
salis ;  and  four  in  the  moth  form.  The  circimistances  favorable  to  the 
development  of  the  animal  are  a  dry,  warm,  and  quiet  atmosphere  in 
all  the  stages,  and  an  abundance  of  wholesome  food  in  addition,  in  the 
caterpillar  stage;  for,  in  that  condition  it  takes  all  its  nourishment. 
Neither  the  chrysalis  nor  the  moth  ever  eats  anything. 

The  life  of  the  caterpillar  is  divided  into  four  i)eriods  by  moltings, 
at  each  of  which  it  eats  nothing  for  a  day,  and  creeps  out  of  its  skin, 
coming  out  Adth  a  new  dress.  The  first  molting  occurs  on  the  fifth  day, 
the  second  on  the  eighth,  the  third  on  the  thirteenth,  and  the  fourth  on 
the  twenty-second. 

The  eggs  may  be  kept  for  a  year  in  a  cold  place,  and  the  caterpillar 
may  live  for  four  or  five  months,  if  the  weather  is  cool  and  the  food 
scanty  or  of  poor  quality.  In  Hindostan,  silk-worms  have  been  known 
to  rmi  through  the  circle  of  life  in  forty  days,  and  in  France  the  average 
period  is  about  sixty-five  days.  The  time  spent  in  the  chrysalis  is  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  days  in  Cahforuia;  from  eighteen  to  twenty  in  Hin- 
dostan, and  from  twenty  to  twentj'-five  in  France. 

YIELD  PER  ACRE. 

An  acre  should  support  from  700  to  1,000  mulberry-trees,  and,  when 
four  years  old,  they  should  produce  5,000  pounds  of  leaves  to  the  acre ; 
that  is,  5,000  pounds  suitable  for  feeding,  and,  during  feeding  time,  with- 
out injury  to  the  tree.  Those  leaves  should  feed  at  least  140,000  worms, 
which  will  produce  70,000  female  moths,  and  these  will  lay  300  eggs 
^ach,  or  21,000,000  in  all.  After  deducting  5,000,000  for  possible  loss, 
we  have  16,000,000  eggs,  or  400  ounces  for  sale,  or  81,600  per  acre.  In 
France  the  expense  of  breeding  75,000  worms,  iucludiug  the  cost  of  the 
eggs,  $6,  the  leaves,  828,  the  lalior  of  two  persons  for  forty  days,  864, 
fire,  84,  and  incidental  expenses,  810,  amounts  to  8112.  ]Mr.  Prevost  says 
that  one  person  can  do  all  the  work  in  California  for  75,000  worms,  and 
rhe  expense  to  the  farmer  who  has  his  own  eggs  and  mulberry  planta- 
tion should  not  exceed  81  per  ounce  of  eggs.  At  84  per  ounce  an  acre 
would  thus  yield  81,200  net.  At  82  i^er  ounce,  the  common  price  in 
France  for  French  eggs,  the  net  yield  would  be  8400  per  acre.  Skillful 
French  silk-growers  expect  to  get  8800  from  an  acre  of  mulberry  plant- 
ation. "We  have  followed  the  best  authorities  in  stating  that  5,000 
pounds  of  leaves  wiU  feed  140,000  worms,  but  some  writers  say  5,000 


294  AGEICULTUKAL   EEPORT. 

pounds  to  70,000  worms ;  and  tlieir  statements  must  not  be  left  out  of  cal- 
culations. Let  us  now  consider  tbe  i)rofit  that  may  be  derived  fi-om  the 
sale  of  the  cocoons.  The  acre  will  produce  140,000  worms,  or,  allowing- 
35,000  for  loss,  105,000  cocoons,  which  will  weigh  420  pounds,  and  be 
worth  $3  per  pound,  or  81,200  in  all.  At  present  prices  the  production 
of  the  eggs  is  the  more  profitable  occupation  for  Californians,  but  they 
should  enter  the  business  prepared  for  the  worst  contingency  within  the 
range  of  reasonable  probability. 

THE   SILK- WORM  DISEASE. 

It  is  not  likely,  however,  that  the  x)rice  of  California  eggs  will  fall  below 
$5  per  ounce.  Europe  is  no  longer  able  to  supply  itself.  The  worms  in 
France,  Italy,  Turkey,  and  all  the  countries  within  a  thousand  miles  of 
the  Mediterranean,  are  diseased.  Xeither  pi'cventive  nor  remedy  has 
been  found.  Thiers  said,  in  a  speech  in  the  Corps  Lerjislatif,  that  the 
annual  loss  to  France  by  the  disease  is  820,000,000. 

The  Revue  UniverscUc  de  Sericulture  says  the  production  of  cocoons  in 
France  has  fallen,  on  account  of  the  malady,  from  25,000,000  to  4,000,000 
kilograms.*  This  pest  has  raged  for  twelve  years,  and  has  been 
growing  worse  and  worse.  The  ablest  chemists  and  entomologists  have 
failed  to  discover  the  cause  or  the  cure.  If  Europe  coidd  not  import 
eggs,  there  would  be  imminent  danger  that  her  silk  production  would 
come  to  an  end  5  and  serious  fears  have  been  expressed  that  the  disease 
will  spread  to  other  countries  where  worms  are  bred,  and  that  the  silk 
manufacture  will  become  one  of  the  lost  or  abandoned  arts. 

JAPANESE  EGGS. 

At  present,  France  and  Italy  rely  mainly  for  their  sui^ply  of  healthy 
eggs  on  Japan.  Every  year  about  fifty  Italians,  and  half  as  many 
Frenchmen,  go  to  Yokohama  to  purchase  eggs,  and  pay  from  81  50  to 
$6  per  ounce  for  them  5  and  the  total  amount  of  their  purchases,  in  18G7, 
was  800,000  ounces,  averaging  $2  50  per  ounce;  in  1808  the  quantity 
was  twice  as  large,  and  the  average  price  per  ounce  about  the  same. 
Yokohama  is  the  main  market  for  the  sale  of  Bombyx  eggs  to  Euro- 
peans, but  something  is  also  done  at  Osaka  and  Hakodadi.  Kioto  \\ 
the  chief  center  of  the  Japanese  silk  trade,  which  has  received  a  great 
stimulus  from  foreign  intercourse,  the  price  of  silk  having  doubled,  and 
the  production  increased  twenty-five  per  cent,  within  the  last  ten  years. 
For  a  time  the  eggs  were  sent  from  Japan  by  way  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez,  but,  since  the  establishment  of  the  China  mail  steamer  line,  they 
have  commenced  to  come  by  way  of  San  Francisco  and  Panama ;  and,  so 
soon  as  the  Pacific  raih'oad  is  done,  they  will  cross  the  continent,  so  as 
not  to  leave  tlie  temperate  zone,  the  loss  being  great  in  proportion  to 
the  heat  and  length  of  time  spent  in  the  tropics. 

TE3IPEEATUIIE  IN  C.VLIFOK^'IA. 

California  luiist  compete  with  Japan,  and  can  do  it  successfully.  It 
is  admitted  that  the  California  cocoons  are  superior  to  the  Japanese ; 
they  are  worth  one  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent,  more  per  pound ;  the 
eggs  are  more  healthy,  therefore  they  will  command  a  higher  price. 
The  climate  is  more  favorable,  the  production  larger,  and  land  cheaper. 

*A  kilogram  is  equal  to  2.204737  pounds  avoirdupois. 


SILK    CULTURE. 


295 


Climate  is  a  matter  of  vast  importance  to  tlie  silk-worm,  and  in  no  coun- 
try Trhere  much  silk  is  gTown  is  it  so  favorable  as  in  California.  The 
first  point  is  temperature.  The  worm  needs  a  warmth  of  So"^  for  hatch- 
ing, 730  while  feeding,  and  60^  while  spinning.  These  temperatures 
are  not  indispensable,  but  they  are  the  best.  The  following  table  shows 
the  temperatme  of  every  month,  at  various  points  in  the  United  States, 
and  at  certain  cities  in  silk  districts  of  the  old  world : 


Places. 

1 

CS 

3 
a 
a 

-> 

.  1 

5 

Eh 

4 
5 

< 

^ 
S 

1 

! 

a 

s 

i-s 

bo 
< 

.3 

a 

tiQ 

.0 
0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Is 

0  0 
< 

Saa  Francisco 

0 
49 
40 
50 
51 
45 
47 
50 
54 
31 
44 
34 
27 
45 
47 
56 
33 
24 
27 
26 
5.5 
31 
31 
41 
54 
50 
33 
30 

33 
23 
30 
43 
52 
51 
41 
33 
44 

3y 

0 
51 
43 
50 
53 
47 
52 
55 
54 
37 
49 
32 
37 
48 
53 
53 
40 
24 
34 
30 
57 
3:3 
32 
45 
56 
52 
39 
35 
34 
24 
30 
44 
55 
60 
42 
38 
45 
41 

0 

52 
47 
51 
56 
51 
53 
58 
56 
43 
54 
41 
38 
51 
56 
66 
46 
25 
39 
38 
63 
40 
36 
55 
62 
58 
47 
44 
43 
32 
38 
50 
62 
70 
44 
46 
49 
46 

c 

55 
54 
53 
61 
53 
57 

62 
49 
59 

44 
59 
62 
73 
53 
42 
50 
46 
69 
51 
47 
59 
69 
65 
54 
58 
54 
46 
48 
61 
70 
83 
50 
54 
55 
53 

0 
55 
53 
56 
62 
62 
59 

63 

54 
65 
61 
49 
67 
68 
76 
59 

63 
51 
76 
57 
56 
68 
74 
73 
65 
66 
63 
56 
59 
69 
77 
100 
61 
63 
62 
61 

0 

56 
58 
57 
67 
65 
67 
73 
70 
61 
77 
66 
52 
71 
83 
87 
67 

71 
69 
80 
68 
67 
75 
79 
79 
73 
74 
71 
62 
63 

81 
96 
69 
70 
60 
66 

0 
57 
58 
58 
72 
66 
67 
75 
73 
71 
82 
71 
63 
73 
90 
92 
73 

76 
69 

n 
74 

79 

81 
81 
77 
78 
76 
70 
74 
80 
63 
84 
76 

,0 

57 
57 
59 
73 
66 
66 
75 
73 
68 
79 
68 
58 
73 
83 
90 
70 
63 
75 
67 
83 
70 
73 
78 
81 
80 
74 
76 
74 
68 
73 
83 
82 
86 
74 
73 
76 
71 

0 

58 
57 
59 
70 
67 
64 
75 

7-T 

62 
71 
57 
53 
66 
76 
86 
61 
59 
67 
56 
79 
CI 
64 
72 
78 
76 
67 
68 
66 
60 
65 
78 
80 
84 
69 
65 
68 
65 

0 

57 
53 
58 
65 
66 
62 
69 
67 
51 
62 
52 
53 
64 
67 
76 
53 
48 
55 
46 
72 
51 
50 
53 
69 
67 
57 
55 
53 
48 
54 
66 
73 
75 
61 
56 
58 
56 

0 
54 
48 
54 
56 
58 
54 
59 
57 
41 
52 
44 
43 
52 
55 
64 
41 
34 
41 
35 
61 
38 
35 
53 
GO 
59 
44 
40 
42 
37 
43 
53 
65 
64 
56 
45 
46 
43 

0 
51 
45 
50 
51 
46 
47 
60 
52 
32 
44 
32 
36 
45 
48 
55 
33 
22 
31 
29 
50 
30 
28 
40 
56 
.52 
38 
33 
33 
29 

a3 
47 

57 

56 
41 
36 
43 
42 

0 
54 
57 

55 

6" 

58 

58 

63 

51 

6? 

46 

59 

Fort  Miller 

66 

73 

Dalles 

C.I 

Fort  HaU 

Salt  Lake  CitT 

S'J 

Fort  Dtfiauee 

46 

69 

Santa  F^ 

50 

50 

60 

68 

Charleston 

66 

56 

55 

53 

Ch .  cago 

46 

51 

6-^ 

69 

75 

57 

54 

58 

Canton  and  Milan  are  the  two  chief  centers  of  silk  production  men- 
tioned in  the  foregoing  table,  and  they  difLer  considerably  in  the  matter 
of  temperature.  The  former  has  a  winter  av^jraging  i-i^  and  a  summer  of 
80^ ;  while  the  latter  has  a  winter  of  00^,  and  a  summer  of  72°.  The  sum- 
mer should  not  be  below  OoO ;  ami,  therefore,  San  Francisco,  Humboklt 
Bay,  and  Monterey  are  not  adapted  to  the  Bomhyx.  All  of  California, 
however,  except  a  strij)  within  fifteen  miles  of  ihe  ocean,  from  Point  Con- 
ception to  Cape  Mendocino,  and  forty  miles  wide  noith  of  Mendocino, 
and  the  mountains  more  than  three  thousaud  feet  above  the  sea,  is  suit- 
able for  the  siik-worm.  The  temperature,  though  not  warm  enough  in 
the  open  air  at  some  places,  becomes  so  in  a  garret  upon  which  the 
rays  of  the  sun  beat  during  the  day.  The  worms  thrive  best,  other 
things  being  equal,  in  a  place  where  the  thermometer  reaches  G5°  in 
Maj-,  and  stands  about  75°  in  June  and  July,  as  it  does  at  Los  Angeles, 
and  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Sacramento  Basin. 

MOISTLTIE   EN'   CAXEFOEXIA. 

The  next  point,  in  connection  with  climate,  is  the  amount  of  rain-faU 


296 


AGRICULl URAL   KEPORT. 


in  spring  and  summer.    Tlie  following  table  gires  the  number  of  inches, 
at  different  points,  with  their  altitude  and  latitude  : 


Places. 


;  In. 


San  Francisco 

Benl'  a I 

S;icrainento ! 

}ImalH.](lt  Bar 

Monterey ' 

S.II1  Diego ; 

Jumpa 1 

Fort  YnBia ' 

Tonl^filler I 

Fort  Iteadinjt ' 

Fort  Jones :} 

Dalles < 

Fort  Defiance I 

Santa  Fe 

Laramie 

Cincinnati 

St.  Lonis 

Memphis , 

Xew  Orleans 

Charleston 

Milan 

Itomc 

Padiia 

Paris 

Dijon 

ifarseilles 

Bonleaux 

Canton 


Jn. 

0 
U 
0 
1 
0 
0 

a 
1 

0 
0 

1 

0 
6 


in.      In.        In.       Feet 


8 

^ 

5 

4] 

i:» 

10  ' 

14 

9 

8 

19 

13 

19 

12 

9 

12 

3 

11 

9 

12 

C 

6 

8 

9 

o 

» 

8 

10 

23 

19 

11 

7 
15 
15 

9 

8 

9  j 

7  I 


91 
IC 
19 

34  '< 

12  1 
10  i 

't! 

CM  ; 
•S  1 
IG  i 

13  I 
17 
19  I 
19  . 
4G  : 
42  1 

••>  I 

62  i 

48 

38 

30 

37 

22 

31 

2) 

34 

69 


50 

37  43 

50  ' 

38  03 

75 

38  31 

50 

4-J  46 

140 

36  3S 

150 

32  42 

1,000 

3100 

120 

32  43 

402 

37  CO 

400 

40  28 

2.570 

41  36 

350 

45  36 

7.000 

35  44 

6.846 

35  41 

4,519 

42  12 

543 

39  06 

450 

33  37 

400 

35  C8 

50 

29  57 

30 

32  441 

763 

45  33 

170 

41  54 

150 

43  24 

2SS 

48  50 

800 

47  20 

150 

43  13 

30 

44  50 

SO 

S3  03 

The  silk- worm  needs  a  di\v  climate  in  the  spring  and  summer,  at  which 
seasons  only  it  is  in  active  life.  Rain  or  dew  on  the  leaves  causes  a 
diarrhea,  which  is  fatal  to  great  numbers :  and,  in  seasons  of  storm,  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  dry  the  leaves  artificially.  It  will  be  obser^'ed 
that'  California  is  alone  in  having  no  rain  in  summer :  and.  in  this 
respect,  it  has  an  immense  advantage  over  France,  Italy.  China,  and 
Japan.  There  is  some  rain  in  Calilbrnia  in  the  spring,  biTt  it  comes  in 
March,  before  hatching  commences,  so  it  does  no  harm ;  and  even  the 
March  rains  are  not  so  abundant  as  the  May  rains  at  Canton.  Milan,  or 
Cincinnati. 

Abundant  simuner  rains  are  always  accompanied  by  ^iolent  thunder- 
storms, which  are  very  destructive  to  the  worms :  and  China  and  the 
^Mississippi  Valley  are  ]ieculiarly  subject  to  these  electrical  convidsions. 
None  of  the  countiies  Avhere  silk  is  produced  extensively  are  free  from 
them  ;  and  it  is  left  to  California  to  prove  the  immense  value  of  this 
exception. 

HEALTH  OF  WORMS  IN   CALITOKXIA. 

The  superiority  of  the  climate  of  California  and  the  consequent  in- 
variably dry  condition  of  the  midbeny  leaf  render  the  silk-worms  so 
healthy  that  they  do  not  require  half  so  much  labor  as  in  Eiu-ope.  In 
France  one  laborer  cannot  attend  well  to  more  than  35.000 ;  and,  in 
some  places,  there  is  one  laborer  to  12.000.  But  in  California,  one 
attends  to  100,000.  '  Mr.  Prevost,  of  Sau  Jo.sc.  wrote,  in  ISOO :  ••  I  have 
this  last  season  raised  over  100,000  silk-worms,  every  worm  making  a 
cocoon,  and  all  this  with  my  own  work  alone."  Others  have,  in  the  same 
manner,  bred  100,000  worms  with  the  labor  of  one  man. 


SILK    CULTURE.  297 


MODE   OF  FEEDING  IN   CALIFORNIA. 

In  Europe  the  leaves  are  plucked  off  separately,  ■whereas  in  Califor- 
nia, after  the  worms  are  ten  days  old,  the  shoots  are  cut  off  with  their 
leaves,  instead  of  taking  off'  each  leaf  separately.  The  shoots  are 
laid  do"wn  four  at  a  time,  crossing  one  another  at  the  ends,  so  as  to  form 
a  square.  After  the  leaves  have  been  eaten  off",  four  more  shoots  are 
laid  down  on  top  of  the  others,  and  this  mode  of  building  up  is  con- 
tinued, and  the  result  is  a  rectangular  pen,  the  top  of  which  is  green 
and  fresh,  and  is  occupied  b}"^  the  worms.  It  is  after  the  second  molting 
that  the  Avorms  need  the  most  food,  and  there  is  a  great  economy  in 
feeding  shoots  instead  of  separate  leaves.  In  Europe  the  droppings 
and  the  remains  of  the  uneaten  leaves  must  be  carefully  taken  away,  or 
they  putrefy  and  make  the  air  unwholesome,  and  endanger  the  life  of 
the  worms ;  but,  in  the  dry  air  of  our  valleys,  putrefaction  is  prevented 
by  desiccation,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  cleanse  the  cocoonery  diu-ing 
the  last  half  of  the  life  of  the  worm ;  and  when  necessary,  it  is  done 
with  less  labor ;  because,  before  ckansing,  the  worms  are  moved  on 
branches ;  whereas  in  Europe  it  is  customary  to  move  them  on  separate 
leaves,  direct  handling  beiug  dangerous  to  them. 

Thomas  A.  Garey,  of  Los  Angeles,  date  of  November  9,  1868,  gives 
the  following  history  of  the  different  feedings  of  sUk-worms  in  that 
county  diuing  the  past  season.  The  eggs  of  the  different  crops  were 
hatched  spontaneously,  without  artificial  heat.  Mr.  Garey's  operations 
constituted  his  first  experiment  in  silk  culture  : 

The  first  crop  of  the  season  was  hatched  and  fed  by  D.  F.  Hall,  of 
San  Gabi  iel.  The  eggs  commenced  hatching  April  15  j  spinning  was 
commenced  June  1 ;  making  forty-seven  days  from  eggs  to  cocoon. 
Number  fed,  40,000;  from  10,000  cuttings;  four  months  from  planting. 
Variety,  Chinese  animals.  The  second  crop,  by  Mr.  Garey,  hatched  May 
25.  Time  from  eggs  to  cocoons,  forty  days.  Number  fed,  20,000.  Va- 
rieties, Chinese,  Turkish,  and  Portuguese  annuals.  Third  crop,  also  by 
Mr.  Garey,  hatched  July  5.  Time  fi'om  eggs  to  cocoons,  thirty-two 
days.  Variety,  Japanese  trivoltines.  Number  fed,  3,000 ;  from  cuttings 
of  spring  gTowth.  Fourth  crop  commenced  hatching  August  31.  Time 
from  eggs  to  cocoons,  twenty-seven  days.  Variety,  Japanese  trivol- 
tines. Number  fed,  98,000.  Fed  entirely  from  10,000  cuttings  between 
eight  and  nine  months  from  planting.  Fifth  crop,  hatching  at  the  time 
of  this  statement. 

AMOUNT   OF  LOSS. 

It  is  customary  in  Europe  to  allow  at  least  twenty-five  ]wr  cent,  for 
loss  of  worms.  One  Qgg  in  four  does  not  make  a  cocoon  ;  that  is,  with 
the  healthiest  varieties.  Dming  the  last  ten  years,  since  the  prevalence 
of  the  silk-worm  disease,  the  loss  has  risen  to  an  average  of  fifty  per 
cent,  among  the  peasants  or  small  silk-gTOwers,  and  seventy  per  cent, 
among  the  large  proi)rietors.  In  making  calculation  <jf  the  production 
of  eggs  in  California,  we  have  allowed  for  a  loss  of  5,000,000  out  of 
21,000,000,  but  no  such  loss  has  occurred  there  among  those  who  pos- 
sess competent  information,  and  have  given  care  to  the  business.  Out 
of  a  lot  of  80,000  vrorms,  bred  by  Mr.  Prevost,  in  1SG7,  he  did  not,  so 
far  as  he  knows,  lose  one,  although  he  fed  them  with  branches.  It  is  not 
to  be  supi)Osed  that  every  lot  of  eggs  could  be  hatched,  and  the  worms 
be  bred,  without  loss ;  but  a  saAing  of  ten  per  cent,  would  go  far  to 
comi)ensate  for  the  difference  in  wages  between  France  and  California. 


298  AGEICCLTUEAL   REPORT. 

CAEE  OF  THE  WORMS. 

When  the  eggs  begin  to  liatcli,  they  are  covered  with  leaves,  and 
every  evening  the  leaves  are  changed,  all  of  one  day  l>eiug  kept  carefully 
separate  fiom  those  of  another  day.  Twenty -four  hours  are  an  im- 
portant period  in  the  life  of  a  young  worm ;  and  all  of  the  same  age, 
that  is.  all  bom  on  the  same  day,  are  kept  together,  or  managed  in  the 
same  manner.  On  the  sixth  day  they  begin  to  molt,  or  change  their 
skin  :  and,  while  moldng,  they  must  not  be  distui-bed,  even  by  putting 
leaves  over  them.  K  worms  of  two  ages  were  together,  the  older  ones 
woidd  be  distui'bed  while  molting  by  the  feeding  of  the  young  ones. 
The  injury  to  the  worm,  by  distui-bance,  is  gi'cater  in  the  later  molt- 
ings,  and  greatest  in  the  last.  For  one  pound  that  is  eaten  per  day  in 
the  first  age  of  the  worm,  fotir  are  necessary  in  the  second,  nine  in  the 
third,  and  twenty  in  the  fomth.  ]\Ir.  Haynie  says  100,0(K)  worms  require 
thirty  pounds  of  leaves  per  day  in  the  first  age,  one  hundred  and  twenty 
pounds  in  the  second,  two  huudi^ed  and  eighty  poiuids  in  the  third,  and 
six  hundred  pounds  in  the  fourth  and  filth.  During  the  last  two  ages 
they  shoidd  be  fed  at  night,  as  well  as  in  day-time. 

The  cocoonery  should  be  dry,  sweet,  well  ventilated,  roomy,  warm, 
equable  in  temp'eratuie,  and  well  lighted,  but  none  of  the  worms  should 
be  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  AMien  spinning  time  comes,  the 
wonn  prefers  darkness.  Some  small  twig-like  material,  with  spaces 
a1x)ut  an  inch  wide,  shoidd  be  provided.  Willow  branches,  dry  mustard, 
or  wheat  straw  will  do.  If  straw  is  used,  it  should  be  cut  about  a  foot 
or  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  tied  together  in  bunches  at  the  ends,  and 
pressed  endwise  together,  until  the  stalks  are  separated  sufficiently  in 
the  middle.  The  largest  and  finest  cocoons  shoidd  be  saved  for  breeding. 
The  poorer  ones,  intended  for  silk,  are  killed  by  exposing  them  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun  for  foui'  days,  in  California  ;  but  in  Europe,  the  sun  is 
not  poweifrJ  enongb,  and  they  are  roasted  in  an  oven,  which  sometimes 
seriously  injui'es  the  quality  of  the  silk,  even  when  much  care  is  taken 
to  prevent  excessive  heat. 

JAPANESE  AVOEMS. 

TVe  have  referred  only  to  the  breeding  of  the  ^'  old  French^  worms, 
which  make  the  finest  cocoons.  The  best  of  these  have  sold  at  twenty- 
five  francs  per  pound,  vrhile  the  Japanese  are  worth  only  ten  francs.  A 
Caliloruinn.  traveling  in  Europe,  had  taken  a  couple  of  the  old  French  co- 
coons with  him  ;  and  at  Lyons  he  showed  them  to  a  manufacturer,  and 
wanted  to  know  the  value  of  such  cocoons  by  the  quantity.  Before  he 
had  finished  his  sentence  the  Frenchman  seized  them,  called  his  friends 
to  admire  tliem,  and  said  that  the  country  which  could  produce  these  in 
quantity  had  better  wealth  in  its  valleys  thaji  in  its  mines.  Europe 
had  nothing  equal  to  them.  The  Califoniiau  found  that,  if  he  wanted 
the  attention  and  hospitality  of  a  French  silk  manufacturer,  he  had  oidy 
to  show  these  cocoons  ;  they  made  friends  for  him  on'every  side. 

But  the  Ja]ianese  silk-worms  can  be  bred  at  less  exi>ense.  be- 
cause four  or  five  crops  can  be  grown  in  a  year.  D.  F.  Hall,  in  180S,  at 
San  Gabriel,  had  four  croi)S,  and  says  he  could  have  had  five.  The 
French  wonns  have  been  bred  so  as  to  have  only  one  crop,  though  prob- 
ably two  could  be  produced  v.ithout  any  inconvenience,  or  injury  to  the 
quality  of  the  silk.  The  silk-grower  can  control  by  the  degree  of  heat 
the  time  when  the  eggs  are  to  be  hatched;  so  he  can  have  many  or  few 
crops  at  his  pleasure.  For  the  production  of  numerous  crops  the  climate 
of  California  is  peculiarly  favorable,  on  account  of  the  long,  cloudless, 


SILK   CULTDEE.  299 

warm,  dry  season,  which  lasts  from  the  1st  of  April  till  the  1st  of  Decem- 
V)er,  a  period  of  eight  months,  diunup;  which  the  mulberry  will  furnish 
an  abundance  of  leaves.  The  caterpillar  requires  food  for  about  thiity- 
two  days,  and  there  is  enough  time  in  eight  mouths  for  feediug  four  or 
five  generations. 

Mr.  Prevost  has  exijressed  some  fears  that  the  anxiety  to  produce 
great  numbers  of  eggs,  and  to  make  the  largest  possible  profit  within  a 
short  time,  may  lead  some  of  the  silk-growers  to  breed  theii'  worms  care- 
lessly, so  that  the  eggs  will  become  diseased,  and  the  silk  poor. 

STATE  PKEiriU:MS. 

The  legislatm-e  of  California  has  offered  several  prizes  to  the  pioneer 
sOk-growers  of  the  State.  An  act  passed  in  1SC2,  promised  $2,000  for 
the  first  ten  bales  of  raw  silk  of  one  hundred  pounds  each,  and  for  the 
first  hundred  bales  of  the  same  size  $5,000 ;  but  it  was  perceived  that 
rewards  should  be  offered  first  for  cocoons  and  mulberry  trees ;  so  an- 
other act  was  passed  in  ISGG,  providing  that  $250  should  be  paid  out  of 
the  public  treasury  for  each  plantation  of  5,000  midberry  trees  of  the  age 
of  two  years,  and  S300  for  the  production  of  each  100,000  silk  cocoons. 
The  act  was  to  remaiu  in  force  for  four  years,  and  if  it  had  been  left  on 
the  statute-book,  it  might  have  bankrupted  the  State,  at  least  if  the  in- 
terpretation of  some  of  the  silk-growers  had  been  accepted.  One  demand 
was  filed  for  $5. ',000,  by  a  gentleman  who  claimed  that  he  had  two  hun- 
dred plantations  of  mulberry  trees ;  whereas,  in  fact,  he  had  only  a  nurs- 
ery of  a  few  acres,  in  which  there  may  have  been,  as  he  asserted, 
1,000,000  mulberry  plants  two  years  old,  but  there  was  no  proper  i>lant- 
ation,  in  which  the  trees  should  be  seven  or  eight  feet  apart,  and  much 
less  two  huudi'ed  plantations.  The  demand  was  rejected,  and  several 
others  similar  in  character  were  not  presented,  though  they  would  have 
been  if  there  had  heen  any  hope  of  success.  In  1SG8  the  Icgislatiu'e  re- 
pealed the  law  of  1806,  and  enacted  another,  which  offers  $250  for  5,000 
or  more  mulberry  trees  two  years  old,  planted  in  suitable  form  and  at 
proper  distances  for  permanent  silk  cultiu-e,  and  8oOO  for  each  100,000 
cocoons ;  these  prizes  to  be  paid  only  to  those  persons  who  do  not  make 
any  claim  under  the  act  of  1800,  and  for  trees  two  years  old,  or  cocoons 
spun  before  the  2d  of  April,  1870.  The  effect  of  this  last  act  has  been 
to  give  a  considerable  stimulus  to  the  production  of  cocoons,  a  premium 
of  $300  for  100,000  being  a  large  consideration,  especially  for  the  Japan- 
ese cocoons,  of  which  four  crops  can  be  made  in  a  year.  The  State  may 
have  to  pay  out  $15,000  or  $20,000  in  these  premiums.  The  amount 
paid  for  the  plantations,  however,  will  be  small,  for  there  is  not  one  of 
five  acres,  two  years  old.  in  proper  condition  for  permanent  silk  culture 
iu  the  State.    Most  of  the  worms  are  fed  out  of  nurseries. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  "  State  board  of  Judges,"  held  in  Sacramento  in 
the  autumii  of  1808,  the  following  premiums  were  awarded  for  silk  co- 
coons :  To  L.  Prevost,  of  San  Juan,  100,000  cocoons,  $300 ;  William  M. 
Haynie,  of  Sacramento,  450,000  cocoons,  $1,350 ;  E.  M.  Jennings  and 
Mary  Flint,  of  Sacramento,  375,000  cocoons,  $1,125.  These  awards  were 
by  authority  of  the  act  of  the  legislatm-e  providing  for  the  payment  ot 
$300  for  each  100,000  cocoons  produced,  no  person  to  receive  a  premium 
for  any  cocoons  on  which  he  shall  have  already  received  a  premium. 

KINDS   OP  ^rrXBEEEY. 

The  business  is  so  new,  and  the  men  engaged  iu  it  live  so  far  apart, 
that  except  in  the  method  of  feeding,  and  the  preference  for  the  old 


300  AGRICULTiniAL    REPORT. 

French  worm,  tliore  is  little  ap-eemeatamonfrthem  upon  any  new  ideas, 
or  modes  of  working?.  They  have  no  new  plans  lor  cocooneries,  or  for 
cultivating;  the  mulbeiTy.  They  have  not  yet  ajTreecl  upon  what  kind  of 
mulberry  thrives  best  in  the  State,  or  in  difiereut  parts  of  it.  They  cul- 
tivate the  Moms  imdticaiiUs.  the  Morus  alba,  and  the  Morns  Moretti ;  and 
Mr.  Prevost  thinks  that  the  first  should  be  given  to  the  young  worms, 
and  the  second  to  the  old  ones :  and  that  these  two,  the  Morus  mv.UicaU' 
lis  and  the  Morns  alba,  are  the  only  varieties  that  should  be  grown.  He 
is  disposed  to  think,  too.  that  the  trees  should  be  kept  low  and  bushy,  so 
that  the  shoots  can  be  cut  oft"  conveniently  by  hand.  The  first  nurseries 
were  started  with  seeds,  but  now  cuttings  are  used,  and  they  grow  readily. 
It  is  customary  to  plant  in  rows  four  feet  apart,  and  aT)0ut  a  foot  apart 
in  the  row,  with  the  expectation  of  digging  up  most  of  the  plants  and 
transplanting  them,  or  throwing  them  aAvay,  when  from  two  to  five  years 
old.  In  this  manner  a  large  supply  of  leaves  is  obtained  while  the  plan- 
tation is  still  young :  and  this  has  been  an  influential  consideration  in 
California.  The  present  high  price  of  eggs  may  not  last  long,  and  the 
prizes  offered  by  the  legislatiu'C  will  l)e  got  only  l)y  those  who  make  ex- 
traordinary efibrts  at  the  start. 

The  cuttings  are  made  with  three  eyes  each,  and  for  nursery  pur- 
poses they  are  planted  in  rows  foiu'  feet  apart,  and  six  inches  apart  in 
the  rows.'  The  ground  should  be  weU  cultivated,  and  kept  clear  of  weeds. 
About  eight  tons  of  leaves  can  be  gathered  the  first  year  from  the  acre, 
and  thuty  tons  the  second  year,  according  to  I\Ir.  Haynie,  of  Sacramento. 
The  leaves  on  a  shoot  must  not  all  be  picked  off;  at  least  three  at  the 
end  or  top  must  be  left.  In  a  proper  soil  and  a  favorable  season, 
the  tree  will  have  as  many  leaves  ten  days  after  having  been  plucked 
as  it  had  before,  A  moist  soil  is  necessary  to  start  the  growth  of  the 
cuttings;  and,  after  the  ti'ee  is  several  years  old,  it  will  stand  the  water 
as  well  as  the  willow.  It  is.  therefore,  in  no  danger  of  being  destroyed 
by  occasional  overflows.  2snrseries  can  l)e  started  from  the  seeds,  but 
the  young  plants  must  be  shielded  from  the  sun  and  frost,  and  carefully 
watered  for  four  or  six  weeks. 

SILK  ^LATTUFACTrRi:   IN   CALIFOr.NIA. 

A  company  was  formed  to  erect  a  silk  factory  at  San  Jose,  California, 
two  years  ago,  and  some  silk-looms  were  imported:  but  the  stockholders 
could  not  agree,  and  the  project  was  abandoned. 

Mr.  Joseph  Xewmann,  who  has  the  machinery,  proposes  to  erect  a  fac- 
tory in  San  Francisco.  He  has  woven  several  pieces  of  silk  from  im- 
ported material ;  but,  until  the  summer  of  l-SGS,  no  one  was  found  in  the 
State  capable  of  throwing  or  reeling  the  silk  properly;  and  no  suflBcieut 
supply  for  manufacturing  purposes  has  been  reeled.  The  reeling  is  an 
important  part  of  the  silk  industry,  and  much  of  the  superior  excellence 
of  the.French  silk  is  due  to  the  skill  and  care  of  the  reelers.  Thereclers 
and  weavers  will  soon  be  found  in  California,  after  large  cocooneries  are 
established. 

thp:  lyoxs  silk  co:ndiissiox.. 

The  report  of  the  French  silk  commission  for  the  season  of  1S68,  is  a 
document  of  interest  to  those  engaged  in  sericulture.  This  commission 
was  instituted  some  years  ago  by  the  French  government,  with  a  view 
to  testing  the  best  methods  of  conducting  cocooneries,  ascertaining  the 
nature  and  causes  of  disease  in  worms,  and  experimenting  upon  foreiga 
and  domestic  species,  to  discover  their  relative  values. 


SILK    CULTURE.  301 

The  cominissiou  ■\vns  cliarged  especially  to  ascertain  if  it  were  possible 
to  conquer,  or  at  least  to  weaken,  the  disastrous  scourge  which  has  pre- 
vailed among  the  native  species  of  worms  ibr  the  last  twenty  years,  and 
which  has  seriously  threatened  the  existence  of  silk  culture  in  France. 

Every  facility  was  given  to  the  commission  for  carrying  on  its  researches. 
The  minister  of  agriculture  having  offered  premiums  to  small  breeders, 
charged  the  commission  with  their  surveillance,  and  the  reception  of 
their  reports  of  investigation  and  experiments.  The  extensive  cocoon- 
eries directed  by  the  commission  for  ten  years  were,  in  the  season  of  1868, 
Avholly  abandoned,  and  breeding  and  experiments  conducted  in  a  large 
structure,  newly  built,  which  had  never  sheltered  a  single  silk-worm. 

Every  measiu-e  was  taken  to  inomote  a  thorough  ventilation,  yet  so 
regulated  that  the  worms  Avould  not  be  exposed  to  cold  when  the  tem- 
perature suddenly  changed.  After  the  second  molting,  the  worms  were 
placed  upon  shelves,  constructed  of  hurdles  of  esparto,  (Macrocliloa  tenacis- 
simaj  constructed  in  a  manner  that  permitted  a  thorough  circulation  of 
air.  They  were  unbedded  frequently,  by  hand  and  by  the  aid  of  nets. 
The  commission  state  in  their  report  that  in  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
ments for  the  season,  the  leaves  used  never  manifested  a  better  condition 
of  fi'eshness,  firmness,  and  fine  growth,  the  only  regret  being  that  they 
scarcely  had  appeared  before  they  showed  a  development  which  the\ 
ordiQarily  reach  by  much  slower  progress.  This  was  due  to  an  unusua^ 
change  of  weather.  On  the  1st  of  May  it  was  cold,  and  the  buds  were 
scarcely  perceptible,  and  on  the  Sth  the  leaves  were  fully  developed 
under  the  influence  of  a  sudden  warmth.  The  resulting  inconveniences 
were,  that  the  leaves  prematurely  hardened  while  the  silk-worms  were 
yet  too  young  to  pierce  them  easily;  and  those  eggs  which  had  been 
purposely  retarded  in  hatching,  lest  vegetation  might  not  be  sufficiently 
advanced,  could  havG  been  hatched  ten  days  earlier  mthout  disadvan- 
tage— early  hatchings  affording  better  promise  of  success  than  those 
delayed. 

Diseases  of  the  sillc-icorm. — In  addition  to  the  carefully  conducted 
experiments  in  its  own  extensive  nursery,  the  commission  extended  its 
observations  to  those  of  twenty-two  competitors  for  the  premiums 
offered  by  the  minister  of  agriculture,  and  closely  followed  the  processes 
in  many  others.  These  collected  observations  necessarily  enabled  the 
commission  to  present  a  number  of  facts  and  conclusions  of  great  prac- 
tical importance  to  silk-growers. 

In  the  year  18G8,  it  was  found  that  the  sdk-worm  disease  presented  an 
entirely  different  character  from  that  of  previous  years.  The  _?je&n«c, 
formerly  the  cause  of  so  much  havoc  in  nurseries,  scarcely  showed  itself. 
Out  of  forty  or  fifty  nurseries  examined,  two  only  showed  any  signs  of 
the  disease.  Pehrine  is  indicated  by  black  spots  on  the  worm,  and  the 
caudal  appendage  looks  as  if  it  had  been  burned.  M.  Pasteur,  after 
long  and  careful  experiments  has  established  the  lact  that  corpuscles 
are  a  symptom  of  pebrine^  and  by  excluding  each  moth  invaded  by  cor- 
puscles from  the  production  of  eggs  he  almost  succeeded  in  regenerating 
the  race  of  silk-worms. 

The  disease  to  which  the  majority  of  failures  was  attributed  in  that 
season  was  the  "  blight,"  (fiachcrie,)  or  death  by  fading  or  withering. 
In  most  cases  the  symptoms  commence  with  a  kind  of  numbness ;  the 
worms  cannot  eat,  but  show  a  disposition  to  leave  the  tables,  wandering 
on  the  edges  as  if  to  escape  ;  finally,  they  die,  having  every  appearance 
of  health.  This  disease,  which  has  prevailed  more  or  less  every  year, 
has  been  considered  accidental,  produced  by  the  weather,  by  qualities 
of  food,  kind  of  ventilation,  or  other  occasional  cause. 


302  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Ou  accouut  of  its  uuiversality  in  the  yenr  18G8,  and  the  ahno.st  unan- 
imous reports  that  it  was  the  principal  cause  of  all  the  failures,  the 
commission  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  disease  is  not  dei)eudent 
upon  merely  local  or  accidental  causes.  It  was  found  that  the  disease 
appeared  in  different  places,  at  different  times,  under  eutii'ely  different 
conditions.  In  1SG7,  the  disease  was  attributed  to  the  wet  and  cold  sea- 
son ;  but  in  the  following  year,  warmth  and  drought  predominating,  its 
ravages  Avere  greater  than  ever.  The  malady  would  therefore  seem  to 
be  contagious,  and  is  assuming  alarming  proportions.  To  such  an  ex- 
tent did  blight  prevail  in  the  year  under  review,  that  the  commission  is 
obliged  to  acknowledge  that  French  and  Italian  silk  ])roductiou  was 
important  only  by  reason  of  the  introduction  of  eggs  from  Japan.  The 
commission  therefore  strouglj'  urge  the  French  silk-worm  breeders  to 
provide  themselves  with  eggs  of  the  Japanese  species  of  the  best  (jual- 
ity,  of  which  Italy,  Spain,  and  even  Syi'ia  procure  large  sui»])lics. 

The  commission  is  not  v/ithout  hope  that  science  will  eventually  res- 
cue the  French  species  fi'om  the  destruction  threatened  by  the  fearfully' 
l)revalent  malady  of  "  blight." 

Concluding  this  branch  of  the  subject  the  commissioners  say : 

"  If  we  may  trust  the  numerous  reports  of  those  who  say  they  have 
found  sure  means  of  success,  we  should  be  tempted  to  believe  that  we 
shall  speedily  reach  the  end  of  this  ill-fated  period,  which  has  continued 
for  twenty  years ;  but  your  commission,  to  whose  knowledge  a  multi- 
tude of  facts  has  come  concerning  all  points  of  silk  culture,  still  ad- 
heres to  the  opinion  that,  as  it  appears  certain  districts  have  been  aban- 
doned by  the  scourge,  and  the  locality  seems  to  have  more  influence 
upon  the  success  of  breeding  than  the  choice  of  eggs,  the  malady  is  still 
far  from  being  expelled.  For,  if  we  may  depend  upon  the  information 
which  has  reached  us,  the  same  eggs  chosen  and  incubated  under  the 
direction  of  M.  Pasteur,  which  have  perfectly  succeeded  in  certain  dis- 
tricts, as  for  example  in  the  departments  of  Var  and  the  Lower  Alps, 
have  not  had  anything  like  such  happy  results  in  other  localities." 

Corpuscles. — The  commission  gave  close  attention  to  microscopical 
studies.  About  ibur  hundred  observations  were  made  and  registered, 
each  of  which  was  submitted  to  a  series  of  nineteen  or  twenty  examina- 
tions. These  gave  convincing  proof  that  by  far  the  larger  portion  of 
moths  without  cori)uscles  emanated  from  successfid  breedings,  and  that 
corpuscular  moths  were  derived  mainly  from  partially  successful  breed- 
ings. As  indicated,  there  were  exceptions.  Some  of  the  most  success- 
ful breedings  showed  moths  corpuscular  in  a  very  high  degree,  while  on 
the  other  hand,  breedings  which  had  proveii  failures  produced  moths 
entirely  free  from  corpuscles.  The  results,  therefore,  cannot  be  adduced 
as  positive  facts  from  which  to  draw  absolute  conclusions. 

^ucccsfsful  methods. — A  number  of  examples  are  given  of  novel  meth- 
ods ])racticcd  by  breeders,  which  have  resulted  satisfactorily.  Compar- 
ing these  Bicthods,  many  of  them  will  be  found  diametrically  opposite, 
yet  producing  equally  good  results.  It  is  therefore  thought  that,  by 
classifying  and  generalizing  these  means,  it  may  not  be  impossible  to 
establish  a  system  whose  broad  principles  will  still  allow  latitude  to 
individual  efforts  and  theories.  One  breeder  succeeded  by  hatching 
very  early  in  the  season,  in  the  beginning  of  A])ril,  and  feeding  the 
5'oung  worms  with  leaves  of  the  snake- weed.  They  were  fed  infre- 
quently, but  did  not  seem  to  be  much  inconvenienced  thereby ;  when 
the  leaves  became  abundant  they  gi-ew  rapidly.  From  the  10th  to 
the  15th  of  June,  fortj'-seven  grams  (the  gram  is  equal  to  15.43 
grains)  of  eggs  of  African  origin  yielded  120  kilograms  (a  kilogram 


SILK   CULTUKE.  303 

is  equal  to  2.204737  pounds)  of  beautiful  cocoons.  These  worms  had 
lived  two  mouths  and  a  half,  whereas  forty  to  forty-five  days  are  generally 
allowed  to  their  worms  bj'  breeders.  The  theory  of  this  breeder  is,  that 
the  organs  of  life,  on  account  of  the  longer  time  allowed  for  their  develop- 
ment, acquire  greater  strength,  which  enables  the  worms  later  in  the 
season  to  resist  evil  iniluences. 

Another  breeder  moves  his  worms  from  one  place  to  another.  The 
worms,  hatched  and  nursed  up  to  their  second  molting,  are  removed 
to  a  distant  point,  and  cared  for  until  the  end  of  the  third  molting. 
Before  the  fourth  molting  they  are  again  removed  to  a  place  having  a 
northern  exposure,  where  they  finish  their  cocoons  favorably.  Ten 
grams  of  eggs  yielded  about  seventeen  kilograms  of  cocoons  of  excellent 
quality. 

M.  Eoland,  of  La  Guillotiere,  conducts  his  breeding  in  a  low-vaulted 
room,  receiving  light  from  only  one  large- apertiu^e.  This  gentleman, 
noticing  that  the  worm  excrements  emitted  ammoniacal  exhalations, 
which  he  considered  detrimental  to  their  health,  neutralized  them  by 
nitrous  vapors  obtained  by  the  decomposition  of  azotic  acid  with  iron. 
This  vapor  was  employed  at  each  molting.  For  the  twelve  years  dimng 
which  he  has  practiced  this  method,  he  has  been  invariably  successful. 

The  Messrs.  Ferret,  at  St.  Fond,  also  use  acid  vapors.  During  the 
three  years  in  which  they  used  the  vapors  of  hydrochloric  acid,  thej'  had 
complete  success. 

Still  another  breeder,  believing  that  his  v.orms  would  be  better  pro- 
tected fi'om  late  cold  weather  by  slower  hatching,  does  not  bring  out  his 
eggs  until  about  the  9th  or  10th  of  May.  The  progTcss  of  his  experi- 
ment is  perfect  and  rapid,  and  in  thirty-five  days  he  has  very  beautiful 
cocoons — five  grams  of  eggs  yielding  nine  kilogiams  and  seven  hundred 
and  fifty  grams  of  cocoons. 

M.  Langier,  a  leading  silk-grower  in  St.  Georges  de  Eeneius,  obtains 
good  results  in  making  daily  selections  in  his  cocoonery.  Worms  which 
do  not  show  the  most  perfect  health  are  carefully  removed.  He  asserts 
that  his  method  is  infallible  and  in  the  end  economical.  He  also  feeds  his 
worms  with  mulberry  leaves,  the  branches  of  which  have  absorbed  the 
principle  of  tannin  from  immersion  in  quercitanuic  acid  mixed  with 
water ;  hoping,  by  this  means,  to  impart  strength  and  vigor  to  the  worms. 
Some  he  feeds  with  leaves,  the  stems  of  which  have  been  plunged  into 
a  weak  solution  of  iodine. 

The  commissioners  declare  it  their  pm^pose  to  follow  up  these  methods 
and  experiments  vrith  care  in  the  future,  i)remising  that  they  need 
as  yet  the  sanction  of  time  and  success  to  be  declared  of  real  value. 

I](j(j production. — The  commission  exercised  great  care  in  the  choice  of 
eggs.  Before  cocoons  were  purchased,  thej^  ^ere  submitted  to  micro- 
scopic observation,  and  only  the  best  chosen.  The  eggs  having  been 
laid,  the  moths  were  examined  through  the  microscope,  and  the  eggs  of 
corpuscular  moths  put  aside,  as  not  fulfilling  the  conditions  necessary 
to  good  breeding.  Several  lots  of  the  native  s])ecies  yielded  good  results. 
The  Japanese  cocoons  succeeded  so  weU,  that  it  was  thought  that  the 
eggs  might  maintain  their  good  qualities  for  several  years. 

M.  Tabet,  a  rich  ])roprietor  in  Lebanon,  Syria,  in  a  letter  addressed  to 
the  commission,  states  that  the  eggs  from  Cyprus,  Candia,  and  Egypt, 
having  failed  in  18G3,  in  consequence  of  disease,  Japanese  eggs  were 
introduced  with  good  results.  The  cocoons  were  not  rich  in"  quality, 
fifteen  to  twenty  kilograms  of  them  scarcely  yielding  one  kilogram 
of  silk ;  but  after  five  years  of  reproduction,  this  species  has  become 
acclimated,  and  steadily-  improves.    The  cocoons  have  increased  in  size 


304  AGEICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

and  the  quality  of  silk  is  finer.  In  their  fourth  year  of  reproduction,  the 
cocoons  of  Japanese  origin  returned  one  kilogram  of  silk  for  every 
twelve  kilograms  of  cocoons.  This  is  cited  as  a  return  equal  to  the 
most  advantageous  tlie  French  species  can  realize.  It  is  asserted  hy  the 
commission  that  in  all  their  exi^eriments  during  the  season  of  18G8,  only 
the  eggs  directly  imported  fiom  Japan  yielded  satisfactory  and  complete 
results.  Three  boxes,  containing  from  sixty  to  seventy  gxams  of  eg:gfi, 
produced  110  kilograms  oOO  grams  of  perfect  cocoons,  there  being 
among  them  not  more  than  fi-om  ten  to  twelve  per  cent,  of  double  ones ; 
while  other  importations  of  this  species,  this  year  especially,  gave 
twenty  to  forty  per  cent,  of  double  imes.  This  is  one  of  the  gieatest 
inconveniences  of  the  species.  But  the  good  results  in  the  case  of  the 
three  boxes  was  due  to  the  care  and  precautious  taken  at  the  moment  of 
climbing,  in  preventing  the  moths  fi'om  clustering  at  the  foot  of  the  brush. 
■  Finally,  as  the  result  of  their  investigations  for  the  season  of  1868,  the 
commission  set  out  the  following 

Conclusions. — 1.  The  ^ield  in  France  has  been  this  year  (1868)  rather 
above  than  below  that  of  last  year ;  perhaps  one-fomth  of  an  average 
crop. 

2.  The  greatest  part  by  far  of  the  French  production  has  been  real- 
ized from  cocoons  of  Japanese  origin. 

3.  The  regeneration  of  the  French  species,  though  showing  marks  of 
improvement  in  some  distiicts,  is  yet  very  far  from  being  comi^lete  and 
general. 

4.  The  silk  cultivation  in  France  is  not  as  yet  out  of  danger  from 
disaster,  as  many  have  prematurely  in'oclaimed. 

5.  Science  must  still  continue  its  researches  for  the  puri)ose  of  con- 
quering the  new  phase  of  the  disease  of  silk-wonns.  which  having  suf- 
fered for  twentv  vears  from  pchrinc  are  now  decimated  bv  Haclierie 
(blight). 

6.  It  is  untimely  and  even  dangerous  to  proclaim  the  discovery  of  an 
rnfaUible  remedy  against  the  scoui-ge.  siuce  such  an  imprudent  allegation 
may  stop  to  a  certain  extent  the  importation  of  good  eggs  from  Japan. 

7.  French  silk-giowers  would  act  wisely  in  taking  the  necessary 
measures  to  procm^e  Japanese  eggs  of  the  very  best  quaUty,  and,  above 
all,  not  to  allow  themselves  to  be  forestalled  as  they  were  last  year  by 
the  Italians.  Spaniards,  and  Syrians. 

8.  Breeders  are  strongly  entreated  to  repeat  the  exiieriments  men- 
tioned in  this  report  as  ha\'ing  obtained  good  results,  and  to  make  the 
success  of  their  observations  known  to  the  commission,  with  the  hope 
that  among  so  many  methods,  there  may  be  found  some  one  which  may 
be  safely  recommended  as  eftcacious. 

9.  Finally,  the  attention  of  all  silk-growers  is  caUed  to  the  following 
recommeudacions : 

First.  Endeavor  to  elfecr  early  hatchings. 

Second.  Do  not  heat  the  cocooneries,  except  in  cases  of  urgent 
necessity. 

Third.  Do  not  close  up  the  crevices. 

Fourth.  Give  to  the  worms  the  freest  possible  ventilation. 

Fifth.  Zs  ever  forget  to  remove  with  the  greatest  care  worms  of  doubt- 
ful health. 

By  following  these  precepts,  breeders  will  have  done  all  in  their 
power  to  obtain  success,  and  if  the  result  does  not  respond  to  their 
efibrts,  then,  as  long  as  the  influence  of  disease  is  unabated,  they  must 
be  prepared,  in  spite  of  all  the  care  bestowed,  for  great  uncertainty  in 
the  crops. 


PRACTICAL  ENTOMOLOGY  FOR  FARMERS'  SONS. 


now   TO   COLLECT   AND   PRESERVE    IXSECTS. 

If  agTicultural  losses  from  iusect  depreciations  exceed  in  amount  the 
total  value  of  the  cotton  crop,  or  equal  half  the  average  value  of  the 
coi-n  crop,  as  some  entomologists  afiirm,  it  is  time  that  young  farmers 
should  learn  the  names,  study  the  anatomy,  and  investigate  the  hahits, 
of  these  prolific  pests  of  the  farm,  and  thus  acquire  the  means  of  limiting 
their  reproduction,  of  accomplishing  their  destruction,  or  of  "flanking" 
their  movements  as  to  the  time  and  manner  of  their  attacks.  Much 
may  be  done  in  these  directions,  and  more  can  be  learned,  as  observers 
and  experimenters  in  practical  entomology  increase  in  numbers  and 
advance  in  the  practical  application  of  this  branch  of  natural  science. 

How  shall  the  boys  of  the  farm  commence  such  a  work?  First  in 
order,  the  elementary  principles  of  entomology  shoidd  be  studied;  then 
the  practical  labor  of  making  a  working  collection  shoidd  be  undertaken, 
from  which  incidental  and  valuable  advantages  would  accrue,  even  if 
the  threshold  only  of  the  science  should  be  passed. 

Many  a  farmer's  boy  might  make  a  valuable  collection  of  insects  with 
half  the  disadvantages  under  which  city  collectors  labor,  if  he  woidd 
only  manifest  suihcient  interest  to  make  a  beginning,  if  ever  so  small. 
One  of  our  leading  entomologists  first  became  interested  while  working 
at  his  tailor  bench,  by  catching  wasps  of  diiferent  gaudy  colors,  and 
pinning  them  up  aroimd  the  walls  of  his  shop ;  and  others  have  become 
famous  with  no  gTcater  beginning.  Probably  the  idea  of  entomology, 
or  of  a  collection,  has  suggested  itself  to  but  few  of  the  boys  of  the 
farm;  as  one  recently  wrote,  when  about  to  commence  the  study  of 
entomology,  "I  never  supposed  a  country  boy  could  collect  insects; 
only  those  who  have  time  for  study  and  travel."  It  is  a  great  mistake. 
A  country  boy  has  every  facility;  he  is  where  he  can  study  to  the 
greatest  advantage  the  insect  foes  with  which  he  has  to  contend,  where 
he  can  watch  them  in  all  their  changes  and  transformations,  and  where 
he  can  not  only  aid  materially  the  agricultimst,  but  serve  the  cause  of 
science. 

If  farmers  in  this  country  knew  more  of  entomology,  or  were  better 
acquainted  with  "bugs,"  as  many  term  them,  such  knowledge  would  be 
the  means  of  saving  thousands  of  dollars  to  productive  industry  and  to 
themselves.  One  can  hardly  reahze  the  extent  of  injuries  done  by  these 
little  depredators;  but  the  following  estimate  from  the  American  Ento- 
mologist of  September,  1868,  representing  more  than  the  total  value  of 
the  cotton  crop,  is  a  startling  indication  of  the  importance  of  the 
subject:  "On  the  whole,  we  are  certainly  speaking  within  bounds  when 
we  assert  that,  taking  one  year  with  another,  this  country  suifers 
from  the  depredations  of  noxious  insects  to  the  annual  amount  of  three 
hundred  millions  of  dollars." 

Kegarding  the  writings  of  Dr.  Fitch  on  the  noxious  insects  of  New 

York,  it  further  states,  as  the  opinion  of  prominent  and  enlightened 

agriculturists,  tliat  they  had  saved  that   single  State  fifty  thousand 

dollars  annually.    If  such  results  are  reached  through  the  efforts  of  one 

20 


306  AGRICULTUEAL   EEPOET. 

man.  what  maT  not  be  accomplislied  with  many  workers  in  the  field? 
As  all  insects  are  not  iujimous,  and  as  many  are  beneficial,  it  is  of 
practical  value  to  the  agricnltiuist  to  be  able  to  discriminate  between 
friends  and  foes;  and  this  knowledge  is  learned  only  by  obser\-ing  the 
habits  of  the  insects  themselves. 

A  treatise  on  entomology  is  not  here  proposed,  but  simply  a  few 
practical  hints  on  the  collection  and  preparation  of  insects,  hoping  they 
may  awaken  an  interest  that  will  lead  to  progi^essive  study  of  this 
interesting  science. 

Insects,  as  well  as  worms  and  crustaceans,  (lobsters,  crabs,  &c.,) 
belong  to  that  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  known  as  Articulata^  that 
is,  composed  of  rings  or  segments.  Insects  may  be  distinguished  by 
having  the  body  divided  into  three  distinct  sections:  head,  thorax,  and 
abdomen;  and  by  having  two  antcnncc  or  feelers,  four  wings,  and  three 
pairs  of  legs.  In  flies  the  second  pair  of  wings  are  wanting,  and  some 
few  insects  have  none  at  all.  This  class  is  most  commonly  divided  into 
seven  gi'oups,  called  orders;  and  these  again  are  separated  into  families, 
tribes,  genera,  and  species.  An  insect,  after  it  is  hatched  from  the  Qgg^ 
is  called  the  larva,  which  when  full  grown  casts  its  skin,  the  outer 
integument  hardens,  and  it  becomes  a  pupa,  in 
which  stage  it  remains  till  it  has  completed  its 
transformation,  when  it  comes  forth  a  perfect  in- 
sect or  imago. 

The  ti\ansformation  is  called  complete  when  the 
changes  to  pupa  and  imago  are  signaDy  marked, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figTires.  Bees,  but- 
terflies, &c..  are  examples.  In  gTasshoppers,  &c., 
the  transformation  is  partial,  as  the  insect  at  no 
period  of  its  existence  becomes  inactive  or  ceases 
to  take  food,  but  gi'ows  by  repeatedly  casting 
its  skin,  finally  appearing  in  the  perfect  state. 
Fig.i.  Among  insects  the  females  difier  from  the  males, 

being  larger  and  not  so  brightly  colored ;  they  are  often  ditferently 
marked  or  ornamented,  and  generally  have  one  less  abdominal  ring. 
The  signs  used  to  distinguish  them  are  S  male  and  2  female. 

COLEOPTEKA. 

Beetles  are  distinguished  by  their  hard  bodies,  stout  jaws,  and  thick  wiug- 
covers  or  elytra,  which  in  meeting  form  a  straight  line  dov>n  the  back,  and 
serve  to  protect  the  second  pair,  which  are  membranous.  The  larvte, 
called  grubs,  generally  have  six  true  legs,  and  often  a  terminal  pro-leg. 
In  the  pupai  the  legs  and  wings  are  free  or  unconfined.  Transforma- 
tions are  comi)lete. 

The  collector  in  this  order  should  be  provided  with  a  net  for  sweeping 
grass  and  herbage,  or  for  beating  bushes;  a  collecting  box  and  several 

f<r-?77v^7<:^  vials  of  alcohol,  in  which  to  kill  and  preserve  captures. 

/'^'v^-z^        The  net  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as  the  gauze  net 

.x^^i=?.  for  butterflies,   substituting  cotton   cloth  for  muslin. 

\,  „-.   -^7         The  common  net  may  be  used  for  this  ])urpose,  though 

'^^i^li^^"  it  is  more  easily  torn  or  otherwise  damaged.    A  water 

Fio'  '-■  net  is  particularly  useful  in  collecting  aquatic  coleoptera. 

It  is  made  of  gxass  cloth  or  some  coarse  material,  fastened  to  a  ring  a 
foot  or  more  in  diameter.  Any  box  two  inches  deep,  that  can  be  carried 
in  the  pocket,  will  do  for  a  collecting  box,  though  for  general  collecting 
it  is  well  to  have  such  a  one  as  Fig.  3,  which  any  carpenter  can  make 


PRACTICAL    ENTOMOLOGY    FOR   FARMERS*  SONS. 


307 


Fig.  3. 


for  a  trifle.    A  conTenient  size  is  nine  inches  long,  by  seven  wide,  and 

two  inclies  deep  at  the  sides ;  the  bottom 

to  be  made  rounding,  to  lit  the  small  of 

the  back.    On  one  end  is  placed  a  cushion 

for  pins,  and  on  the  outside  of  the  cover  a 

pocket  for  slips  of  paper,  «S:c.    It  should 

be  made  as  hght  as  possible,  and  can  be 

carried  either  suspended  trom  the  shoulder, 

shot  pouch  fashion,  or  fastened  to  a  belt 

around    the    waist.     Delicately    colored 

beetles,  the  goldsmith  beetle,  for  example, 

which  is  of  a  beautiful  metallic  yellow,  should  be  left  in  alcohol  only  long 

enough  to  kill,  and  should  then  be  pinned  and  placed  in  the  collecting 

box.     Sometimes,  if  not  quite  dead,  a  little  benzine  brushed  on  the  sides 

of  the  body  is  necessary  to  quiet  them. 

In  setting  beetles  the  pin  is  inserted  into  the  right  elyti-on,  or  wing- 
case,  so  as  to  come  out  beneath,  mid- way  between  the  second  and  third 
pair  of  legs,  otherwise  the  insect  is  liable  to  be  damaged.  It  is  always 
best  to  place  the  legs  and  autennie  in  a  natm-al  position,  so  that  all  the 
joints  can  easdy  be  seen.  When  it  is  desirable  to  show  the  imder  wings, 
the  regular  setting  board  may  be  used.  Beetles  that  are  too  small  ^ 
to  pin,  dea  beetles,  &e.,  should  be  mounted  on  triangidar  sbps, 
through  which  the  pin  can  be  thrust.  They  are  made  of  bristol 
board,  cut  tii'st  into  strips  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  width,  and  then 
transversely,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  4.  To  these, 
insects  are  fastened  either  by  common  mucilage,  or  a  mixtui-e  of 
inspissated  ox  gall,  gum  arable  and  water:  it  should  be  thick 
enough  to  hold  the  specimen  in  the  position  in  which  it  is  placed. 
When  there  are  duplicates  of  any  species,  it  is  well  to  set  one  or 
two  in  position  to  show  the  under  side  of  the  body. 

Beetles  are  to  be  met  with  everywhere.  The  tiger  beetles,  Gicindelidce, 
inhabiting  hot,  sandy  plains,  or  sunny  paths,  are  most  easdy  taken  by 
allowing  them  to  alight,  and  then  suddenly  thi'owing  the  net  over  theni. 
Ground  beetles,  Carahida\  are  found  in  damp  places,  under  sticks,  stones, 
drift,  and  bark  of  trees;  a  few  are  found  upon  the  leaves  of  ti^ees  and 
plants.  Other  families  are  aquatic,  such  as  the  whirhgigs  and  divers, 
Di/tiscidcc,  Gyranida',  and  ITi/drojjJiiUdcc,  and  shoidd  be  taken  by  means 
of  the  water  net.  By  ckedging  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  examining  the 
plants,  &:c.,  brought  up,  many  small  species  can  be  obtained.  The 
Silphidce  (biu-ying  or  sexton  beetles,  scavengers,  &c.)  are  found  with 
dead  animals,  and  sometimes  on  flowers.  Z\Iany  of  the  rove  beetles, 
Stu2)hiiUnidcc,  are  found  in  decaying  animal  and  vegetable 
substances;  while  some  of  the  smader  species  live  under  bark 
and  in  ants'  nests.  The  LameUicorncs,  vrhich  are  distinguished 
by  their  clubbed  antennae,  [Fig.  5,]  are  mostly  vegetable 
feeders,  and  are  therefore  iujui'ious.  They  may  be  collected  in 
summer  on  plants,  flowers,  shi'ubbery,  &c.  Co2)i-is  and  allies  are 
found  with  excrement.  The  wood-boring  Biiprcstidcc  may  be  seen 
on  warm  summer  days  sunning  themselves  on  trimks  of  trees  ^'^-  ^• 
or  on  dry  logs.  Theu'  alUes,  Elateridce,  (springing  or  snapping  beetles,) 
live  under  bark  or  iu  rotten  wood.  The  long  slender  wire- worms  which 
do  so  much  injury  in  gardens  produce  elaters.  Lightning  bugs,  Lani- 
pyridce^  iu  the  day-time  are  found  upon  flowers.  Cleridcc,  bright,  nimble 
insects  resembling  ants,  inhabit  bumble-bees'  nests.  Granaries  are 
infested  vath  a  beetle  belonging  to  the  Tcnebrionida;,  a  famdy  resembling 
ground  beetles,  and  like  them  found  under  stones,  logs,  bark  of  trees,  &c.; 


308  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

some  live  in  toad-stools.  Blister  tiies  are  soft-bodied  insects,  fotmd  on 
potato  tops,  flowers  of  golden  rod,  &c.  The  CurcuUonida:.  snout  beetles, 
or  v^ee^'ils,  infest  grain,  seeds,  or  fruits,  and  many  species  live  in  wood, 
under  baik,  or  in  plants  and  flowers.  The  Longkornes,  in  tlie  larval 
state,  are  wood  borers.  These  beetles,  which  are  among  the  largest  ot 
the  order,  can  be  collected  in  great  numbers  in  spring,  around  saw -mills, 
lumber  yards,  wood-piles,  and  in  forests;  many  species  frequent  flowers 
in  summer.  Flea  beetles,  Chrysomelidaj.  live  in  aU  their  stages  upon  the 
leaves  of  plants.  The  CGCcineUidcc,  (lady-birds.)  wliich  are  nearly  all 
beneficial,  are  useful  in  destroying  plant  lice. 

OETHOPTEKA. 

Cockroaches,  criclcets,  grasshoppers,  dc,  are  provided  with  jaws;  the 
upper  wings  are  thick  and  opaque,  while  the  large  under  ones  are  net- 
veined,  and  fold  like  a  fan.  The  transformations  are  partial,  the  larvce 
and  pupise  resembling  the  perfect  insect,  but  wanting  v.ings. 

Orthoptera  when  collected  can  be  thrown  into  alcohol,  and  there 
allowed  to  remain  until  it  is  convenient  to  set  them,  though  a  better  way 
is  to  kiU  them  with  benzine  or  ether,  and  place  immediately  in  the  collect- 
ing box.  To  save  trouble  of  pinning  in  the  field,  grasshoppers  may  be 
put  in  a  little  box,  each  insect  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  soft  paper  two  or 
three  inches  square,  to  prevent  injury,  first  treating  it  to  a  generous 
dose  of  benzine,  which  for  convenience  should  be  carried  in  a  smaU  vial 
having  a  brush  fastened  inside  to  the  cork.  Grasshoppers  very  soon 
lose  their  color  when  placed  in  alcohol;  the  delicate  under  wings,  which 
in  many  species  are  bright  colored,  become  brown  and  soiled.  If  treated 
with  benzine,  and  immediately  pinned  and  placed  in  the  collecting  box, 
they  are  also  liable  to  injury  by  "coming  to  life  and  kicking  their  legs 
ofl","  as  collectors  are  accustomed  to  say.  "They  should  be  pinned 
through  a  little  triangular  spot  between  the  bases  of  the  fore  wings. 
They  are  also  often  pinned  through  the  prothorax,  or  through  the  right 
elytron,  as  in  coleoptera.''  It  is  well  to  set  several  individuals  of  a  spe- 
cies with  the  Avings  spread  as  in  flight;  some  collectors  ju'efer  the  wings 
set  only  on  one  side,  leading  the  other  side  to  show  the  insect  at  rest. 

The  insects  belonging  to  this  order  are  nearly  all  injurious  to  vege- 
tation. Cockroaches  feed  upon  a  variety  of  substances  in  houses,  &c., 
and  the  Mantes  or  'Tear-horses''  prey  upon  other  insects.  Earwigs. 
ForficuUda\  are  nocturnal  insects,  found  hiding  by  day  in  the  leaves  of 
flowers:  they  may  be  taken  with  the  net  just  before  simset,  when  they 
are  most  active.  Many  cockroaches,  Blattaridw,  are  found  imder  stones, 
sticks,  bark  of  decaying  trees,  and  in  dam])  situations.  The  field 
species  are  smaller  than  those  commonly  found  in  houses.  The  walking 
sticks,  Phasmida:,  live  u])on  the  tender  leaves  and  shoots  of  shrubbers' 
and  trees,  and  very  much  resemble  drj-  twigs.  Crickets,  Gryllides,  are 
found  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  under  logs,  stones,  and  in 
sheltered  places,  such  as  old  stone  walls.  The  mole  cricket,  GryUotaJpa, 
burrows  in  sul)teiTauean  galleries  which  it  forms  in  meadows  and  swamp 
lands.  KatydUh  represent  a  family  of  broad-winged  grasshoppers,  the 
Locustari<c,  nearly  all  ot  which  are  gi'een  in  color.  They  are  found  on 
the  leaves  of  trees  and  shrubbery  early  in  autumn,  and  may  be  collected 
by  beating.  Grasshoppers,  Acnidii.  are  common  everywhere  during 
the  summer  mouths  and  until  late  in  the  fall.  They  are  found  most 
numerous  in  meadows  and  fields,  on  heaths  and  barren  rocky  hills,  and 
a  few  are  found  upon  bare  sandy  jjlaces.  near  streams.  As  many  are 
swift  of  flight,  tlie  net  should  be  used  in  theii-  c^apture. 


PRACTICAL    ENTOMOLOGY    FOE    FARMERS'  SONS.  309 


^^:^ROPTEEA. 

Drcajoi  flies,  lace- icing  fiies,  May-flies ,  white  ants,  dc,  are  insects 
with  jaws.*  having  four  broad  net-veined  wings,  the  second  pair  gene- 
rally being  the  largest.  The  ti'ansiormations  are  incomplete,  larvue  and 
pnpje  active.    The  species  are  nearly  all  aquatic. 

The  insects  of  this  order  are  very  x>redatory.  and  are  consequently 
benehcial.  living  upon  other  insects  in  the  larval  and  perfect  stage  of 
their  existence.  The  habits  of  aquatic  larv;p  may  be  watched  in  the 
aquarium,  though  the  more  powerfid  should  be  kept  from  the  weaker 
ones.  In  this  way.  with  care,  many  additions  can  be  made  to  the 
cabinet,  altogether  forming  an  interesting  as  weU  as  a  profitable  study. 

During  the  warm  weather  white  ants  are  found  in  gi'eat  numbers  in 
rotten  wood,  or  in  rails  and  fence  posts,  and  under  stones.  As  they  are 
very  delicate,  they  should  be  pinned  at  once.  Caddice  tiies,  Phryganeidce, 
in  the  larval  state  inhabit  cylindrical  cases  made  of  sticks,  sand,  &c., 
living  in  the  water,  and  feeding  upon  iilants  and  small  aquatic  insects. 
The  perfect  insects  are  usua^y  found  liying  near  the  pools  in  which 
they  have  passed  their  first  stages,  and  should  be  pinned  as  soon  as 
taken  in  the  net.  The  larvae  of  ant-lions  live  in  cone-shaped  pits  in  the 
sand,  near  which  situations  the  perfect  insects  may  be  found.  They  are 
also  found  flying  near  woods.  Lace-winged  flies  are  found  upon  plants 
and  shrubbery :"  and.  as  they  are  atti-acted  to  hghr.  sometimes  in  the 
evening  fly  iiito  houses.  The  LibcUuUda\  '-Devil's  darning  neetlles," 
dragon  flies.  &c.,  may  be  seen  in  warm  summer  days  flying  around 
pools  of  water,  hawking  for  other  insects.  As  their  rapid  flight  makes 
them  difficult  to  captiire.  they  are  most  easily  taken  by  throwing  the 
net  over  them  when  settled.  i)ragon  flies  should  be  caught  with  the  net 
and  kiUed  by  brushing  with  benzine,  the  larger  lands  placed  in  triangular 
slips  of  paper  or  old  envelope  corners,  while  the  more  dehcate  species 
should  be  x)inned  and  put  in  the  collecting  box.  They  are  most  numer- 
ous near  pools  and  marshes,  and  in  damp  places  generally,  and  are 
attracted  to  fii'e  or  bright  light  at  night.  Agrionida^  are  the  small, 
delicate,  brilliantly  colored  species  seen  hovering  over  plants  near 
brooks,  ditches,  or  in  meadows,  suspending  themselves,  apparently 
motionless,  then  suddenly  alighting:  they  should  be  pinned  in  the 
collecting  box  as  soon  as  taken.  Epliemera\  or  3Iay-flies.  are  most 
numerous  in  the  evening,  Thysanura  is  a  T\ingless  species,  found  in 
manure  heaps,  among  fallen  leaves,  under  sticks,  stones,  bark  of  trees, 
and  in  damp  places.  Lepisma.  also  wingless,  is  found  in  old  books,  in 
which  it  hides  during  the  day. 

HTMENOPTEKA. 

Bees,  wasps,  ants,  dx\.  are  hard-bodied  insects,  with  four  narrow 
membranous  vrings,  of  which  the  hinder  ones  are  the  smaller,  and  a 
hard  ovipositor  or  sting  at  the  extremity  of  the  body.  The  transforma- 
tions are  complete.  The  larvre  are  footless  grabs,  tbough  a  few  resemble 
caterpillars.    Pupie  have  true  wings  and  legs  free. 

In  collecting  hymenoptera  the  student  should  be  provided  with  the 
usual  net  and  collecting  box,  two  or  three  wide-mouthed  bottles  of  alcohol, 
and  boxes  of  difierent  sizes  for  nests.  After  capturing  an  insect  it 
should  be  stupefied  with  benzine,  tben  pinned  and  placed  in  the  col- 
lecting box.  or  thrown  into  alcohol.  Xests  should  be  searched  for, 
that  their  young  may  be  reared  and  their  habits  studiously  observed, 
especially  the  saw-flies,  gall-flies,  &c.    They  may  be  found  adhering  to 


610  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

roofs  of  biiikliugs,  or  fasteued  to  the  branches  of  trees;  bumble-bees' 
nests  are  found  under  gi-ound,  in  pastures  or  in  old  stumps.  The  nests 
of  the  gall-flies  arc  the  hollow  swellings  or  excrescences  seen  upon  the 
leaves  and  stalks  of  plants.  When  ants'  nests  arc  found,  the  males  and 
females  should  be  secured.  Nests  with  but  one  opening  can  be  easily 
stopped  up,  and  nest  and  contents  secured  together;  though,  when 
separated  to  be  placed  in  the  collection,  the  same  numbers  should  be 
given  to  both,  as  it  is  important  to  know  the  architect  of  each. 
Specimens  should  be  pinned  directly  through  the  center  of  the  thorax; 
and,  where  it  is  desirable  to  expand  the  wings,  the  same  directions 
should  be  followed  as  given  for  setting  lepidoptera.  The  sucking  tube, 
or  tongue,  when  present,  shoidd  be  pushed  forward,  that  it  may  be 
easily  examined.  It  is  also  well  to  set  the  legs  and  antennae  in  a 
natural  position.  Duplicate  specimens  should  be  preserved  in  vials  of 
alcohol,  with  the  catalogue  number  wi'itten  in  ink  upon  parchment 
labels,  as  it  is  often  necessarj',  in  determining  species,  to  examine  the 
diflerent  parts  of  the  body. 

Many  of  the  hymenoptera  are  to  bo  fo^nd  upon  flowers.  Carpenter 
bees  drill  holes  in  wood  of  fence  posts,  &c.,  in  which  their  eggs  are 
deposited  in  masses  of  pollen.  The  mason  bee  constructs  clay  tubes 
several  inches  in  length,  with  from  three  to  eight  cells,  laying  a  single 
egg  in  each.  Others  make  their  nests  in  sand  banks,  or  in  hidden 
ca\'ities  in  logs,  &c.  Many  of  the  social  wasps  may  be  taken  in  their 
papery  nests,  found  pendant  from  the  eaves  of  buildings  or  frora  branches 
of  trees,  while  the  solitary  wasps,  which  build  nests  of  sand,  storing 
them  with  caterpillars,  spiders,  and  other  insects,  are  found  in  various 
situations.  The  wood-wasps  are  of  moderate  size,  and  are  often  seen 
resting  on  leaves  in  the  sunshine.  The  several  lamilies  of  sand- wasps, 
mud-daubers,  &:e.,  build  their  nests  in  the  earth,  or  form  clay  cells, 
such  as  are  frequently  observed  adhering  to  the  rafters  of  barns  or  in 
other  sheltered  places.  The  industrious  little  ants  belong  to  this  order; 
there  are  some  vrhich  excavate  galleries  in  stumps,  though  most  of  the 
species  burrow  in  the  ground.  The  Chalcis  flies  are  beautiful  green  or 
metallic-colored  insects,  and  may  be  collected,  during  summer,  upon 
flowers.  The  Ichneumon  flies,  which  are  parasitical,  tenanting  and 
foraging  on  other  insects,  are  most  common  in  summer  upon  umbel- 
liferous flowers.  Many  of  the  smaller  species  conline  their  attacks  to 
the  eggs  of  other  insects.  Gall-flies  produce  the  swellings  often  seen 
upon  leaves  or  stalks  of  plants,  which  when  opened  are  found  to  contain 
one  fleshy  footless  gTub.  The  boring  saw-flies,  a  family  of  rather  rare 
hymenoptera,  pass  their  lives  as  borers  in  the  trunks  of  trees.  The 
species,  few  in  number,  fly  in  the  latter  part  of  siunmer,  and  make  a 
buzzing  noise.  Saw-flies  very  closely  resemble  lepidoptera,  especially 
in  the  larval  state,  and,  being  leaf-eaters,  they  have  been  termed  false 
caterpillars.    The  perfect  insects  also  fly  in  summer. 

LEPIDOPTERA. 

Buiicrjlies  and  moths — Insects  without  jaws,  ha\"ing  the  maxiliai  pro- 
longed into  a  spiral  sucking  tube,  the  wings  broad  and  covered  with 
dust-like  scales.  The  transformations  are  complete.  The  larvne  are 
provided  with  six  true  legs,  and  from  one  pair  to  five  of  false  or  pro-legs. 
The  pupa  is  generally  inclosed  in  a  cocoon,  (except  butterflies,)  and  has 
the  legs  and  wings  soldered  to  the  breast. 

This  order  has  been  divided  into  three  groups,  called  diiu'nal,  crepus- 
cular, and  nocturnal  lepidoptera,  or  butterfl^ies,  sphinges,  and  moths. 


PEACTICAL   ENTOMOLOGY   FOR   FAEMERS'  SONS. 


311 


Fig.  6. 


Butterflies  are  distinguisbed  from  moths  by  having  the  antemise  laiobbed 
or  thickeDed  at  the  end;  ^hile  the  anteimce  of  hawk-moths  are 
thickened  in  the  middle,  those  of  moths  are  either  simple  or  feathered. 
As  these  are  the  most  delicate  of  all  insects  they  shonld  be  carefully 
handled,  to  avoid  injuring  the  specimen  by  rubbing  the  dust  or  scales 
from  the  wings.  They  are  most  easily  captured  with  a  gauze  net,  after 
which  tliey  may  be  killed  with  benzine  or  ether,  or  bj'  slightly  ])inching 
the  thorax,  taking  care  to  have  the  wings  folded  together  over  the  back, 
then  pinned  and  placed  in  the  collecting  box. 

In  making  a  net  the  ring  or  frame  should  be  fi'om 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  of  hea^'y  brass 
wire,  secured  to  the  socket  which  receives  the  rod,  and 
bound  with  coarse  cotton  cloth;  to  this  a  bag  made  of 
Swiss  nraslin  or  silk  gauze  is  sewed.  In  the  annexed 
cut  the  best  shape  is  given.  The  rod  should  be  at  least 
live  feet  long,  and  not  too  heavy  to  use  with  one  hand. 
When  the  collecting  box  is  fiill,  or  when  large  speci- 
mens are  obtained,  it  is  best  to  make  use  of  triangular 
paper  envelopes,  or  better,  old  envelope  corners  of 
sufficient  size,  in  which  the  specimens  are  placed  in  the 
position  shown  by  Figure  7;  the  edge  is  then  folded 
over,  and  the  whole  slipped  into  the  pocket  of  the  coUectiag  box. 

Butterflies  are  most  abundant  by  roadsides, 
in  fields  and  meadows,  and  a  few  species  in 
woods.  Sphinges  fly  just  at  dusk,  and  may  be 
taken  in  the  ^icinity  of  flower  beds.  On  warm 
summer  evenings,  with  a  bright  light  and  open 
■windows,  many  species  of  night-flying  moths 
may  be  taken.  A  sbght  tap  on  the  thorax  with 
a  ruler  is  sufficient  to  kill  them.  City  collectors 
may  make  valuable  additions  to  their  cabinets 
by  visiting,  at  different  hours  of  the  night,  the 
street  lamjis.  Not  only  are  many  comparatively 
rare  moths  taken  in  this  way,  but  a  variety  of 
other  insects,  especially  beetles.  An  excellent 
method  for  out-door  collecting  is  to  spread  a  sheet  where  there  are  trees, 
placing  in  the  center  a  bull's-eye  lantern;  the  light  will  attract  the  speci- 
mens, which  are  more  easily  seen  by  means  of  the  sheet,  and  are 
then  taken  in  the  net.  Some  collectors  have  used  a  mixture  of  rum, 
sugar,  and  molasses,  of  the  consistency  of  treacle,  as  a  means  o^ 
attracting  night-flying  moths ;  and  it  is  said  the  bait  may  be  used 
from  March  to  October  with  success.  "The  mixture  is  taken  to 
the  woods,  and  put  upon  the  trunks  of  trees  in  patches  or  stripes  jiLst 
at  dusk.  Before  it  is  dark  some  moths  arrive,  and  a  succession  of  comers 
continues  all  night  through.  The  collector  goes,  soon  after  dark,  with  a 
bull's-eye  lantern,  a  ring  net,  and  a  lot  of  large  pill  boxes.  He  turns  his 
light  full  on  the  wetted  place,  at  the  same  time  placing  his  net  under- 
neath it  in  order  to  catch  any  moth  that  may  fall.  The  best  nights  are 
those  which  arc  warm,  dark,  and  wet.*' 

For  collecting  very  small  moths,  in  excursions,  a  wide-mouthed  bottle 
is  necessary,  in  the  bottom  of  which  a  piece  of  cotton,  saturated  with 
benzine,  has  been  placed,  covered  with  a  little  dry  cotton,  to  prevent  the 
wings  from  becoming  soiled.  "SYheu  a  cai)tiu'e  has  been  made,  insert  the 
bottle,  open-mouthed,  into  the  folds  of  the  net;  iii  this  the  moth  will  fly 
for  escape;  then,  by  pla,cing  the  hand  over  the  opening  of  the  bottle,  it 
can  be  withdi-awn,  and  the  insect  i^laced  in  the  collecting  box  as  soon 


Fig.  7. 


312 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


as  overcome  by  the  fiimes  of  benzine.  Clemens  gives  the  following  direc- 
tions for  tlio  same:  After  taking  the  moth  in  the  net,  '-by  elevating  the 
hand  tbrough  the  ring,  or  on  a  level  with  it,  a  common  cupping  glass  of 
about  two  inches  in  diameter,  or  a  wine-glass  carried  in  the  pocket,  is 
placed  on  the  top  of  the  left  hand  over  theconstricted  portion,  the  grasp 
relaxed,  aud  the  insect  permitted  to  escai)e  tlirough  the  opening  into  its 
interior;  the  glass  is  then  closed  below  by  the  left  hand  on  the  outside 
of  the  net,  and  may  be  transferred  to  the  top  of  the  collecting  box,  when 
it  can  be  quieted  with  chloroform." 

In  setting  a  buttertiy  or  a  moth,  insert  the  pin  into  the  thorax, 
liolding  the  insect  betvveen  the  left  thumb  and  fore  ftnger,  with  the 
wings  partly  folded  back,  and  gently  push  it  through,  leaving  about 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  to  hold  it  by;  then  place  in  the  setting  board, 
being  careful  to  have  the  pin  perfectly  upright  in  the  cork;  ckaw  the 
wings  forward  into  a  natural  position,  and  secure  each  with  a  small  pin 
near  the  body;  then  cover  Avith  card  or  thin  pieces  of  glass,  though  in 
the  second  lioard.  described  below,  thread  is  used,  wound  many  times 
around  the  block,  which  can  then  be  set  on  edge  in  any  out  of  the  way 
place.  AMieu  glass  is  used,  a  slight  jar  may  injure  a  "whole  board  of 
insects;  for  this  reason  it  is  not  as  good  a  ])lan  as  the  thread  arrangement. 
In  the  accompanying  sketchestwo  styles  of  setting  boards  are  given.     The 


first  is  made  by  fastening  two  strii)S  of  wood,  about  a  foot  in  length  aud  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  width,  to  two  uprights  of  the  same  height,  leaving  an 
open  space  of  half  an  inch  between ;  thin  strips  of  cork  are  glued  on  under- 
neath, through  which  the  i)ins  are  thrust.  This  size  v.iil  do  for  ordinary 
use,  but  for  very  large  or  very  small  moths  other  sizes  are  required. 
For  the  second  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Cresson,  of  Philadelphia.     It  is 

merely  a  block  of  wood  three  inches 
square  aud  one  inch  thick,  with  an 
upper  groove  half  an  inch  wide  for 
the  body  of  the  insect,  and  a  lower 
one  about  the  same  width  to  receive 
a  strip  of  sheet  cork ;  before  putting 
in  the  cork,  however,  several  holes 
should  be  made  along  the  center 
Fiff.  9.-  of  the  groove,  just  large  enough  for 

the  size  of  the  pin  used.     Both  boards  are  slightly  sloping  toward  the 
center. 


PEACTICAL   ENTOMOLOGY   FOR   FARMERS'  SONS.  313 

Butterflies  generally  set  in  one  or  two  weeks;  larger  motlis  require  a 
much  longer  time.  In  setting  micro-lepidoptera,  i)lace  the  insect  on  a 
soft  surface,  such  as  blottiDg  paper;  carefully  insert  the  pin  into  the 
thorax,  and  push  it  through  the  pai)er  till  the  moth  is  in  the  right 
position  on  the  pin.  A  common  setting  board  with  a  very  small  groove 
may  be  used,  or  "a  piece  of  soft  cork  prepared  with  smooth  paper,  and 
with  grooves  cut  to  admit  the  bodies;"  or  Fig.  9  may  be  made  on  a  small 
scale,  of  cork  instead  of  wood,  also  covered  with  paper.  Spread  the 
wings  in  the  same  manner  as  described  above  for  larger  species,  only  it 
is  a  much  more  delicate  operation,  and  requires  a  greater  amount  of  care 
and  patience. 

As  entomology  does  not  consist  in  simply  knowing  an  insect  in  the 
perfect  state,  or  being  able  to  give  its  scientiiic  name,  a  knowledge  of  its 
habits  and  transformations  is  necessary.  To  obtain  this  the  student 
should  collect  and  rear  caterpillars,  watching  them  through  their  dif- 
ferent changes,  and  closely  observing  every  particular  connected  with 
their  metamorphoses. 

The  larvre  of  moths  are  more  abundant  than  those  of  butterflies,  even 
where  the  moths  themselves  are  comparatively  scarce.  Morning  is 
the  most  favorable  time  to  collect  caterpillars.  Trees  should  be  shaken 
or  jarred,  bushes  beaten  over  the  net,  or  a  newspaper  spread  upon  the 
ground,  the  sweep  net  used  vigorously  among  grass  and  herbage,  and 
the  underside  of  leaves  carefully  examined.  Many  of  the  larvre  of  micro- 
lepidoptera  are  leaf  miners;  others  draw  two  leaves  together,  feeding 
upon  the  parenchyma;  and  a  few  construct  cases,  which  they  carry 
about  with  them.  The  presence  of  "micros"  is  indicated  by  discolored 
lines  on  the  surface  of  leaves,  in  which  these  minute  larvte  mine.  It 
may  be  ascertained  whether  the  "micro"  is  at  home  by  holdiug  the 
leaf  up  to  the  light;  leaves  containing  larvte  should  always  be  carried 
in  a  tight  tin  box,  to  i^revent  \vilting.  The  ground  under  forest  trees 
should  be  examiued,  and,  if  fresh  pellets  of  excrement  are  seen,  the  col- 
lector may  sometimes  secure  a  i)rize  by  pelting  the  overhanging  branch, 
causing  the  larvae  to  faU  by  the  concussion.  We  have  taken  caterpillars 
in  this  way  from  branches  twenty  feet  from  the  gTound.  They  should 
always  be  fed  on  the  same  kind  of  plant  on  which  they  are  found ;  gen- 
erally they  vrill  eat  no  other.  Besides  the  usual  i^ill  boxes,  the  collector 
should  be  provided  with  a  couple  of  tin  boxes,  three  or  four  inches  in 
diameter  and  Ave  or  six  inches  deep,  the  top  covered  with  gauze,  in 
which  to  i)lace  the  worms  with  an  abundance  of  food.  Oak  caterpillars 
should  be  kept  by  themselves. 

Feeding  boxes  may  be  of  any  size,  though  boxes  a  foot  square  are  the 
most  convenient.  They  should  have  good  ventilation,  and  the  atmos- 
phere kept  moist  by  a  few  inches  of  damp  sand  and  earth  in  the  bottom. 
For  species  that  do  not  transform  in  the  ground,  light  cages  of  gauze 
may  be  used,  placing  the  food,  which  must  be  renewed  at  least  once  a 
day,  in  water.  The  worms  should  never  be  exposed  to  the  sun.  Cater- 
pillars of  small  moths  may  be  kept  in  wide-mouthed  bottles,  or  even 
in  common  tumblers  covered  with  gauze,  having  sand  enough  in  the 
bottom  to  enable  them  to  complete  their  transformations.  For  leaf 
miners,  where  it  is  essential  to  preserve  the  leaf  till  the  insect  has 
gone  through  with  its  transformations,  "a  glass  jar,  tumbler,  or  jam- 
pot," (as  Packard  recommends,)  "the  top  of  which  has  been  ground 
to  receive  an  air-tight  glass  cover,  the  bottom  of  which  has  bee-n  covered 
with  moist  white  sand,  will  keep  a  leaf  fresh  for  a  week.  Thus  a  larva 
m  the  summer  will  have  to  be  fed  but  two  or  three  times  before  it 
changes;  and  the  moth  can  be  seen  through  the  glass  without  taking  ofl: 


3l4  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

the  cover."  As  the  pupre  easily  thy  up,  they  should  bo  kept  moist. 
The  pupjie  of  fall  caterpillars  do  not  chauge  to  the  perfect  iusect  till  the 
followiug'  spring  or  summer,  and  during  the  time  should  be  covered  with 
damp  moss  and  kept  in  a  cool  place. 

The  observer  should  note  down  the  states  of  the  different  transforma- 
tions in  a  book  kept  for  the  purpose,  accompanied  with  tull  and  accurate 
descriptions,  and  drawings  when  practicable.  The  food  ])lant  should  be 
particularly  given.  When  an  insect  is  reared  from  the  egg  the  state  of 
hatching  should  be  noted,  the  length  of  time  required  for  the  worm  to 
become  full  fed,  and  the  period  it  remains  in  the  pupa  state,  as  well  as 
the  state  of  appearance  of  the  imago. 

The  swallow-tails,  belonging  to  the  family  Papilioiiidcc,  are  among 
our  largest  and  most  common  butterflies,  and  are  found  during  summer 
quite  common  in  fields  and  meadows.  Fapilio  asterias  is  a  black  butterfly 
with  yellow  spots  along  the  margin  of  the  wings:  its  larviB  are  green 
and  black,  and  feed  upon  parsnips,  celery,  &c.  The  white  and  sulphur 
butterflies  in  the  larval  state  feed  upon  grasses,  and  are  gi-een,  hairy 
caterpillars.  The  different  species  of  Argynnis  have  the  under  side  of 
the  wings  sprinkled  with  spots  of  silver.  Satyrus  has  broad  wings  of  a 
delicate  brown,  with  eye-like  spots  near  the  hinder  margin;  it  abounds 
in  open  woods.  The  azure  butterflies,  and  the  class  which  are  coppery- 
brown  species,  having  a  slight  tail  to  the  hinder  wings,  are  the  smallest 
of  butterflies.  The  different  species  may  be  collected  from  May  to 
October.  The  family  of  skippers,  Hesjierians,  are  rather  small,  thick- 
bodied  butterflies,  having  the  antennie  hooked  at  the  end  like  a  shepherd's 
crook.  The  colors  are  brown  and  yellow.  The  caterpillars,  which  are 
green,  have  large  heads. 

Hawk-moths,  Sphi)igid(c,  fly  only  at  dusk,  frequenting  flowers,  into 
which  they  insert  their  long  sucking  tubes  or  maxillte.  They  are  very 
stout  bodied,  and  have  thick  narrow  wings,  making  them  rapid  in  flight 
and  hard  to  capture.  The  larvte  are  large,  green,  fleshy  caterpillars, 
ha\ing  a  terminal  horn-like  appendage.  The  humming-bird  moths  are 
smaller,  and  have  transparent  wings.  They  fly  in  the  sunshine,  darting 
into  flowers,  or  suspending  themselves  above  them  like  humming  birds. 
^geriadcc,  small,  clear-winged  insects,  ^ith  steel-blue  bodies,  in  the 
larval  state  are  borers.  ^.  poUstiforr,ns  bores  into  the  root  of  the  gi'ai)e. 
The  Bombycidcv,  or  spinners,  including  the  silk-producing  moths,  are 
known  by  their  large  bodies,  small  sunken  heads,  and  broad  wings.  The 
common  white  miller  belongs  to  this  group;  its  larva  is  thick  and  hairy, 
and  is  found  very  common  in  gardens.  Several  of  the  largest  species, 
true  silk-producing  moths,  of  which  Sainia  cecropia  is  an  example,  measure 
six  inches  from  tip  to  tip  when  the  wings  are  sjiread.  The  larvte  are 
green  caterpillars,  with  scattering  tufts  of  short  hau'S.  Among  the  owlet 
moths,  or  Xoctuidce,  the  wings  are  small  and  narrow.  As  the  insects 
are  atti-acted  to  the  light,  night  is  the  best  time  to  take  them.  "The 
larvae  are  tapering,  and  are  striped  and  barred  in  different  ways.''  The 
noxious  cut-7corms  are  the  larvae  of  the  Agrotis  moths,  some  of  which 
may  be  foimd  in  fields  in  autumn  upon  flowers;  while  others  fly  only  at 
night,  and  lie  concealed  during  the  day-time  in  chinks  of  stone  walls 
and  like  places.  The  Catocalas  have  rather  broader  wings,  the  hinder 
ones  being  beautifully  striped  with  bands  of  red,  yellow,  or  black,  The 
Gcomctridfv  are  easily  distinguished  by  their  slender  bodies  and  feathered 
antennte.  The  larvfe  are  known  as  span-worms,  measuring  v.orms,  <S:c. 
Many  of  the  species  have  angulated  "wings,  generally  of  some  sliade  of 
yellow,  crossed  with  faint  lines  of  darker  shade.  They  may  be  taken  in 
the  woods  in  June  and  Jidy.    Delta  moths,  or  Pyralidcv,  so  called  from 


PRACTICAL   ENTOMOLOGY    FOR   FARMERS'  SONS.  315 

the  habit  of  placing  the  \rings  iu  the  form  of  a  tiiaiigle  when  at  rest,  are 
slender-bodied,  having  the  anteunre  always  simple.  They  are  found 
also  in  woods,  resting  upon  the  under  side  of  leaves.  The  leaf-rollers, 
Tortricidcc,  are  found  very  abundant  in  summer,  upon  leaves  of  trees, 
low  bushes,  and  herbage.  The  larvte  live  in  rolled-up  leaves.  The 
Tineidcc,  though  the  smallest  moths  of  the  order,  are  very  destructive 
to  vegetation.  The  wings  are  narrow  and  edged  with  delicate  fringe. 
The  clothes-moth  and  corn-moth  are  representatives  of  the  family.  They 
are  found  iu  a  variety  of  situations  5  many  fly  iu  the  grass,  always  ahght- 
ing  head  downward.  These,  with  Alucita.',  a  small  family  with  wings, 
divided  into  numerous  branches,  close  the  order. 

HEMIPTERA. 

Bugs,  locusts,  plant-lice,  ttc— This  order  has  by  some  naturalists  been 
divided  into  two,  Eeteroptera,  or  dissimilar  winged  insects,  comprising  the 
true  plant  bugs,  and  the  Eomoptera,  or  '-insects  with  foui'  wings  of  the 
same  membranous  texture,  or  having  the  upper  pair  leathery  and  the 
under  pair  membranous,"  as  in  the  cicadas  and  leaf-hoppers.  We  will, 
however,  consider  them  as  one,  and  describe  them  as  insects  having  a 
horny  beak  or  sucking  tube,  four  wings,  the  first  pair  of  which  are  thick- 
ened at  the  base  and  lie  flat,  or  are  uniform  throughout,  and  sloping  at 
the  sides.  The  transformations  are  complete.  Many  of  the  species  are 
aquatic;  a  few  are  wingless. 

The  insects  are  collected  in  the  same  manner  as  beetles;  sweeping 
from  grass  and  herbage,  by  shaking  or  beating,  or  by  picking  them  from 
trees  or  plants  on  which  they  are  found.  They  may  be  preserved  in 
alcohol  without  injury.  (The'^cicadas,  as  an  exception,  keep  their  colors 
better  if  killed  by  brushing  with  benzine.)  The  water  net  should  be 
used  for  aquatic  species,  which  live  upon  submerged  plants  and  grasses. 
Those  that  remain  torpid,  or  hyberuate,  may  be  found  iu  stone  walls, 
uuder  rubbish  heaps,  and  in  dead  wood,  iu  all  stages  of  their  growth; 
brush  heaps  aflford  an  excellent  shelter.  Specimens  should  be  pinned 
through  the  triangiilar  scutellum  in  the  middle  of  the  body;  smaller 
hard  species  may  be  placed  on  card  slips  described  for  coleoptera. 

The  harvest  flies,  or  Cicadas,  are  very  plentiful  upon  the  trees  during 
warm  weather;  the  males  may  be  discovered  by  their  noisy  song,  which 
is  produced  by  a  drum-like  apparatus  under  the  wings  on  the  last  seg- 
ment of  the  thorax.  The  seventeen-year  locusts  belong  to  this  family. 
The  tree-hoppers,  Mcmhracididcc,  ditfer  much  in  the  shape  of  the  thorax, 
producing  many  odd  forms.  They  are  found  in  great  nimibers  on  the 
leaves  and  liml3s  of  trees,  or  on  the  stems  of  plants.  The  leaf-hoppers, 
Tettigoniada;,  pass  their  lives  on  the  leaves  of  plants,  where  they  may  be 
collected  late  in  summer  in  abundance.  Aphida:.  or  plant-lice,  live  upon 
all  parts  of  plants,  sucking  the  sap  and  desti'oying  all  ^itality.  Some 
species  are  apterous.  Being  soft-bodied  insects,  they  should  be  preserved 
in  alcohol.  The  bark-lice,  Coccidcv,  commonly  called  scale  insects,  are 
found  sticking  closely  to  the  bark  of  trees.  As  they  are  crushed  by 
removal,  it  is  best  to  take  them  with  a  small  portion  of  the  bark  to  which 
they  are  fastened.  The  young  insects  escape  from  beneath  the  parent 
shell  in  the  spring.  The  Vater-boatmeu,  JS^otoncciida;,  resemble  the  leaf- 
hoppers  in  shaped  though  they  are  larger,  and  have  the  legs  formed  for 
swimming.  They  may'be  taken  with  the  water  net.  The  Kqnda:,  also 
aquatic,  are  very  predaceous.  Some  of  the  species  of  Bclostoma  are 
nearly  thi^ee  inches  long.  The  Hydrometridcv,  which  are  among  the  ear- 
liest spring  insects,  are  seen  running  upon  the  surface  of  water.    The 


316  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Reduvius,  or  wbeel-bu£f,  is  found  in  gardens,  feediuiji:  voraciously  upon 
caterpillars,  and  should  be  handled  carefully,  as  the  wound  made  by  its 
piercer  is  quite  as  painful  as  the  stinj;:  of  the  wasp.  The  family  Jxedu- 
viidcc  are  terrestrial.  The  Fenfatomidcc  ave  a  lar^e  family  of  brightly 
colored  insects,  generalh*  oval  in  form,  having  a  very  large  distinct  scu- 
tcllum  or  triangular  j^iece  at  the  base  of  the  wings.  They  are  found 
upon  plants;  many  are  of  large  size.  The  Coreidcc  are  found  on  the 
roots  and  stems  of  plants,  aud  are  very  active,  using  both  legs  and  wings 
to  the  best  advantage.  The  squash-bug  is  an  example.  Many  of  the 
species  are  gaily  colored.  The  bed-bug  belongs  to  the  Cimicid(c,  which 
are  generally  wingless.  Some  of  the  family  are  parasites,  li%-ing  upon 
birds.  The  true-lice,  Fcdicidi,  are  degraded  forms  of  hemiptera,  though 
still  preserving  the  sucking  tube.  They  are  parasitic,  upon  man  and  other 
animals.  The  species  of  bird-lice  are  very  numerous,  nearly  every  bird 
baving  its  parasite. 

DIPTERA. 

Flies,  gnats,  dr.,  are  provided  with  a  kind  of  proboscis,  and  have  but 
two  wings,  the  second  i)ah-  being  reduced  to  a  pair  of  small  organs  called 
balancers  or  poisers.  Their  transformations  are  complete.  The  larvjB 
are  footless  maggots.  Pupa  in  some  cases  changes  inside  the  skin  of  the 
larva.    The  limbs  are  free.    Many  species  are  aquatic. 

In  collecting  diptera  the  sweep  net  is  found  to  be  most  useful,  and 
particularly  in  new  localities.  After  several  ^igorous  sweeps  of  the  net 
right  and  left  amoug  grass,  flowers,  and  herbage,  says  Loew,  "by  a  dex- 
trous twist  of  the  handle,  the  ai)ex  of  the  sack  is  thi'own  over  the  ring 
so  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  insects,  aud  give  them  time  to  compose 
themselves  at  the  bottom.  It  is  then  opened,  aud  the  common  species 
are  allowed  to  pass ;  but  if  there  is  oue  that  is  desired,  it  is  allowed  to 
advance  to  the  middle  of  the  bag;  and  then  it  is  gently  gTasped  fi'om  the 
outside  of  the  Ijag  with  the  right  hand.  The  other  captures  are  driven 
down  to  the  bottom  by  blowing  moderately  on  them,  aud  confined  there 
by  letting  the  ring  fall  over  the  right  hand  which  holds  the  insect,  that 
is  now  easily  seized  with  the  left  hand.''  When  all  the '"good  things" 
are  taken  out,  the  bag  is  inverted  and  the  sweei^ing  continued. 

A  little  instrument  similar  to  Fig  10,  copied  from  Xew- 
man's  "•  History  of  Insects,"  is  useful  for  taking  diptera  or 
*hymenoptera  which  alight  on  umbelliferous  flowers.  It 
consists  of  a  scissor-like  frame,  with  two  circular  or  octag- 
onal rings,  cohered  with  silk  gauze  or  Swiss  muslin. 

Many  specimens  can  be  obtained  by  breeding,  aud  with 
little  trouble.  Dipterous  larvie  are  found  in  dung,  decayed 
wood  of  stumps,  mold  in  hollow  trees,  soil  under  manure, 
stems  or  stalks  of  plants,  aud  weeds,  toadstools,  &c. 
Fi-  10.  Many  are  found  iu  water.  They  should  be  kept  in  glass 
jars  or  damp  Ijoxes,  aud  not  allowed  to  get  too  warm.  Aquatic  species 
can  be  kept  in  glass  jars  with  vegetation  enough  to  oxygenate  the  water. 
Where  larva?  are  known  to  transform  at  the  place  in  which  they  are  found, 
it  is  better  to  leave  them  till  they  may  be  taken  in  the  pupa' state. 

Flies  are  injured  by  pressure,  and  therefore  sliould  be  killed  with  fumes 
of  benzine  or  ether,  aud  then  pinned,  or  pinned  alive  and  placed  in  a 
box  the  bottom  of  which  has  been  previously  moistened  vrith  creosote. 
The  very  small  or  delicate  species  are  sometinies  transfixed  upon  fiue  sil- 
ver wire  and  stuck  into  small  pieces  of  pith  tlu-ough  which  common- 
sized  pins  are  inserted,  something  after  the  manner  of  the  card  slips  for 


PRACTICAL    ENTOMOLOGY   FOR   FARMERS'   SONS.  317 

the  coleoptera.  In  setting  long-legged  specimens,  a  square  piece  of  stiff 
paper  or  card  should  be  pushed  up  on  the  pins  under  the  insect,  and  the 
legs  allowed  to  rest  upon  it  until  thoroughly  diy. 

Musquitoes  pass  the  first  part  of  their  lives  in  water,  and  may  be  seen 
by  thousands  in  old  rain-water  barrels,  jerking  about  when  disturbed, 
or  resting  at  the  surface  in  order  to  obtain  a  fresh  supply  of  air.  They 
belong  to  the  family  CuUcidcv.  The  cranc-fiics,  TipuUd(c,  are  known  by 
their  long  slender  legs  and  bodies.  The  larvae  are  found  both  on  land 
and  in  the  water;  some  live  under  the  bark  of  trees  or  in  damp  situations. 
Cecidomyia  includes  the  gall-fiies  which  do  so  much  injury  to  growing 
grain.  Those  species  injuring  wheat  may  be  collected  by  sweeping  in 
the  spring.  The  Jlycetojjhilidcv  are  small,  active  insects  found  in  damp 
places;  some  species  enter  our  houses.  The  larvi^e  live  in  fungi  or  decay- 
ing vegetable  matter.  The  insects  comprising  the  family  Stratiomyidcs 
are  prettily  colored,  and  generally  found  upon  tlowers  in  damp  situations. 
Some  of  tiie  larvte  are  found  under  ground,  while  others  live  in  rotten 
wood,  or  are  aquatic.  Horse-flies,  Tahanida:,  are  among  our  largest  dip- 
tera,  and  are  found  quite  common  in  wood  lauds  or  pastiu^es.  The 
troublesome  little  fly  which  buzzes  unceasingly  around  one's  head,  when 
in  the  woods,  belongs  to  this  family.  The  bee-flies,  Bomhi/Uidcc^  are  to  be 
met  with  in  April  and  3Iay,  in  sunny  paths  in  woods.  They  fly  swiftly, 
hovering  at  times  over  fl^ovv'ers,  extracting  the  honey  with  their  long 
slender  suckers.  The  Asilidcv  in  the  larval  state  live  upon  the  roots  of 
plants,  preying  upon  other  insects  in  the  perfect  state.  The  Syrpliidce 
are  beneficial,  as  the  larva^  feed  upon  plant  lice.  They  resemble  hymen- 
optera  in  shape  and  color.  CEstridw,  or  bot-flies,  are  ijarasitic  upon 
herbivorus  animals.  The  flies  have  thick,  hairy  bodies.  The  common 
house-fly  belongs  to  a  large  family  of  insects  f21uscid(cj  which  in  the  lar- 
val state  are  soft,  footless  grubs  or  maggots.  Tachina  is  parasitic  upon 
caterpillars,  destroying  great  numbers  of  them.  By  collecting  the  flowers 
of  Compositce,  and  keeping  them  in  boxes,  many  species  may  be  obtained. 
The  E  ippoboscida^,  or  spider-flies,  are  found  upon  birds  and  animals.  Fleas 
are  wingless  flies.     The  diftercnt  species  inhabit  different  animals. 

THE   CABINET. 

Specimens  should  be  arranged  in  tight  drawers,  or  in  boxes  fitted  with 
covers  or  glass  slides,  and  kept  in  a  case  made  for  the  purpose;  or  boxes 
can  be  made  in  the  form  of  books,  using  both  sides  for  specimens,  and 
allowed  to  stand  upon  regular  book  shelves.  A  very  convenient  size  of 
box  is  nine  by  thirteen  inches  outside  measm'cment,  and  two  and  a  half 
inches  deep.  All  boxes  should  be  lined  with  sheet  cork,  and  then  neatly 
papered  inside  with  white  paper,  using  starch  paste.  Cork  strips,  as 
well  as  entomological  pins,  can  be  obtained  at  any  naturalist's  establish- 
ment in  the  large  cities.  German  pins  are  always  the  best  to  use.  lum- 
bers five  and  eleven  (Carlsbad  pins)  answer  for  most  insects;  for  small 
species,  lower  numbers  are  required.  The  specimens  should  always  be 
pinned  at  the  same  height,  as  a  lack  of  uniformity  gives  an  idea  of  a  lack 
of  neatness.  The  specimens  shoidd  be  arranged  from  top  to  bottom  in 
regular  rows,  three  or  four  abreast,  showing  as  many  varieties  as  is 
practicable,  and  a  neat  label  be  placed  above  each.  They  should  be  niun- 
bered,  and  the  number  recorded  in  a  catalogue,  giving  the  name  of  the 
insect,  locality  where  taken,  number  taken,  by  Avhom,  and  any  notes 
connected  with  its  capture,  as  well  as  the  date.  "Where  several  insects 
of  a  species  are  taken  at  a  time  luider  the  same  circumstances,  or  in  the 


318 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


same  locality,  one  nmnber  may  be  used  for  all.    Any  blank  book  will 
do  for  a  catalogue,  ruling  clear  across  the  sheet,  thus: 


Locality. 


785  i  Pelidnota  punctata  . .    Washington,  D.  C  . . 


No.  of 
speci- 


Collector  or 
donor. 


Date. 


J.  S.  King 


Aug.  3, '68. 


DeKtrcyir.g  leaves  of 
the  grape. 


Disks  of  different-colored  paper,  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  or  less, 
may  be  used  to  represent  States  or  localities,  and  the  catalogue  number 
may  be  written  upon  these.  They  are  easily  made  ^vith  a  common  harness 
punch.  To  produce  greater  variation,  labels  of  two  colors  may  be 
employed. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  both  sexes  represented  in  every  species,  and 
when  they  are  taken  together,  if  not  pinned  upon  cue  pin,  the  fact  shoidd 
be  noted  on  small  labels,  and  placed  upon  each  pin. 

Specimens  of  natiu'al  history  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of  a  small  beetle, 
Anthrenus  destructor,  which  consumes  the  interior  of  dried  specimens  of 
insects,  leaving  the  shells  to  fall  to  pieces  when  the  case  is  opened,  or 
slightly  jarred.  Their  presence  may  be  detected  by  fine  dust  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bos,  or  by  the  shed  skins  of  the  larvie  which  do  the  injury. 
Boxes  should  be  kept  tight,  and  it  would  be  well  to  keep  a  piece  of  gum 
camphor  in  each,  though  it  is  not  advisable  to  rely  upon  it  alone.  The 
insect  is  oval,  grayish,  marked  or  mottled  with  black;  larva  thickened 
in  the  center,  tapering  at  each  end,  and  covered  ^vith  short,  bristly  hairs. 
The  cabinet  should  be  examined  every  few  weeks,  and,  if  the  least  dust 
is  discovered  imder  any  insect,  thoroughly  treated  with  benzine  and 
left  tightly  closed  for  several  days.  Poisonous  solutions,  as  a  general 
thing,  do  more  injury  to  the  insects  than  good,  by  gumming  them  up  and 
spoiling  their  appearance.  As  cheap  benzine  is  apt  to  have  the  same 
effect,  only  that  w-hich  is  most  free  from  oil  should  be  used.  The  interior 
of  the  bodies  of  large  moths,  particidarly  females  with  eggs,  should  be 
removed,  and  the  space  filled  with  cotton.  This  not  only  makes  them 
much  lighter,  but  prevents  them  fi'om  becoming  gi-easy.  Mold  may  be 
destroyed  by  brushing  the  insect  with  benzine  to  which  a  little  creosote 
has  been  added.  When  dampness  has  caused  the  wings  of  butterflies 
or  moths  to  droop,  the  insect  may  be  relaxed  by  placing  it  on  damp 
sand  for  a  lew  hours,  when  it  may  easily  be  reset.  Light  should  always 
be  excluded,  even  when  glass  is  used  for  covers. 

Therefore,  after  a  collection  has  been  made,  the  greatest  care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  it  in  order,  to  guard  it  from  injury  and  to  jireserve  it  in 
its  original  beauty,  or  it  soon  shows  neglect,  and  i.s  speedily  ruined. 


RECENT  FHOGRESS  IX  FISH  CULTURE. 


Tlie  artificial  propagation  of  edible  fislies,  which  is  shown  l)y  exi>eri- 
ments  in  every  quarter  to  be  practicable,  and  also  in  a  high  degree 
economical  of  the  material  of  reproduction,  is  assuming  national  impoit- 
ance.  Admitting  that  it  may  never  become  one  of  the  gi'eat  producing 
interests  of  the  nation,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that,  while  ir  furnishes 
instructive  popular  experiments  in  natriral  histoiy.  and  gi-atifies  and 
educates  a  natui^al  taste  for  iiiral  pursuits,  it  imdoubtedly  adds  to  the 
luximes  of  generous  tables,  and  increases  in  some  degi'ee  the  food  sup- 
plies of  the  people.  That  pubbc  fisheries  can  be  improved  by  artificial 
means,  at  small  ex|")euse.  maybe  established  by  imdoubted  i>rooi :  and  that 
he  who  accomplishes  such  a  result  is  a  imblic  benefactor,  will  be  readily 
admitted.  If.  as  science  asseits.  a  fish  diet  is  a  fortifier  of  the  brain, 
who  needs  it  more  than  the  restless,  rushing,  iiTepressible  American  ? 

FISH   CrXTUEE  ^■0  ^"OTI:LTY. 

The  Chinese,  who  keep  a  constant  supply  of  fish  in  theii-  rivers  and 
canals,  notwithstanding  the  imexamj^led  density  of  their  popidation, 
have  practiced  fish-hatching  successfidly  for  centimes.  Fish  are  there 
so  cheap  that  a  penny  will  buy  enough  for  a  breakfast  for  a  small  family. 
An  ingenious  method  of  artificial  hatching  has  been  adopted,  which  is 
worthy  of  mention,  at  least  as  a  novelty.  The  business  of  collecting  and 
hatching  the  spawn  for  the  supply  of  owners  of  private  ponds  is  exten- 
sive. AVlien  the  season  for  hatching  amves,  the  operators  empty  hens' 
eggs  by  means  of  small  openings,  sucking  out  the  natiiral  contents  and 
substituting  the  ova.  The  eggs  ai'e  placed  for  a  few  days  imder  a  hen. 
Eemoviug  the  eggs,  the  contents  are  ijlaced  in  water  warmed  by  the  heat 
of  the  Sim.  the  eggs  soon  biu'st.  and  the  yoimg  ai'e  shortly  able  to  be 
removed  to  waters  intended  for  rearing  them. 

The  Eomans  were  adepts  at  fish  cidnu'c.  Sergius  Grata,  who  is 
reported  as  the  originator  of  artificial  oyster  beds,  grew  them  by  milUons 
in  great  resei-voirs  at  Baiie.  on  the  Lucrine  Sea,  and  built  a  palace  near 
for  convenience  in  serving  his  famous  oyster  suppers.  Lucullus  is  said 
to  have  sold  his  stock  of  fish  at  £3o,00u.  Some  epicures  nomished  pet 
breeds  of  fish,  as  cattle  breeders  pert'ect  particular  sti'aius  of  blood, 

WHAT   HAS  BEEN  ACC03IPLISHED  Df  EITROPE. 

France,  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  among  other  Em  opean  states, 
are  enjo\iiig  a  manifest  increase  of  fish  supplies  li'om  artificial  proj^aga- 
tiou.  3Iany  cmious  facts  have  demousti'ated  the  feasibiUty  of  restocking 
the  salmon  rivers.  Loch  Shiu.  a  lake  of  the  Sutherland  Moimtains,  in 
Scotland,  having  as  an  outlet  the  salmon  river  Shin,  is  fed  by  foiu"  rivers, 
the  Teny,  Fiack.  Garvio,  and  Ciury,  which,  prior  to  1830,  contained  no 
salmon.  In  that  year  fish  of  the  outlet  river  were  conveyed  in  their 
siiawuing  season  to  these  sti'eams,  and  ever  since  their  iirogeny  have 
passed  through  the  lake  to  their  native  waters. 

The  Tay  of  Scotland,  in  which  salmon,  formerly  abimdant,  became 
nearly  extinct,  has  now  a  plentiful  supply,  through  the  efforts  of  the 


320  AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

pisci.ciiltiirists  Biiist  and  Biowu,  at  tlieir  iiropag'atiug  establishment  at 
Stormontfield.  The  cost  has  l)oen  triliini^-.  The  Kobe  Kivcr,  in  Irehmd, 
l)y  means  of  a  fishway  two  mik^s  in  lengtli,  live  rods  "vvide,  with  a  fall  of 
thirtj'  feet,  has  assumed  importance  as  a  salmon  stream.  A  tail  in  the 
Clare£i"ahvay  has  been  artiticially  surmounted,  and  one  of  the  best  fish- 
eries in  Great  Britaui  is  the  result. 

In  the  larger  streams  of  France  a  good  beginning  has  been  made. 
Basins  have  been  dug  along  the  shores  of  some  of  them,  furnished  with 
canals  for  ingress  and  egress  of  the  water,  which  Imve  i)roved  safe  har- 
bors for  fecundated  ova  and  the  young  that  are  too  small  to  risk  the 
dangers  of  the  stream.  The  parent  iishes  voluntarily  seek  these  artificial 
spa'\^^ling  beds  and  deposit  their  roe,  where  a  much  larger  than  the  usual 
propoiliou  of  eggs  will  be  hatched.  The  damage  to  lish  spawn  from  city 
sewers  is  avoided  by  these  worlcs,  wherever  constructed.  Two  years  ago 
there  were  eighty  such  basins  distributed  through  thirty-five  departments 
of  France,  at  a  cost  of  only  $5,000 — about  600  each.  As  early  as  in  1801 
six  millions  of  tish  had  been  turned  out  of  these  basins.  Protection  is 
accorded  to  all  lish  in  the  spa^^^ling  season  ;  none  can  lawfidly  be  taken 
except  for  lish  breeding.  From  the  celebrated  piscicultiu'al  laboratory 
at  Huningue,  near  Bale,  on  the  Rhine,  supported  by  the  government  of 
France,  millions  of  eggs  of  the  Danube  salmon,  f  Ombre  clievaUer,)  and 
other  valuable  lands,  are  annually  distributed  to  the  chief  rivers  of  the 
couutrj-.  They  are  packed  in  wet  moss  and  inclosed  in  wooden  boxes. 
People  are  employed  to  procure  these  eggs  from  the  rivers  and  lakes  of 
Switzerland,  and  from  the  Rhine  and  Danube,  and  are  paid  Is.  Sd.  per 
thousand.  The  spa^uai  of  a  fish  weighing  twenty  pouiuls  often  yields  to 
the  pisciculturist  a  sum  equivalent  to  eight  dollars  in  our  currency.  A 
considerable  trade  has  arisen  in  fish  eggs. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  artificial  breeding  of  oysters  in  France  pays  an 
average  profit  of  a  thousand  per  cent.  Results  have  been  equally  satis- 
factory in  England. 

The  variety  essayed  in  operations  of  French  piscicultm-e  is  wonderful. 
P^ven  the  muscle  is  grown  artificially.  ]S^or  is  this  a  new  thing;  for  a 
muscle  farm  near  RocheUe  has  been  cultivated,  it  is  claimed,  for  himdi-eds 
of  years.  The  muscles  are  grown  on  fi-ames  of  basket  work,  called 
hoticJiofs,  and  are  larger  than  those  grown  natm'ally,  and  of  superior 
flavor. 

The  information  concerning  fish-breeding  experiments,  with  details  of 
accomplished  results,  was  quite  fidl  and  satisfactory,  as  repoiled  from 
all  parts  of  France,  at  the  International  Exposition  of  Fisheries,  rec<^itly 
held  at  Arcachon,  in  that  country.  Many  rivers,  almost  destitute  of  fish 
a  year  or  two  previous,  had  been  restocked  to  a  wonderfid  degree. 

At  Concameau,  in  Lower  Brittany,  are  large  viviers  or  tanks,  hewn 
out  of  solid  rock  to  the  dei'tth  of  ten  feet — one  containing  only  lobsters, 
another  tm-bot  and  rock  fish,  and  others  still  the  nurseries  of  fish  of 
various  kinds.  This  establishment  is  ur.der  government  management, 
and  is  self-supporting,  the  sale  of  fish  more  than  paying  the  ex])enses. 

Lake  trout  and  saknon  are  bred  in  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  in  Switzerland, 
by  the  efforts  of  Professor  Chavannes,  who  receives  a  stipend  of  eight 
hundred  francs  from  the  government  and  the  right  of  fishing  in  ai  small 
stream  near  Granson,  at  the  south  end  of  Lake  Neufchatel. 

At  Cortaillod,  south  of  iS'eufchatel,  Dr.  C.  Vauga  also  receives  eight 
hundred  francs  per  aniuun  for  eftbrts  toward  increasing  tlie.  lake  trout 
in  the  Lake  of  Neufchatel.  In  the  second  year  of  his  operations  he 
turned  out  eighty  thousand.  He  has  adopted  a  novel  method  of  fructi- 
fying the  roe.    Instead  of  letting  the  roe  fall  into  the  water,  he  allows 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  FISH  CULTURE.  321 

it  to  fall  upon  the  bottom  of  a  clean,  dry  vessel,  and,  poui'ilig  -water 
euougli  over  it  to  cover  it,  bo  expresses  a  few  drops  of  mUt,  so  tliAt  tbe 
water,  when  stiiTcd,  becomes  slightly  colored.  In  about  a  minute  he 
pours  oif  the  v/ater,  replaces  it  with  fresh  water,  and  transfers  the  roe 
to  the  hatching-boxes.  He  obtains  in  this  way  sixty  per  cent.,  while  at 
HuningTie  thirty  to  thirty -five  per  cent,  only  are  hatched. 

The  fish-breeding  works  at  Huningue,  near  Bale,  were  built  in  1852, 
upon  a  plan  of  Professor  Coste,  of  Paris,  at  a  cost  of  30,000  francs, 
and  have  since  been  greatly  enlarged.  Water  is  conveyed  from  springs, 
oy  an  imdergroimd  canal  two  thousand  feet  long,  into  a  building,  in 
which  it  is  divided  into  three  parallel  canals  two  i'eet  wide,  the  bottoms 
covered  with  gravel,  and  gratings  laid  down  on  which  to  place  the 
hatching-boxes,  which  are  eighteen  inches  long  and  six:  broad,  placed  in 
rows  of  four  through  the  length  of  the  canal.  These  boxes  contain  each 
two  thousand  roe  "corns,"  and  seven  millions  ai'e  annually  received  into 
tthe  establishment  from  Switzerland,  North  Austria,  and  other  regions. 
In  1805,  four  millions  of  roe ' '  corn  s"  were  distributed  to  private  individuals, 
and  three  himdred  to  foiu-  himdi'cd  thousand  small  fi-y  were  hatched. 
For  transportation  of  the  latter,  round,  tin  jars  are  used,  ten  inches  high 
and  nine  inches  in  diameter.  They  are  half  filled  Avith  water,  with  which 
air  is  mixed  through  a  perforated  pipe  fastened  to  the  bottom.  In  such 
a  vessel  three  thousand  three  months  old  can  be  convejed,  the  water 
being  changed  once  in  three  hours. 

SUCCESSFUL  EXPEEIIMENT  IN  AFRICA. 

The  follovviug  extract  from  a  letter  received  from  Hon.  Amos  Perry, 
United  States  consul  at  Timis,  in  Algiers,  gives  information  concerning 
•a  profitable  and  somewhat  novel  mode  for  raising  fish  for  market : 

"At  Bizerta,  a  maritime  city  of  seven  thousand  or  eight  thousand 
inJiabitants,  situated  about  fifty  miles  from  here,  is  a  contrivance  for 
the  production  of  fish,  which  may  merit  some  attention. 

"A  small  stream  running  into  the  sea  is  widened  out  just  above  the 
city  into  a  shallow  pond  of  some  sixty  or  a  hundred  acres.  The  water  in 
this  pond  is  at  no  time  much  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  at  times  the 
water  fiows  profusely  back  from  the  sea  into  the  pond.  Most  of  the  area 
of  this  pond  has  been  from  time  immemorial  divided  into  twelve  apart- 
ments, separated  l^y  an  upright  cane  fence,  which  allows  the  water  to 
circulate  through  all  the  apartments,  and  at  the  same  time  prevents  the 
fish  in  the  different  apartments  from  communicating  with  each  other. 
Each  of  these  apartments  is  said  to  contain  a  diflerent  kind  of  fish. 

"  These  fishing  grounds  are  mider  municipal  control.  'No  one  is  allowed 
to  approach  them  except  the  officers  of  the  government.  The  officers  are 
said  to  take  the  fish  from  the  same  apartment  for  one  entire  month,  and 
then  to  leave  that  ground  unmolested  for  the  next  eleven  months  ensuing. 

"  The  fish  are  taken  in  nets  at  a  fixed  hour  each  day.  When  I  witnessed 
the  operation,  several  boatloads  of  fish  were  brought  ashore  and  deposited 
m  the  government  fish-house.  There  they  were  carefully  sorted  over. 
Persons  li-om  the  city  and  from  villages  near  by  were  on  hand  to  get 
their  daily  supply,  at  an  expense  merely  nominal.  Most  of  the  fish  were 
put  into  basliets  and  sent  off  on  camels  and  mides  to  supply  the  markets 
of  Tunis  and  difiereut  points. 

"  I  could  not  learn  that  any  artificial  means,  other  than  those  named, 
have  ever  been  employed  for  breeding  these  fish.    Our  considar  agent 
at  Bizerta  informs  mo  that  the  profits  reaUzed  by  the  government  are 
from  twelve  thousand  to  fifteen  thousand  dollars  a  year." 
21 


322  AGEICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

TVHAT  MAY  BE  DOXE  Ds   THIS  COU>'TEY. 

It  may  be  said  that  foreign  rulers  may  amuse  themselves,  and  possibly 
attempt  to  aid  in  feeding  their  hungry  subjects,  with  increase  of  food 
supplier,  by  the  practice  of  the  art  of  pisciculture,  but  that  the  fertile 
fields  and  teeming  waters  of  this  continent  recjuire  no  supplementary 
resources  of  an  art  of  so  doubtful  productive  value.  With  a  population 
of  fortj-  millions,  to  V>ecome  eighty  in  twenty-five  years,  and  no  one  knows 
how  soon  to  equal  that  of  Eui'ope,  it  is  unwise  to  contemn  any  .source  of 
production,  and  rank  folly  to  allow  so  great  a  delicacy  as  the  speckled 
brook  tTout  ( Salmo  fontinalis)  to  become  extinct,  as  has  the  seagoing 
salmon  fSaJmo  miorj  xqtv  nearly  upon  our  eastern  coast.  The  xhad 
(Alosa prccstabilisj  is  becoming  comi)aratively  scarce  in  all  our  watcr.s. 
And  why  should  not  the  lake«  and  ponds  of  the  East,  full  of  yellow  i>erch 
and  pickerel,  be  stocked  with  the  superior  black  bass  f  Gnjstc-a  fasciatmj 
and  white  fish  fCor€{}onm  alba  J  and  other  valnable  kinds  ?  It  has  been 
done  successfully  in  a  few  cases :  why  may  it  not  be  done  generally  ? 

Legislatire protection. — It  is  an  internal  improvement  that  governments 
may  properly  favor,  not  by  enterprises  in  piscicidture,  but  by  laws  for 
its  protection.  The  genius  of  our  Lnstitations  favors  the  remitting  to 
local  legislation  of  such  regulations  as  are  necessary  for  the  conserva- 
tion and  re]denishing  of  this  element  of  food  supply;  and  the  peculiar 
requirements  of  each  section  may  be  better  met  by  laws  framed  to  meet 
the  specific  want.  "While  this  is  conceded  to  be  tnie,  it  is  evident  that 
the  general  government  may  properly  encourage  in  a  variety  of  ways 
and  with  su]>erior  efliciency  the  practical  development  of  this  new 
branch  of  national  economy.'  The  Keport  of  Agricultiu-e  may  appropri- 
ately show  how  valuable  an  adjunct  to  its  store  of  food  supply  for  family 
use  the  fish  jircserves  of  the  farm  may  become.  "VMien  farm  labor  is  too 
valuable  to  be  used  in  hunting  very  small  game  and  fishing  in  preca- 
rious waters  for  obtaining  a  needfid  variety  of  animal  food,  it  is  at  least 
worth  an  inquiry  whether  a  cheap  and  abundant  occasional  substitute 
for  salt  pork  may  not  l>e  found,  when  chickens  or  eggs  are  not  always 
available  and  roasts  of  beef  and  legs  of  mutton  are  only  possible  at  irreg- 
ular intervals.  Congress  may  appropriately  direct  experiments  or  in- 
vestigations, which  would  promise  practical  residts  of  general  accept- 
ance, if  such  tests  should  not  othei^wise  be  made  as  well  or  as  i)romptly; 
or  it  may  introduce  valuable  foreign  species  of  food  fishes,  such  as  the 
gourami*  described  in  the  report  of  ISGO,  if  such  acclimation  should  be 
deemed  necessary  while  our  native  supplies  are  so  various  and  so  valu- 
able. 

The  Commissioner  of  Agricultuie  has  been  ui-ged  to  ask  the  attention 
of  Congress  to  this  subject  by  many  interested  in  fishing  and  fisheries, 
among  them  Messrs.  Eobert  B.  Eoosevelt  and  Seth  Green,  of  the  New 
York  Commission ;  Eoyal  Phelps,  president  of  the  Xew  York  Sports- 
man's Club ;  W.  J.  Hayes,  secretary  of  the  same  organization  ;  Francis 
E.  Spinner,  Treasui'er'of  the  United  States ;  and  many  others — from 
w  bom  the  following  petition  has  been  received. 

*'The  undersigned,  having  been  impressed  with  the  vast  importance  to 
the  countrj-  of  augmenting  all  its  resources  connected  with  the  supply 
of  food,  and  convinced,  either  from  experiments  made  by  themselves  or 
by  studying  recorded  facts  and  the  experience  of  others,  that  the  supply 
of  fresh  and  siilt-water  fish  can  be  greatly  increased  by  a  little  care  and 
attention  devoted  to  their  propagation,  would  suggest  to  you  the  propri- 
ets'  of  applying  to  Congress  for  a  moderate  appropriation  to  be  expended 
under  thf-  'jirection  of  yotir  Department  in  organizing  operations  for  prop- 


RECENT   PROGRESS   IN    FISH    CULTURE.  M3 

agatiDg  shad  in  the  rivers  freqnented  at  present  by  these  valuable  fish. 
As  TU'geut  grounds  for  this  action,  we  would  call  yonr  attention  to  the 
fact  of  the  advancing  price  and  rapid  diminution  in  numbers  yearly  taken 
of  these  fish,  as  atcII  as  to  the  experiments  made  in  the  Xew  England 
States  dming  the  last  year,  which  conclusively  show  that  shad  can  be 
readily  and  rapidly  propagated,  and  that  their  numbers  can  be  multi- 
pbed  very  largely  at  a  small  ex|)euse  in  time  and  trouble,  and  by  means 
and  appliances  so  simple  that  every  one  can  imderstand  them.  Believing 
that  this  is  a  matter  of  vast  national  importance,  and  tnistiug  that  it 
will  meet  your  favorable  consideration,''  etc. 

Protection  for  the  Pacific  salmon  rivers  an  urgent  necessity. — It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  combined  federal  and  State  action  should  at 
once  be  taken  to  prevent  the  desr^ioiliug  of  the  salmon  rivers  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  If  the  strong  arm  of  law  is  not  inteiT-osed,  bnt  few 
years  t\ill  elapse  before  the  etibrts  of  fish  breeders  Aviil  be  called 
into  requisition  to  restore  the  sabnou  to  those  waters.  The  fisheriCvS  are 
now  woith  millions.  If  protected,  they  may  continue  to  yield  millions 
annually ;  if  neglected  for  a  few  season's,  they  will  shortly  become  worth- 
less. Laws  should  be  enacted  at  once,  first,  requiring  fishways  over 
every  dam  erected  ;  second,  hmitiug  the  time  and  mode  of  captuie.  The 
general  government,  at  the  next  session  of  CongTess,  should  enact  such 
a  law  for  the  Temtories,  and  the  legislatiu-e  of  Oregon  shoidd  lose  no 
time  m  passing  a  similar  enactment. 

Eecent  State  lerjislation. — The  New  York  legislatm-e  amended  their 
fishing  laws,  April  2'2,  1SG8,  imposing  upon  the  commissioners  the  addi- 
tional duty  of  undertaking  the  aititicial  propagation  of  shad,  white  fish, 
and  sahuon  in  the  waters  of  the  State,  and  appropriating  ten  thousand 
dollars  to  defiay  the  cost  of  the  undertaking.  The  act  prohibits  the 
taking  of  shad  in  the  Hudson,  except  between  March  15  and  June  15 
in  each  yeai\  luider  penalty  of  one  himcb'ed  dollars  and  a  forfeit  of  nets 
employed.  It  forbids  fishing  with  any  net  or  seine,  between  sunset  on 
Saturday  evening  and  sunrise  Monday  morning,  and  requires  the  open- 
ing for  the  tree  passage  of  fish,  of  all  pounds,  weirs,  or  nets  during  the 
same  period,  fleshes  of  nets  or  seines  must  measm-e  four  and  a  half 
inches  in  Lake  Ontario,  and  five  inches  in  aU  other  waters,  dming  the 
season  of  spring  fishing. 

Connecticut  has  a  recent  law  restricting  fishing  from  March  15  to 
Jiuie  15.  and  forbidding  the  use  of  meshes  smaller  than  five  inches,  upon 
penalty  of  a  fine  of  four  hmulred  dollars;  and  the  restriction  as  to  the 
Thames  Eiver  is  made  ojierative  from  May  1  to  October  1.  Salmon  are 
not  permitted  to  be  taken  until  March,  1872.  Three  commissioners  are 
authorized  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor  for  one  yeai",  and  paid 
three  dollars  per  day  for  actual  services,  and  their  expenses  when  on 
official  duty. 

The  Massachusetts  legislature,  at  its  last  session,  enacted  several  im- 
portant laws  relating  to  fishing  and  fisheries.  One  prohibits  the  taking 
of  shad  in  the  Connecticut  Eiver  at  any  other  time  than  between  March 
15  and  June  15,  imder  forfeiture  of  one  hmulred  dollars  :  and  Hity  dol- 
lars is  the  foifeit  for  taking  salmon  prior  to  March  15, 1872.  AU  fishing 
after  sunset  Saturday  evening  and  before  sunrise  Monday  mornuig  is 
prohibited,  and  weirs  and  pounds  must  be  kept  open  during  the  same 
period,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  four  hundred  dollars. 

A  general  law.  entitled  ''An  act  for  encouraging  the  cidtivation  of  useful 
fishes,'-  was  passed,  the  more  important  pro\isions  of  which  are  as  fol- 
lows :  A  board  of  three  commissioners  of  inland  fisheries  is  organized, 
each  member  to  serve  five  years,  and  to  be  empowered  to  enforce  aU 


324  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

fishery  lavrs,  remove  (snmiuarily.  if  necessary)  all  illegal  fishing  gear 
and  other  obstnictions  to  the  passage  of  migi-atory  fish,  and  build  fish- 
■u-ays  whenever  individuals  or  corporations  refuse  to  do  so,  the  expense 
recoverable  in  legal  action  against  such  proprietors.  The  commission- 
ers are  absolved  from  action  of  trespass-  Exclusive  control  of  fisheries 
in  ponds  of  not  more  than  twenty  acres,  or  those  created  by  artificial 
tiowage.  is  granted  to  their  proprietors ;  those  of  greater  area  are  public ; 
but  the  commissioners  may  lease  any  of  them  for  the  purpose  of  culti- 
vating useful  fishes.  Any  riparian  proprietor  may  inclose  within  the 
limits  of  his  own  premises  the  waters  of  a  stream  not  navigable,  provided 
he  furnishes  a  suitable  passage  for  migratory  fishes  frequenting  such 
waters :  and  cultivated  fishes  are  made  the  absolute  jiroperty  of  the  per- 
son propagating  or  maintaining  them.  First  violations  of  this  provision 
are  punished  by  fiiies  of  one  to  twenty  dollars ;  repetitions,  five  to  fifty 
dollars.  Xo  tidal  stream  shall  be  considered  navigable  above  a  jwint 
having  a  channel  four  feet  deep  during  three  hours  nearest  to  high 
tide. 

A  fi^h  cidtivator  may  take  fish  in  his  own  waters  at  auy  time,  and 
sell  them  even  dining  periods  when  fishing  is  prohibited,  but  not  at  such 
time  for  food  purposes.  Fishing  with  sweep-seine,  hand  or  dip  net,  with 
meshes  less  than  five  inches  in  length,  in  certain  rivers  named,  between 
April  15  and  December  15,  is  punishable  by  a  fine  of  twenty-five  dol- 
lars :  and  the  same  penalty  is  i^rescribed  for  obstruction  by  such  nets  of 
more  than  two-thirds  of  tlie  width  of  a  stream,  or  hauling  a  seine  within 
half  a  mile  of  a  point  so  fished  within  an  hour  pre^ious. 

In  all  of  the  minor  streams  fishing  for  salmon  or  shad  is  allowed  in  its 
season,  only  on  tour  days  of  each  week — Monday,  "Wednesday,  Thurs- 
day, and  Satui'day — except  by  hook  and  line.  Market  superintendents 
and  other  ofiicers  are  fined  for  neglect  to  inform  upon  illegal  ofiering  of 
fish  for  sale.  The  taking  of  trout  and  land-locked  sahnon  by  any  other 
means  than  by  hook  and  hand-line  is  prohibited,  and  hea^•y  penalties 
are  attached  to  taking  or  selling  salmon  from  the  1st  of  August  to  the 
1st  of  May,  of  land-locked  salmon  fi'om  September  20  to  March  20,  of 
black  bass  fi'om  December  1  to  June  1.  and  of  smelts  or  white  bass  from 
March  15  to  June  1.  All  protection  is  withdrawn  from  pickerel  and  eels. 
This  law  was  draughted  and  urged  by  Theodore  Lyman,  commissioner  of 
^Massachusetts  fisheries,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  radical  and  protective 
upon  the  statute-books  of  any  State. 

CommuHioners  of  fisheries. — The  State  governments  of  the  eastern 
and  middle  States'  have  aheady  appointed  commissions  for  the  encour- 
agement of  fish  culture.  The  follo^nng  is  a  list  of  commissioners  of 
fisheries  of  the  several  States  which  have  taken  ofiicial  notice  of  this 
subject,  so  far  as  they  have  come  in  communication  with  this  Depart 
ment : 

Maine :  Charles  G.  Atkins.  Augusta :  Zs'athan  W.  Foster, East  Machias. 

Xew  Hamjishire:  W.  A.  Sanborn,  WeLisj  W.  "\V.  Fletcher,  Concord; 
Thomas  E.  Hatch,  Kcene. 

Vermont:  A.  D.  Hager,  ProctorsA-iUe ;  Charles  Bai-rett,  Grafton. 

Massachusetts:  Theodore  Lyman,  Brookline;  Alfred  K.  Field,  Green- 
field; G.  A.  Brackett,  Winchester. 

Connecticut:  Henry  Woodward,  Middletown;  James  Eaukin,  Old  Say- 
brook  ;  James  A.  Bill,  LjTue. 

Khode  Island:  Alfi'ed  A.  Keed,  Apponaug;  Xewton  Dexter,  Provi- 
dence. 

yew  York:  Horatio  Seymour,  Ithica;  Seth  Green,  Mumford;  Robert 
B.  Eooseveit.  ZSTew  York  City. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  FISH  CULTURE.  325 

PemisYlvania :  James  Won-all,  Han'isbnrg. 

At  a  recent  convention  of  tliese  commissioners  held  in  Xew  Yoili  City, 
the  foDo"u-iujj:  resolutions  were  adopted,  and  mar  be  taken  as  the  vievrs 
of  these  officers  npon  the  practical  aspects  of  this  subject: 

"AMiereas  both  the  marine  and  inland  fisheries  of  the  Athuitic  States 
nave  much  deteriorated,  and  a  vast  soiuTe  of  supply  of  food  for  the 
people  has  been  greatly  injured  by  causes  entii'ely  within  the  conti'ol  oi 
legislation:  and  v\-hei*eas  the  present  yield  of  fish  from  the  Sitlt  and  n^esh 
waters  could  be  hu'gely  increased  by  simple  measures  for  their  protec- 
tion and  propagation : 

"Bcsolvcd,  That  every  e:ffDrt  should  be  made,  not  only  in  the  States 
represented  in  this  convention  but  in  all  those  which  border  on  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  to  draw  legislative  attention  to  the  subject,  and  to  effect 
such  modification  of  old  laws  and  enactment  of  new  ones  as  will  conduce 
to  the  restoration,  development,  and  protection  of  the  pubhc  fisheries. 

^^Ec^olved.  That  the  subject  is  of  vast  importance  to  the  people,  and 
shoidd,  by  every  means  possible,  be  placed  before  them  in  its  nue  hght, 
in  order  that  they  may  understand  fidly  the  benefit  v.hich  may  be 
obtained  by  the  community  by  proper  care  of  this  valuable  branch  of 
the  i^ubhc  natural  resources. 

"Eesolved,  That  laws  in  adjacent  States  should  be  concuirent  and 
uniform,  in  order  that  there  may  be  no  conflict  between  the  owners  of 
different  parts  of  a  stream  or  coast,  and  that  the  same  object  may  be 
kept  in  view  by  all. 

'•Fewh'cd.  That  fish  culture,  both  by  the  artificial  impregnation  of  the 
ova  and  by  the  modifications  of  obstructions  which  have  reduced  the 
nattu^  area  of  the  spawning- grounds  of  the  fish,  although,  as  yet.  com- 
paratively in  its  infancy,  has  yielded  most  satisfactory  results,  and  will 
fiu'nish  valuable  assistance  in  stocking  or  replenishing  ijublic  waters. 

''Ecsolvcd,  That  the  true  interests  of  the  fishermen  accord  absolutely 
with  the  advantage  of  the  pulilic.  and  that  legislation  should  not  be 
hostile  to  them,  but  tend  to  develop  this  conformity',  improve  the  fish- 
eries, and  benefit  the  public." 

The  Xew  York  commissioners  recommend  immediate  steps  toward 
breeding  shad  in  the  Hudson  on  a  scale  to  produce  emly  and  marked 
residts.  They  would  use  foiu-  huntked  boxes  with  a  capacity  of  fomteen 
millions  of  yoimg  fiy  daily,  or  thiee  hiuitU-ed  millions  in  the  season,  and 
would  require  the  services  of  fifty  men.  and  an  exiienditiu'e  of  ten 
thousand  dollars.  They  would  prohibit  fishing  on  the  Hudson  after 
June  lo.  and  the  use  of  nets  with  meshes  smaller  than  five  inches, 
and  all  Simday  fishing  whatever. 

Alfi-ed  D.  Hager,  commissioner  for  Vermont,  in  writing  concerning 
the  restoration  of  the  shad  and  salmon  fisheries,  declares  the  Connecticut 
to  have  been  once  as  good  a  sahnou-producing  stream  as  any  in  America, 
though  that  valuable  fish  1ms  scarcely  been  known  for  yciirs  within  its 
waters,  and  believes  "that  by  constructing  suitable  fish  ways  over  the 
dams,  and  placing  the  young  fry  in  om*  sti'eams.  the  fish  will  again 
become  abundant."  Concemmg  recent  operations,  he  says:  "ihe  legis- 
latiu'e  of  last  year  (ISOS)  failed  to  make  any  appropriation  for  the  pur- 
chase of  young  sahnon  now  being  raised  by  Mr.  Stone,  of  Charlestown, 
!New  Hampsliii"e,  but  the  commissioners  propose  to  place  a  few  thousitnd 
in  the  Vermont  rivers  the  ensuing  spring.  ^lany  of  the  enterjirising 
citizens  of  the  State  have  commenced  the  culture  of  ti'out  in  aitificial 
ponds,  and,  judging  from  the  favorable  results  already  attained,  it  is 
reasonable  to  sui}pose  that  within  a  few  years  the  raising  of  fish  for 
market  will  become  one  of  the  profitable  iudustrial  piu'suits  of  the  State." 


326  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

It  may  uot  be  generally  Imown  that  the  Connecticut,  which  forms  the 
boundary  between  Vermont  and  Xew  Hampshire,  is  altogether  ^vithiu 
the  latter  State,  the  line  being  low-water  mark  on  the  western  shore. 

A  note  iTom  Kobert  B.  Koosevelt,  a  member  of  the  New  York  com- 
mission, states,  as  the  result  of  his  observations  upon  several  of  the 
southern  rivers,  that  the  shad  fisheries,  formerly  so  proUtic  and  regarded 
as  practically  inexhaustible,  are  greatly  depleted.  The  fishermen,  while 
complaining  of  the  reduction  of  their  business,  manifested  no  disposition 
to  accept  the  suggestion  or  aid  of  himself  or  Mr.  Green  toward  restor- 
ing their  former  i)rosperity ;  and  the  conclusion  was  reluctantly  adopted 
that  if  anj-thing  of  importance  was  accomplished,  it  must  be  done  by 
the  general  government. 

In  a  recent  letter  to  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Seth  Green, 
one  of  the  commissioners  of  fisheries  of  New  York,  whose  labors  in  fish- 
hatching  have  been  remarkably  successful,  (and  whose  success  has  been 
acknowledged  by  the  Paris  SocieU  <V Acclimataiion  in  an  award  of  a  silver 
medal,)  wi-ites  as  follows: 

"  Last  spring  I  visited  the  James,  Potomac,  Susquehanna,  Delaware, 
Hudson,  Connecticut,  and  Merrimac  Rivers,  and  find  that  all-  the  fisheries 
are  failing,  adess  number  of  shad,  herring,  alewives,  &c.,  being  taken 
each  year.  The  chief  cause  of  this  decline  is  the  great  amount  of  fish- 
ing tackle  used  on  the  rivers,  the  take  being  greater  than  the  increase. 
The  rivers  can  all  be  restocked  artificially,  but  not  without  legislation. 
The  fishermen  want  to  take  the  last  fish,  but  no  one  of  thera  will  do  any 
hatching  for  fear  some  other  fisherman  may  take  some  of  the  fish. 

"  The  season  varies  in  all  the  rivers.  After  a  certain  season  in  each 
river,  there  should  be  no  fish  taken  except  for  artificial  propagation. 
The  rivers  must  be  farmed  from  one  end  to  the  other.  Y'ou  might  as 
well  undertake  to  raise  produce  on  one  farm  to  feed  a  country,  as  to 
hatch  fish  enough  at  one  fishery  to  stock  the  river.  They  should  be 
hatched  at  every  fishery,  and  when  the  fishermen  put  back  in  the  river 
a  thousand  fish  for  every  one  taken  out,  there  will  be  i)lenty  of  fish,  and 
that  will  be  done  when  the  legislatiuTS  make  laws  recommended  by  the 
commissioners  of  fisheries.  But  when  the  fish  commissioner  prepares  a 
bill,  after  long  experience  and  careful  consideration  as  to  what  is  requi- 
site and  proper,  the  legislator  thinks  a  few  minutes  to  see  if  lie  or  his 
friends  are  to  be  interfered  with,  and  strokes  his  beard  very  knowingly; 
and  there  are  so  many  such  to  convince  that  you  are  right,  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  get  a  bill  through. 

"  I  think  the  hot  weather  has  killed  a  great  many  fish  in  all  the  rivers 
and  bays.  On  the  12th,  13th,  14th,  loth,  and  10th  of  July,  the  water  in 
the  Connecticut  Biver  stood  at  from  eighty-two  to  eighty-eiglit  degrees. 
I  saw  many  dead  shad  in  the  river,  and  the  fatality  nuist  have  been 
much  gi'cater  in  the  less  rapid  rivers,  bays,  lakes,  and  ponds,  and  I 
think  it  a  serious  loss  to  the  country. 

*'  I  began  to  operate  June  18,  at  Holyoke,  on  the  Connecticut  Biver, 
and  hatched  about  forty  millions  of  shad  by  July  12,  when  the  water 
became  so  warm  that  it  cooked  the  spawn  in  the  boxes.  Shad  cannot  be 
hat<;hed  successfully  in  water  warmer  than  seventy-eight  degrees.  Shad 
spawn  cannot  be  carried  more  than  two  days' Journey.  All  the  water  of 
this  counti\v  can  be  filled  with  fish  adapted  to  them.  Every  acre  of 
water  is  worth  two  acres  of  land  if  i"»roi)erly  farmed.  IMost  persons  sup- 
pose that  it  can  be  done  at  trilling  expense.  It  can  be  done  cheap,  but 
it  cannot  be  done  for  nothing.  Spend  one-thousandth  part  of  the  sum 
spent  in  tilling  the  laud,  in  cultivating  the  water,  and  fish  may  be  sold  in 
our  markets  at  two  cents  per  pound. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  FISH  CULTURE.         827 

"  I  liatched  about  five  liundred  thousand  trout  last  season,  and  sold 
about  five  hundred  thousand  impregnated  ti'out  spawn.  Those  who  fol- 
lowed my  directions  hatched  a  fiiir  proportion.  I  send  the  spawn  to  any 
part  of  the  United  States,  by  express,  and  have  sent  them  to  the  Kooky 
Mountains  by  mail  and  express.  The  young  fish  can  be  sent  almost  any 
distance,  if  sent  in  January  or  February.  In  Lot  weather  they  do  not 
carry  well.  I  have  trout  growing  in  almost  every  State  in  the  Union. 
All  the  spring  streams  in  the  country  can  be  stocked  with  trout.  I  spent 
two  weeks  on  the  Hudson  liiver  and  hatched  a  few  shad,  but  I  cannot 
do  anything  without  legislation." 

He  gives  minute  directions  for  the  care  of  the  ova  of  trout,  the  mode  of 
packing  for  transportation,  and  the  proper  management  in  hatching.  He 
is  able  to  send  the  eggs  to  any  part  of  the  country,  or  to  Europe,  with- 
out loss,  packing  in  moss  within  a  tin  bucket,  which  is  placed  in  another 
vessel,  with  sawdust  between  thein  to  guard  against  sudden  changes  of 
temperature. 

In  January,  18C9,  a  quantity  of  impregnated  spawn,  piit  up  at  his 
establishment,  was  sent  by  Mr.  Eoosevelt  to  Frank  Buckland,  the  well- 
Jinown  naturalist  and  British  superintendent  of  fisheries.  They  were 
packed  in  moss  in  a  cau,  which  was  placed  in  a  larger  can,  the  space 
between  being  filled  with  sawdust,  and  forwarded  in  the  ice  room  of  the 
steamer  City  of  Baltimore.  The  eggs  were  found  in  fine  condition,  with 
only  one  or  two  wbite  or  dead  ones. 

Mr.  Green  gives  the  following  directions  for  handling  the  spawn: 

"  Pick  the  moss  carefully  off  from  the  top  of  the  spawn.  Then  put  the 
box  in  a  pan  of  water  and  turn  it  nearly  bottom-side  up,  and  pick  the 
moss  out  carefully.  The  spawn  will  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  you  can 
pick  the  moss  out  of  the  pan.  If  there  is  a  little  left  it  will  do  no  harm. 
Then  pour  the  spawn  in  yoUr  hatching-trough,  by  holding  the  edge  of 
your  pan  under  water,  and  place  them,  without  touching  the  spawn,  by 
agitating  the  water  with  the  bearded  end  of  a  feather.  The  dead  spawn 
will  tiu'u  a  milk-white  color,  and  should  be  picked  out.  Your  trough 
should  be  so  arranged  that  the  water  will  run  in  it  about  twelve  feet  per 
minute.  The  water  should  be  filtered  by  running  through  gravel  or  cloth 
screens,  to  prevent  the  sediment  from  reaching  the  spawn.  I  run  about 
one  inch  of  water  over  my  spawn,  and  if  any  sediment  gets  on  them  and 
is  allowed  to  remain  there  long,  it  will  surely  kill  them.  Kemove  all 
sediment  with  the  bearded  end  of  a  quill,  by  agitating  the  water,  with- 
out touching  the  spawn. 

'^  Large  ponds  with  but  little  water  get  too  warm  in  summer  and  too 
cold  in  winter  for  trout  to  do  well.  It  is  detrimental  to  have  any  other 
tish  with  trout.  Any  kind  of  fish  or  fish  spawn  is  good  for  feed.  The 
young  should  be  fed  \wice  per  day,  very  slowly  5  if  fed  fast  the  feed  sinks 
and  befouls  the  trough,  and  the  trout  will  sicken  and  die.  If  fed  regularly 
and  the  trough  kept  clean,  with  a  good  change  of  water,  and  not  kept 
too  thick,  they  will  live  and  do  well.    If  neglected  they  will  sui-ely  die. 

"The  sun,  sediment,  rats,  mice,  snails,  crawfish,  and  many  water 
bisects  are  death  to  spawn.  My  troughs  are  twenty-five  feet  long,  and 
fifteen  inches  wide.  The  Avater  that  feeds  each  trough  would  go  through 
a  halfinch  hole  with  a  three-inch  head.  Use  fine  gravel  that  has  no  iron 
rust  in  it.  My  troughs  are  three  inches  higher  at  the  head.  The 
average  temperature  of  the  water  is -forty-five  degrees,  and  the  fish  hatch 
in  seventy  days.  Every  degree  colder  or  warmer  will  make  about  six 
days'  difference  in  hatching.  Trout  hatch  the  soonest  in  warm  water. 
The  sac  on  their  bellies  sustains  them  for  forty  or  forty-five  days  after 
hatching,  then  they  need  food. 


328  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

"  Wheu  tlie  fish  are  hatched,  raise  the  water  in  the  troughs  iibout  four 
or  five  inches  by  putting  on  a  piece  of  board  of  that  width  on  every  cross- 
piece,  thus  keeping  the  fish  separate — about  an  equal  number  in  each 
square.  If  you  have  a  small  stream  of  shallo^y  vrater  near  the  head  of 
your  pond,  put  a  few  in  a  place  in  the  stream  and  pond,  and  they  will 
take  care  of  themselves  better  than  you  can.  The  object  of  distributiug 
them  is  that  they  will  get  more  food.  All  old  streams  and  ponds  have 
plenty  of  food  for  small  trout  and  large,  which  you  will  find  by  exam- 
ining the  moss,  sticks,  and  stones  in  your  ponds  and  streams,  as  they 
are  full  of  water  insects. 

"  The  fish,  after  hatching,  should  be  fed  twice  daib*  for  two  or  three 
months,  then  once  a  day — the  grown  fish  once  a  day  or  ofteuer.  For 
the  young  fish,  liver  shoidd  be  scraped  and  chopped  very  fine,  and 
mixed  with  water,  to  give  it  about  the  consistency  of  clotted  blood.  Toss 
ihis  to  the  fish  a  little  at  a  time,  so  that  they  can  catch  and  devour  it 
oefore  it  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  trough  ;  no  more  should  be  given 
than  the  fish  will  eat,  because  if  any  is  left  it  will  settle  to  the  bottom 
and  foul  the  water,  and  the  fish  will  sicken  and  die.  The  fish  may  be 
fed  on  curds,  fish  olial,  or  other  animal  matter,  provided  it  be  small 
enough  for  them  to  swallow." 

Trout  breeding  easy. — A  family  supply  of  trout  may  be  attained  with 
small  expense  and  little  labor  by  any  intelligent  owner  of  a  brisk  spring 
of  never-failing  cold  water,  if  the  location  is  so  sheltered  as  to  avoid  the 
risk  of  overflow  from  surface  drainage.  Deep,  narrow  ponds  in  ravines 
protected  from  the  sun's  rays,  and  supplied  by  spring  water  through  an 
inch  pipe,  may  suflice  for  a  few  specimens,  and  serve  to  amuse  and  instruct 
the  amateur  proprietor  ;  a  fountain  capable  of  fillhig  constantly  a  two- 
inch  pipe  will  sustain  a  trout  preserve  which  may  prove  a  soui'ce  of 
pleasure  and  profit ;  a  still  larger  stream  is,  of  course,  desirable,  and 
essential  as  well,  if  anything  important  is  sought  to  be  accomplished. 
There  are  many  who  desire  to  undertake  a  very  simple  experiment  in 
piscicultui'e,  content  with  small  retiuns  in  the  pleasure  of  lu'ovidmg  a 
new  and  agi'eeable  feature  for  their  homesteads,  and  of  adding  a  new 
luxm\v  to  their  table  fare.  To  such  we  recommend  the  following  direc- 
tions of  Theodore  Lyman,  one  of  the  commissioners  of  ^Massachusetts : 
"  The  simplest  hatching  ai)paratus  (without  a  house  at  all,  and  one  at 
command  of  anybody)  is  made  as  follows :  Close  below  a  spring-head  dig 
a  trench  a  foot  wide,  so  that  the  whole  water  shall  i)ass  through  it  gently. 
Fit  tightly  into  this  trench  a  box,  four  feet  long,  and  open  above  and  at 
each  end;  the  water  will  now  flow  through  this.  Close  the  upper  end 
of  the  box  with  a  layer  of  coarse  sponge,  and  below  this  (down  stream, 
that  is)  add  two  flannel  strainers  stretched  across  the  box.  Xow  the 
water  will  still  flow,  but  will  he  Jiltcrcd.  Close  the  lower  end  of  the  box 
with  a  metallic  gauze,  (the  bottom  of  an  old  sieve,  painted,  will  do,)  and 
add  a  movable  cover  on  toi).  Xow  you  have  a  closed  box  or  trough, 
through  which  a  stream  of  filtered  spring  water  flows  constantly.  Take 
gravel,  the  size  of  peas,  wash  it  till  clean,  and  spread  it  one  inch  thick 
on  the  bottom  of  the  box.  On  this  gravel  lay  trout  eggs,  so  that  they 
do  not  lie  on  toj)  of  one  another.  Examine  them  daily  to  remove  the  dead 
ones,  or  any  dirt,  and  to  wash  the  filters  when  necessary.  They  will  all 
hatch  when  they  get  readv.  But,  how  to  get  these  eggs !  In  October 
or  November  go  to  a  trout  brook  and  vralk  softly  along  those  parts  of  it 
that  are  gravelly  and  have  running  Avater.  Feci)  under  the  banks  and 
the  dead  logs  until  you  see  a  iiair  of  trout  lying  close  together,  their 
heads  to  the  current.  With  a  hand-net,  dexterously  used,  both  may  be 
captured,  and  transferred  to  a  pail  of  water.    The  female  is  seen  to  be 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  FISH  CULTURE.  329 

tlie  stouter;  she  has  a  less-projecting  imder-javr,  and  her  1ms  are  not  so 
red.  'Take  her  up  tenderly,'  and  do  not  go  poking  a  cliunsy  thumb  into 
her  gills.  Pass  the  linger  and  thumb  with  a  gentle  pressure  along  the 
abdominal  region,  and,  if  the  fish  is  '  ripe,'  the  eggs  will  flow  out  freely. 
They  should  be  received  in  a  pan  of  water.  Put  the  female  bacls: ;  take 
out  the  male  and  press  him  in  like  manner,  and  allow  the  expressed 
milky  fluid  to  fall  into  the  same  pan.  Stir  the  water  with  the  hand, 
cover  it,  and  allow  it  to  stand  for  half  an  hour.  At  the  end  of  that  time 
the  eggs  which  had  stuck  fast  to  the  sides  will  become  free  and  roll 
about.  Now  gently  spread  the  eggs  on  the  gravel  of  the  trough,  and 
the  i)rimary  work  is  done.  Should  the  female  not  prove  ripe,  keep  her 
a  few  days  in  a  pool  or  spring-hole.  The  fish  thus  captured  for  breeders 
should  not  be  set  free,  but  kept  in  a  suitable  pool  till  the  next  season. 
Such  a  preserve  may  easily  be  made  by  digging  out  a  place  a  dozen  feet 
square  and  three  feet  deep,  grating  the  inlet  and  outlet,  and  leading  a 
stream  of  water  through  it.  The  breeding  fish  here  kept  will  feed  vora- 
ciously, and  will  eat  refuse  scraps  of  meat,  insects,  caterpillars,  clotted 
mflk,  hasty  pudding  boiled  with  milk,  and  small  minnows.  Thus  fed, 
once  or  twice  a  day,  they  grow  rapidly,  and  a  half-pound  fish  will  get  to 
a  pound  in  a  year.  Meantime,  the  eggs  are  growing  also,  and  in  their 
way.  After  three  or  four  weeks  two  dark  specks  appear  on  each  egg, 
and  these,  when  held  to  the  light,  are  seen  to  be  the  eyes  of  the  embryo, 
showing  through  the  translucent  shell.  This  is  a  good  time  to  pack  eggs 
for  transportation.  Take  a  tin  box,  the  size  and  shape  of  a  pint  measure, 
collect  also  a  good  handful  of  peat  moss,  [Sphagnum,)  and  wash  it  clean. 
Lay  a  stratum  of  wet  moss  in  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  cover  the 
same  with  a  fold  of  the  gauze  called  '  musquito  bar.'  On  this  gauze 
spread  gently  a  single  layer  of  eggs,  and  cover  them  with  a  second  fold 
of  musquito  bar.  Then  put  more  moss,  and  another  layer  of  eggs  in 
like  manner,  and  thus  continue  until  the  box  is  full.  Put  on  a  cover 
with  a  few  holes  in  it,  pack  the  tin  in  a  case  of  sawdust,  and  the  eggs 
are  good  for  a  month  without  opening.  When  they  are  unpacked  take 
the  moss  off  the  top,  then  lift  them  out  by  the  gauze,  and  place  them  in 
the  hatching-trough.  It  will  be  found  that  they  have  developed  almost 
as  much  in  the  wet  moss  as  they  would  have  done  in  the  water.  The 
tiny  embryo  may  be  seen  jerking  itself  uneasily  in  its  spherical  prison  ; 
a  movement  that  continues  to  increase  until,  after  two  or  three  months 
from  impregnation,  (according  to  the  temperature  of  the  water,)  the  crea- 
ture bursts  its  shell  and  appears  in  all  its  grandeui',  looking,  to  say  the 
truth,  more  lilje  a  spiritual  polliwog  than  a  real  salmonide.  Thispolliwog's 
character  arises  from  the  great  yolk  sac,  or,  rather  call  it,  havrcsac,  for  it 
bears  the  thirty  days'  rations  of  this  recruit.  All  that  time  he  lies  still 
without  foraging.  But  thereafter  wo  must  issue  to  him,  for  now  he  ap- 
])ears  as  a  genteel  minnow,  with  bars  on  his  sides.  Twice  or  thrice  a 
day  a  little  clotted  milk,  rubbed  very  fine  in  water,  must  be  put  in  the 
trough,  and  the  liy  may  be  seen  eagerly  to  swallow  the  floating  particles. 
Vv^ith  enough  food,  room,  and  water  they  will  grow  fast,  and  will  take 
larger  and  larger  morsels.  At  a  year  old  they  may  very  well  weigh  four 
ounces,  though  they  may  be  somewhat  larger  or  much  smaller,  according 
to  their  treatment.  Their  increase  will  depend  on  depth  of  water,  and 
quantity  and  variety  of  food." 

Frkes  for  Jish-rearinf/. — The  Massachusetts  Society  for  Promoting 
AgTioulture  has  offered  two  prizes,  one  of  three  hundred  dollars  and  one 
of  tw^o  hundred  dollars,  for  the  best  two  establishments  for  the  culture 
of  food-fishes  in  Massachusetts.  The  awards  will  be  iriade  Miu^ch  1, 
1872,  and  are  to  be  determined  by  a  consideration  of  the  number  ol 


330  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

species  cultivated,  the  number  and  condition  of  individuals,  the  numbei 
of  egfcs  liatclied  and  youngc  reared,  and  the  neatness  and  economy  of 
the  establishment,  and  the  excellence  of  the  tistui'es. 

Area  for  JisJi-farming. — Fevr  realize  the  extent  of  inland  water  in 
which  lish  enltme  can  aid  in  the  enlargement  of  food  production.  In 
the  State  of  New  York,  for  example,  the  area  of  lakes  is  nearly  half  a 
miUion  acres,  (400,4.37,)  the  coast  line  270  miles,  and  the  nimiber  of 
lakes  047.  Of  the  larger,  Cayuga  is  35  miles  long ;  Seneca,  33;  Oneida, 
20:  Otsego.  20;  Chautauqua.  18;  Crooked,  18;  Canandaigiia,  10;  Ska- 
neateles,  10 ;  Owasco,  12 ;  Hemlock,  8 ;  Ooneoye,  o,  and  Couesus,  5. 
These  waters  are  ample  for  the  annual  production  of  edible  fish  to  the 
value  of  many  millions  of  dollars,  suflicient  to  aid  materially  in  supply- 
ing subsistence  to  the  dense  population  of  the  State  of  Xew  York. 

As  New  York  is  thus  made  to  illustrate  the  extent  of  inland  waters, 
without  reference  to  the  chain  of  inland  seas  stretching  westward  to 
JMinnesota,  the  seaboard  bays  and  estuaries  of  ]\Iaryland  and  Virginia, 
with  many  hundreds  of  miles  of  coast  line,  may  serve  to  show  how  vast 
an  area  of  tide-water  is  accessible  for  fish-producing  and  fish-catching 
puri)oses. 

WnAT  HAS  EEEX  DOiXE  BY  STATE  ACTION. 

As  early  as  1850  a  commission  upon  pisciculture  was  authorized  in 
Massachusetts,  which  resulted  in  a  few  experiments  and  a  report. 

In  April,  1S05,  upon  remonsti'ance  of  oSTew  Hampshire  and  Vermont 
agaijist  preventing  migration  of  fishes  by  high  dams  on  the  Connecticut 
and  Merrimack  I*ivers,  the  legislature  appointed  two  commissioners, 
Theodore  Lyman  and  Alfred  A.  Eeed,  to  investigate  the  question.  In 
December  of  the  same  year  these  commissioners  reported  to  the  gover- 
nor and  council,  and  in  May,  1800,  the  legislature  provided  for  fhe  ap- 
pointment of  two  commissioners  for  five  years  to  cany  out  a  general 
plan  for  opening  the  above  rivers  to  the  passage  of  shad  and  salmon 
over  the  dams.  Mr.  Lyman  was  again  appointed,  and  Alfi-ed  R.  Field 
was  associated  with  him.  In  December,  1800,  they  were  able  to  report 
the  finishing  of  the  3Ierrimack  fishways,  and  the  opening  of  the  New 
Hampshu-e  section  of  the  river  by  the  authorities  of  that  State.  The 
powers  of  the  commissioners  were  enlarged  in  1807,  and  they  entered  at 
once  ui>ou  a  general  examination  of  the  fishways,  and  commenced  re- 
stocking the  waters  of  the  State.  In  June,  1808,  a  question  haAing 
arisen  relative  to  the  liability  of  the  proprietors  of  the  Uolyoke  dam  for 
the  construction  of  afishway,  an  appropriation  of  twelve  thousand  dol- 
lars was  made  for  such  improvement.  The  appropriations  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts legislature  in  aid  of  fish  culture  for  a  single  year  have  amounted 
to  thirty  thousand  dollars. 

A  recent  cnmmmiication  from  Theodore  Lyman,  president  of  the 
Massachusetts  commission,  reports  the  progi'ess  of  their  official  opera- 
tions, and  announces  tlieir  success  in  opening  several  rivers,  especially 
tLe  Merrimack.  The  Lawrence  fishway  over  the  high  dam  at  that 
place  has  been  a  difficult  one,  both  from  its  height  and  the  necessity  of 
great  strength  as  a  protection  against  ice.  Its  cost  has  exceeded  eight 
thousand  dollars,  and  while  it  carries  the  fish  over  in  its  present  condition, 
some  projected  improvements  will  render  it  an  undoubted  success.  The 
commission  has  stocked  ponds  with  black  bass,  and  bred  salmon,  trout, 
lake  trout,  f^almo  iomaj  and  land-locked  salmon  (S.  Gloveri;)  distrib- 
uted many  millions  of  shad  spawn,  but  failed  in  efforts  to  obtain  that  of 
the  white  fish,  fCoregonus  alba,J  the  Belgi-ade  smelt,  and  the  wall-eyed 
pike,  (Liidojjerca.J 


Plate  X. 


a 


fc 


Will    1    1  » 

1     V            \ 

^                      .V       ■' 

1 '' 

'. 

'. 

^ 

Ul 


Fijrs.  1,  2.  3. — Green's  hatching  box,  sitlo,  end,  and  'bottoni ;  a.  side  floats,  set  with  screws;  b,  beveled 
bottom  cross-bar  to  throw  the  current  npwartl ;  e.  wire-net  bottom,  14  wires  to  an  inch  :  d.  trap  for 
escape  of  young  fish,  wires  S  to  an  inch,  with  covering  slide  ;  e.  anchoring  cord :/.  water  line ;  ff.  spawn. 

Fi^.  -l.-^Section  of  Fosters  fish- way  ;  a  a.  side  timbers;  {>.  plauk  flo<ir:  e.  "ten-inch  spikes  driven 
fttim  timber  to  timber  ami  into  sill  d  :'  e  e.  bulk  heads ;  //.  openings  for  water ;  g  g,  outer  plunking. 

Fig.  5. — Horizontal  screen  to  prevent  trout  pa.<sing  up  a  fall. 

Fig.  6. — Plan  of  a  hatching-house  :  a.  water  conduit ;  b.  stniiners  ;  e.  hatching-tronghs ;  d,  door;  »e, 
windows ;  /,  stove ;  a,  sux>ply -trough ;  h,  space  cut  out  of  floor  for  escape  of  ■water. 


APPATvAXrS  rSED  FN"  FISH-CUXTUKE. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IX  FISH  CULTURE.  331 

Labors  of  Commissioner  Green. — ]Mr.  Green,  Trhile  awaiting  legislative 
aid  for  fish  culture  in  kis  own  State,  Las  volunteered  his  services  in  other 
sections.     He  gives  the  following  account  of  his  operations  : 

"On  the  11th  of  May,  ISGS,  I  put  four  thousand  shad-spawn,  properly 
impregiiated,  into  a  hatching-box  at  Long  Bridge,  on  the  Potomac,  the 
water  being  at  a  temperature  of  sixts'-four  degrees;  on  the  13th  they 
showed  signs  of  life,  and  I  put  in  seventy  thousand  more.  On  the  14th 
the  form  of  the  fish  was  visible,  and  on  the  17th  they  hatched.  To  draw 
public  interest  to  the  matter,  I  hatched  some  in  a  tumbler  in  the  house 
of  General  Spinner,  at  Washington.  They  left  the  e^^^  eighty-four  hours 
after  impregiiation.  1  hatched  fifteen  hundred  in  a  salt-box,  with  a 
sieve  bottom,  in  a  room  in  the  treasury  building.  On  the  loth  of  May, 
I  had  also  obtained  a  quantity  of  white-perch  spawn.  This  is  of  a  glu- 
tinous nature,  and  sticks  fast  to  brush,  weeds,  or  grass,  and  can  be 
readily  transported  in  that  condition.  It  hatched  in  about  a  week,  with 
the  temperature  of  the  water  at  about  sixty-two  degrees.  In  the  Poto- 
mac the  striped  bass  and  heri'ing  spawn  May  25,  the  stiu^geon  May  20, 
and  the  catfish  June  10.  From  that  river  1  jiroceeded  to  the  James, 
and  continued  my  endeavors  to  interest  the  fishermen  in  propagating 
shad.  Then  I  retm-ned  to  Z!sew  York,  stopping  on  the  Susquehanna  and 
the  Dela■v^■are,  the  latter  a  magnificent  stream,  where  shad  culture  might 
be  carried  to  any  extent,  and  which  might  be  filled  with  fish.  On  June 
4,  the  fishermen  were  taking  n\)  theii'  nets  at  Carmansville,  and  along 
the  lower  part  of  the  Hudson,  as  they  were  only  catching  four  or  five 
fish  a  day.  At  Clifton  I  saw  a  shad  with  the  spawn  running  from  it. 
On  the  18th  I  put  a  quantity  of  spawn  into  a  box  at  James  J.  Mulls's 
fishery,  near  Coeyman's  landing,  and  saw  evidences  of  life  in  thirty-six 
hours,  with  water  at  seventy-seven  degrees.  I  had  much  ti'ouble  in 
getting  spawners;  they  can  be  taken  only  at  night.  Both  on  the  Hud- 
son and  at  Holyoke  my  experience  was  the  same;  dming  the  day  none 
were  to  be  had;  from  7  j).  m.  to  12  p.  m.  we  could  take  them  in  proper 
condition,  but  after  12  p.  m.  we  could  only  take  unripe  fish.  This  leads 
me  to  think  they  deposit  their  spawn  diuing  the  day.  The  steamboats 
were  troublesome,  the  waves  that  followed  them  washing  over  my  boxes 
and  carrying  away  the  spawn.  I  had  to  locate  my  boxes  behind  the 
erections  put  in  the  river  to  deepen  the  channels.  Tery  few  shad  are 
to  be  found  above  Albany  ;  not  one  will  be  taken,  on  an  average,  at  a 
haul,  although  there  are  several  other  kinds  of  fish  more  abundant. 
There  must  be  an  extremely  small  number  that  nui  the  gauntlet  below 
successfidly.  After  I  had  thoroughly  examined  the  Hudson,  I  pro- 
ceeded to  Holyoke,  and  continued  the  artificial  propagation  of  shad  until 
I  was  stojiped  by  the  hot  weather.  I  instituted  a  series  of  experiments 
which  showed  conclusively  that  while  shad  will  hatch  with  water  at  a 
temperature  of  seventy-eight  degrees,  the  eggs  will  all  die  when  the 
temperature  rises  to  eighty-two  degrees. 

"In  the  faU  of  this  year  (ISGS)  I  commenced  the  artificial  culture  of 
white  fish.  I  obtained  a  quantity  of  the  spawn,  and  submitted  it  to 
various  courses  of  treatment.  My  most  successful  plan  was  to  man- 
age it  as  I  do  the  ova  of  trout — to  put  it  in  my  hatching-troughs,  which 
are  twenty-four  feet  long,  with  an  inclination  of  three  inches,  and  which 
are  divided  by  bars  across,  two  inches  high.  Gravel  is  laid  in  the  com- 
partments one  and  a  half  inch  deep,  so  that  the  depth  of  water  is  only 
half  an  inch.  The  eggs  are  hca^y,  like  those  of  trout,  and  sink  instantly 
in  water.  In  thiiteen  days  the  iish  were  visible  in  the  Q^g  by  the  aid 
of  the  microscope,  and  in  twenty-one  days  they  exhibited  signs  of  life, 
the  water  standing  at  a  temperature  of  forty-five  degrees.    They  hatch 


332  AGKICULTUEAL   EEPOKT. 

more  rapidly  than  trout,  aud  in  those  which  I  have  with  me  the  fish  are 
plainly  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  jNIost  of  those  have  been  kept  in  wet 
moss,  in  v^hich  their  development  has  progressed,  although  more  slowly 
than  when  in  their  proper  element.  I  only  stripped  five  or  six  females, 
and  obtained  some  two  hundred  thousand  eggs,  as  they  contain  about 
ten  thousand  eggs  to  the  pound  of  their  weight.  These  were  placed  in 
damp  moss  as  soon  as  impregnated,  and  carried  in  a  buggy  over  country 
roads  seven  miles,  then  by  railroad  twenty-five  miles  the  same  day. 
They  are  now  doing  well,  aud  bid  fair  to  hatch  as  large  a  percentage  as 
could  be  expected  with  a  first  experiment." 

The  Pennsylvania  Commission  reports  a  catch  of  20,000  shad  within 
a  distance  of  fifty  miles  above  Columbia,  as  the  immediate  result  of 
building  the  tishway  at  that  place.  The  dam,  which  is  ten  feet  high, 
was  cut  away  to  three  feet  at  the  point  surmounted,  and  an  incline  of 
forty-five  feet  was  constructed  to  overcome  an  elevation  of  three  feet. 
Dams  above,  the  owners  of  which  are  awaiting  the  adjudication  of  courts 
as  to  their  liability  for  the  erection  of  fishways,  shut  out  these  fish  from 
three  hundi^ed  miles  of  rivers  above. 

The  Connecticut  commissioners  are  co-0])erating  with  those  of  the  States 
lying  northward,  and  awaiting  the  erection  of  the  fishways  at  Holyoke 
and  Turner's  Falls.    They  have  issued  two  or  three  interesting  reports. 

The  State  of  Massachusetts  has  expended,  during  the  last  year,  $4,000 
in  the  artificial  hatching  of  shad,  at  Holyoke,  on  the  Connecticut.  Sev- 
eral thousands  of  salmon  were  hatched  for  the  Massachusetts  commis- 
sioners, at  Meredith  Village,  New  Hampshire.  Black  bass  have  been 
introduced  into  several  ponds,  and  spawn  of  the  land-locked  salmon  has 
been  procured  for  artificial  hatching.  The  lake  trout,  smelt,  aud  other 
useful  fishes  are  about  to  be  introduced. 

Since  the  eimctmont  of  laws  in  New  Hampshire  for  the  protection  and 
fostering  of  this  interest,  salmon  have  been  hatched  for  the  Merrimack 
and  Connecticut  rivers,  the  lake  trout  of  lake  Winiiipiseogee  have 
greatly  increased,  and  black  bass  liave  been  introduced  into  Sunapee, 
Massabesic,  Pennucook,  and  Enfield  lakes.  Fishways  have  been  built 
at  Manchester,  Laconia,  Franklin,  Sandboruton  Bridge,  and  other 
places.  The  cost  of  the  last  years'  operations  was  scarcely  $1,500,  and 
$4,000  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  commissioners  for  expensive  and 
burdensome  fishways  was  not  required,  individuals  promi)tly  complying 
with  legal  requisitions. 

Mr.  C.  G.  Atkins,  one  of  the  Maine  commissioners,  writes  that  begiu- 
ings  have  been  made  in  artificial  propagation  of  shad,  and  land-locked 
salmon  in  Maine.  At  Manchester,  three  thousand  of  the  latter  were 
hatched  under  his  direction,  as  a  preliminary  experiment,  and  three 
thousand  brook  trout.  Another  experimental  establishment  at  Alna 
was  condueted  successfully  l)y  Mr.  David  C.  Pottle. 

Dr.  ^Y.  W.  Fletcher,  of  Concord,  New  Hampshire,  and  Kev.  Living- 
ston Stone,  of  Charlestov/n,  in  the  same  State,  have  been  engaged  suc- 
cessfully in  obtaining  ova  of  the  salmon  from  New  Brunsvv-ick,  for  prop- 
agation, under  the  direction  of  State  officials. 

experi:ments  of  individuals. 

Trout  icorlcs  at  West  BloomfieUl,  New  Yorl: — Stephen  C.  Ainsworth, 
who  may  be  called  the  pioneer  of  pisciculture  in  this  country,  has  been 
nine  years  experimenting  in  hatching  and  rearing  fish,  especially  trout. 
He  writes  concerning  his  Avorks :  "  The  spring  which  I  have  is  very 
small,  only  filling  a  half-inch  tube  ;  consequently  mj  experiments  l^ave 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  FISH  CULTURE.  333 

Deen  on  a  small  scale  as  to  number  of  ti'oiit  and  spawn.  In  the  fall  of 
1866  I  took  twenty-one  thousand  spawn,  and  hatched  twenty  thousand 
Ushes.  Some  of  them  died  soon  atier  they  began  to  cat.  owing  to  insuf- 
ficient water.  The  remainder  I  put  into  neighboring  ponds  and  brooks. 
In  ISO"  I  took  twenty-five  thousand  spawn,  and  sold  all  but  two  thou- 
sand. All  hatched  but  fifteen;  they  are  now  (July  29,  1S6S.)  from  one 
and  a  half  to  four  inches  long,  very  fat,  and  as  tame  as  kittens.  I 
hatched  sixty  thousand  one  year  with  this  one-half  inch  of  water,  but 
disposed  of  most  of  them  soon  after.  I  have  hatched  one  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  out  of  two  hundred  spawn  taken  from  a  trout,  but  to  hatch 
ninety  to  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  all  spawn  taken  is  first-rate  luck ;  and 
to  grow  ninety  per  cent,  of  these  is  doing  well,  although  I  do  not  think 
I  lost  one  per  cent,  of  those  I  hatched  last  spring.  From  my  exxjerience 
I  am  satisfied  that  one  inch  of  water  from  forty-eight  to  fifty-two  de- 
gTees,  with  proper  care  and  fixtui-es,  will  hatch  a  hundred  thousand 
trout,  and  gi'ow  in  good  health  sixty  thousand  one  year. 

"Four  years  since  I  put  a  few  trout  just  hatched  into  a  spring  pond  in 
this  vicinity.  Last  summer  some  were  caught  that  weighed  two  pounds 
each.  This  demonstrates  how  rapidly  they  will  grow  in  deep,  cold 
water,  with  ample  room,  and  abundant  natiu^al  food. 

"  We  have  now  several  hundred  trout  ponds  in  this  State  that  have 
been  in  operation  from  one  to  six  years,  artificially  built,  and  stocked 
with  this  speckled  tribe.  From  all  these  experiments  we  can  safely  say 
that  the  artificial  i:)ropagation  and  cultivation  of  brook  trout  in  this 
cotintry  is  a  settled  and  i)ermanent  fact.  From  these  statements  it  is 
manifest  that  any  person  in  possession  of  a  spring  producing  a  supply 
of  water  through  the  year  of  from  one  inch  to  one  hundred  square 
inches  of  pure  water  may  gTow,  with  right  appurtenances  and  requisite 
knowledge  and  care,  from  six  thousand  to  six  hundred  thousand  trout  in 
one  year,  worth,  at  present  prices  for  stocking  i^onds  and  streams,  a 
hundred  dollars  -pev  thousand,  or,  five  hundred  to  fifty  thousand  to  weigh 
a  pound  each,  worth  one  dollar  per  pound. 

'•  1  have  gTown  fifteen  hundred  to  weigh  half  a  pound  to  thi'ee  pounds 
each,  with  only  a  half-inch  tlow  of  water,  though  I  am  sorry  to  say  that 
I  lost  about  a  hundi'ed  dui'ing  this  long,  diy,  heated  term,  and  al30ut  a 
thousand  foiu'  years  ago,  v>eighing  twenty-five  hundred  iioimds  in  all. 
With  a  good  spring  of  one  half-inch  of  water,  one  may  raise  all  the 
trout  he  needs  for  his  table,  with  trifling  expense.  A  dam  may  be 
pushed  across  any  spring  brook,  with  a  screen  to  prevent  the  fish  from 
running  over  the  dam ;  and  by  gTaveliug  the  stream  wcH  above  the 
pond,  large  numbers  may  be  gTown  natm-ally  every  year.'' 

Scth  Green  s  trout  stream  and  ponds. — The  most  noted  trout-breeding 
enterprise  is  that  of  Seth  Green,  in  Caledonia,  Livingston  County.  The 
site  of  a  mill  sti-eam  of  spring  water  was  piu'chased  a  few  years  since 
for  two  thousand  dollars,  and  i^onds  imi^'ovised  by  creating  divisions  in 
the  old  ■•  forebay  ■'  and  raceway.  When  his  operations  in  artificial  prop- 
agation had  fairly  commenced,  he  accepted  a  proposition  for  six  thou- 
sand dollars  for  a  half  interest  in  the  works.  Ponds,  races,  hatching- 
houses,  and  hatching-boxes  were  subsequently  constructed,  and  the 
works  extended.  The  profits  of  trout  propagation,  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, may  be  seen  in  the  rei)orted  net  results  of  this  enteri^rise : 
One  thousand  dollars  in  1860 ;  five  thousand  dollars  in  1807,  and  ten 
thousand  dollars  in  1808. 

Mr.  Ainsworth,  writing  to  this  Department  in  July,  1808,  states 
that  ]\Ir.  Green  hatched,  artificially,  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
trout  in  1805 ;  thi-ee  hundred  thousand  in  1800 ;  six  hundred  thousand 
in  1867  ;  that  in  1808  he  sold  three  hundred  to  four  hundred  thousand 


334  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

BpawB  for  stockinjr  ponds  and  streams,  and  liatcho.d  fonrlinndred  thou- 
sand small  try.  The  stream  is  a  mile  lonjr,  aver:!^inf>-  four  rods  wide,  and 
from  two  to  six  feet  in  dei)th,  a&brdiu^  eighty  bni-rels  of  water  i>©r  sec- 
ond, ranging-  in  temperature,  through  the  year,  from  forty-three  tolifty- 
eight  degrees.  The  water  in  the  spring  is  at  forty-eight  degrees.  IJe 
had  in  the  summer  of  18G8  nine  thousand  parent  trout,  weighing  from 
two  to  four  pounds  each,  in  one  [)ond,  seventy-tive  by  thirteen  feet,  and 
five  feet  deep.  This  i)ond  is  supplied  by  a  stream'  tliat  changes  the 
water  every  minute.  Another  pond  Ibity  feet  square  had  twenty  thou- 
sand smaller  trout,  Aveighing  from  one  to  two  ])ound«  eacli.  The  water 
is  so  clear  that  all  are  (listinctly  visible.  ]Mr.  Ainsworth  deems  the  sup- 
ply of  water  suflieient  to  grow  millions  of  trout  to  jK-rfec  tion. 

TJiG  Troiitdalc  cstablishmenf. — The  fish  farm  of  Dr.  J.  IJ.  Slack,  of 
Troutdale,  near  Eloomsbury,  'Saw  Jersey,  has  ample  and  well-aiTanged 
apparatus  for  fish-hatching.  It  is  located  in  the  Alaska metkony  Valley, 
in  Warren  County,  sixty-four  miles  northwest  I'rom  New  York  City. 
The  "works"  cover  about  two  acres,  and  are  supplied  by  a  stream  of 
clear  S])ring  water  tlowing  continually  at  the  rate  of  a  thousand  gallons 
per  miiuite.  Summer  and  winter  the  water  reaches  the  hateliing-house 
at  a  uniform  temperature  of  about  fifty  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  [)onds 
contain,  (June,  18G8,)  beside  an  ample  stock  of  small  fry,  about  seven 
hundred  adult  trout,  some  of  them  of  three  pounds  weight.  The  jionds 
are  three  in  number,  the  one  nearest  the  hatching-house  i)repared  for  the 
reception  of  twenty  thousand  young  trout  hatched  dming  the  winter;  the 
next  assigned  to  the  use  of  larger  specimens  not  exceeding  eight  inches 
in  length  ;  the  third  occupied  by  the  full-grown  or  well-develoi)ed  trout. 

The  bottoms  of  the  ])onds  ai-e  of  clay,  ui)on  which  large  stones  have 
been  placed  to  enable  the  fish  to  free  themselves  from  parasites,  animjil 
or  vegetable,  w'hich  cause  gi'eat  debility  and  mortality,  unless  by  fric- 
tion the  trout  can  obtain  speedy  riddance  Irom  the  trou.blesome  visitors. 
Large  floats,  made  fast  to  the  banks  by  Anres,  aftbrd  a  grateful  and  ne- 
cessary sliade.  The  bottoms  of  the  races  are  covered  with  small  stones 
and  a  layer  of  fine  gravel,  and  the  sides  are  slated  to  prevent  crumbling 
of  the  banks. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  represent  the  Troutdale  fish-ponds  and 
hatching  house.  Dr.  Slack  regards  pisciculture  as  no  longer  an  experi- 
ment, but  as  a  pursuit  quite  as  certain  as  agiiculture,  ar<d  at  present  much 
more  profitable.  He  describes  the  process  of  taking  and  hatching  the  eggs. 
The  spawning  season,  commencing  about  the  middle  of  October,  was  indi- 
cated by  the  changing  of  the  bright  tints  of  the  female  to  a  sombre  hue, 
the  anterior  projection  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  distension  of  her  abdomen 
by  the  ova,  and  uneasy  mo^'ements  in  seeking  suitable  gravel  beds  for  the 
deposition  of  the  spawn.  On  October  30,  fishes  were  seen  in  the  race 
busily  engaged  in  forming  their  nests,  by  removing  the  fine  gravel  from  a 
circle  a  foot  in  diameter.  Specimens  were  then  taken,  and  the  ova  ex- 
pressed and  fertilized  in  the  usual  manner.     He  jiroceeds: 

"  After  being  thus  secured  the  eggs  were  taken  to  the  hatching-house, 
which  had  been  made  ready  for  their  reception  in  the  following  manner: 
The  hatching-trough  had  been  filled  to  the  depth  of  two  inches,  with  fine 
gTavel,  carefully  boiled  to  destroy  the  eggs  of  any  insects  which  might 
have  been  present ;  over  this  a  gentle  stream  of  water  from  the  spring, 
filtered  through  four  screens  of  fine  flannel,  was  conducted.  Upo]i  the 
gTavel  the  eggs  were  placed,  the  greatest  care  being  taken  to  avoid  any 
sudden  jar,  as  the  recently  .impregnated  egg  requires  the  most  gentle 
handling  lest  suddenly  acquired  life  be  as  suddenly  extinguished.  After 
resting  on  their  new  location  for  a  few  minutes  they  were  evenly  spread 


Plate  XI 


Troutdale  fish  ponds 


1  .-outdale  hatchin:::  ho 


TEOrXDALE  FISH  PO^^)S  A^■T)  HATCHLN'G  HOUSE 


EECEXT  PKOGEESS  IN  FISH  CULTURE.  335 

over  the  bottoms  of  the  trou;c:hs  by  means  of  a  fine  feather.  During  the 
entire  process  the  eggs  had  not  for  an  instant  been  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere. 

"This  process  of  impregnating  and  depositing  in  the  hatchtng-house 
was  repeated  semi-daily  until  January  12,  1SG8,  durirjg  which  period 
about  seventy-five  thousand  eggs  were  taken.  Experience  shows  that 
from  a  trout  of  one  pound  about  one  thousand  eggs  is  the  average  yiekl; 
but  owing  to  causes  entirely  beyond  the  control  of  the  proprietor,  only 
twenty  thousand  hatched.  The  de-ad  eggs  were  removed  daily,  beirig 
readily  distinguished  by  turning  snow-uhite;  these  still  retaining  their 
vitality  resembled  small  pearls,  being  translucent  and  slightly  clouded. 
The  first  j'oung  appeared  December  10,  forty  days  after  the  impregna- 
tion of  the  eggs." 

Fi.-h-brceding  icorls  at  Mcreditli  Tillage,  Xew  Hanipshire. — The  trout 
and  salmon  nurseries  and  general  fish-breeding  works  of  Hoyt  &  Robin- 
son, at  Meredith  Tillage,  Xew  Hampshire,  iiresent  a  good  example  of 
what  may  be  done  in  pisciculture  with  a  small  but  constant  stream  of 
uniformly  cold  water,  in  a  location  properly  situated.  The  spring  sup- 
plying the  water  gushes  in  a  bold  stream  from  the  base  of  a  sharp  de- 
clnity  at  the  head  of  a  narrow  ravine,  and  is  the  source  of  a  well-known 
trout  brook,  less  than  a  mile  in  length,  discharging  into  Lake  Winni- 
piseogee. 

The  ponds  are  so  small  and  yet  so  populous  with  thousands  of  trout 
and  salmon,  that  they  may  well  serve  to  illustrate  the  wonderful  facility 
with  which  these  fish  may  be  reared,  in  suitable  water,  with  some  at- 
tention and  feeding.  The  accompanying  wood-cut  shows  the  relative 
size  and  form  of  the  ravine  itself,  the  ponds,  raceway,  &c.  The  first  pond, 
about  the  size  of  a  city  house-lot,  twenty-three  by  one  hundred  feet, 
contains  thousands  of  trout  from  one  to  two  years  old,  which,  as  seen  by 
the  writer,  sporting  in  water  so  clear  that  every  one  was  visible,  and 
crowding  one  another  in  their  gracefid  and  constant  movements,  i)re- 
sented  a  scene  of  natural  gTace  and  beauty  rarely  equalled. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  is  forty-eight  degrees  in  summer,  and 
forty -five  degrees  in  winter,  and  the  uniformity  of  temperature  is  no  less 
remarkable  than  the  purity  of  the  water. 

The  lowest  of  the  three  ponds,  which  is  the  largest  and  deepest,  is 
occupied  by  the  fish  of  three  or  four  years,  weighing  from  one  to  three 
pounds.  At  a  recent  inspection,  a  small  dip-net,  at  a  single  sweep, 
while  the  speckled  beauties  were  competing  for  an  award  of  minced 
liver,  v.'as  seen  to  rise  half  filled  with  a  struggling  mass  of  well-grown 
trout.  From  this  pond  a  fishway  (as  shown  in  the  illustration)  leads  to 
the  brook  below,  by  which  many  wild  trout  ascend  and  fall  into  a  box, 
from  which  they  are  taken  and  added  to  the  general  stock. 

Jnst  below  the  hatching-house,  between  the  first  and  second  ponds,  a 
raceway  is  adapted  to  the  uses  of  a  fish  niu'sery,  and  Mr.  Robinson  has 
contrived  a  feeding  apparatus  which  consists  of  a  box,  or  miniature  race- 
way, in  the  bottom  of  which  slits  of  three  or  four  inches  in  length  are 
cut  obliquely  thi'ongh  at  intervals  of  a  few  feet ;  and  through  these 
apertures  the  food  is  distributed  by  a  gentle  stream  of  water  which 
is  kept  constantly  flowing  through  the  box.  It  is  curious  to  observe  the 
young  fry,  as  they  frequent  the  space  beneath  these  apertures,  and  seize 
upon  every  atom  of  food  which  falls  into  the  water;  even  cleaning  away 
the  sand  and  gravel  which  covers  the  bottom  of  the  raceway  in  their 
competition,  in  which  they  imitate  the  greed  and  voracity  of  pigs  feed- 
ing at  a  common  trough. 

Another  feature  of  their  establishment  is  the  preparation  of  artificial 


336  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

spawning  beds-.,  in  which  the  trout  may  deposit  their  o^^  natiLrall;y- 
They  consist  of  a  series  of  screens,  the  lower  one  with  very  fine  meshes, 
the  upper  with  coarser  ones  covered  with  clean  gravel  or  small  stones. 
Upon  the  latter  the  parent  fish  make  their  nests  iu  the  spawning  season, 
the  female  expressing  the  ova.  and  the  male  throwing  the  milt,  just 
as  they  are  accustomed  to  work  in  the  natural  stream ;  and  the  fertilized 
spawn,  falling  through  the  first  screen,  rests  securely  upon  the  second  or 
lower,  which  is  removed  to  the  hatching-house  to  be  watched  and  waited 
upon  until  the  hour  of  hatching  arrives. 

In  18G7  there  were  hatched  here,  10,000  brook  trout,  40,000  lake 
trout,  and  5,000  salmon;  in  18G8,  (hatched  or  eggs  sold,)  100,000 
brook  trout  and  40,000  sahnon.  There  are  now  20,000  breeding  trout 
in  the  ponds,  from  which  1,000,000  small-fry  are  expected  another 
season. 

Trout  brcedinf)  at  yasliua,  Xeic  HamjisMrc. — An  experiment  in  the  ar- 
tificial propagation  of  the  trout  vras  undertaken  iu  1807,  by  Messrs. 
George  Stark,  Edward  Spaulding.  Charles  Williams,  and  O.  H.  Phillips, 
in  the  interest  of  practical  pisciculture,  and  with  the  hope  of  cheapening 
a  desirable  luxury.  The  location  is  peculiar.  A  marshy  area  of  three 
or  four  acres  is  nearly  surrounded  by  an  ampitheatre  of  high  hills,  from 
the  base  of  which  issue  numerous  springs  of  clear  cold  water,  which 
varies  little  in  temperature  during  the  year,  and  less,  perhaps,  iu  rpian- 
tity  of  water  discharged  in  difierent  seasons.  These  springs,  uniting, 
form  a  brook  of  sufficient  volume  to  support  natiu'ally  a  goodly  num- 
ber of  the  finny  inhabitants,  and  a  decided  reputatiou  as  a  trout  stream, 
though  it  is  little  more  than  half  a  mile  from  its  hundred  heads  to  its 
single  mouth,  where  it  embouches  into  the  Nashua. 

A  dam.  three  or  four  feet  in  height,  was  thrown  across  the  ravine,  and 
a  pond  of  an  acre  and  a  half  obtained,  five  or  six  feet  deep  at  points  of 
least  elevation,  but  cpiitc  shallow  in  a  large  portion  of  its  area,  and  inter- 
spersed with  growing  trees  and  shrubs  and  ferns  and  other  forms  of 
vegetation.  So  equable  is  the  temperature  of  the  water  that  there 
is  noted  a  diflerence  of  only  eight  degrees;  fifty  degTces  being  the 
record  in  summer  and  forty-two  degi'ces  in  vrinter.  In  this  pond  were 
placed  five  hundred  trout ;  a  hatching-house  was  erected  just  below,  and 
ten  thousand  eggs  were  procured  fiom  Seth  Green,  and  placed  in  the 
hatching-boxes  for  the  first  experiment  in  Xovember,  1867.  The  water, 
before  entering  the  boxes,  was  filtered  through  six  flannel  strainers, 
(which  were  washed  nearly  every  day.)  and  every  foreign  substance 
and  every  decaying  e^g  was  removed.  The  result  was  successful 
beyond  the  expectation  of  the  amateiu-  fish-hatchers.  In  March,  nine 
thousand  small  fry  appeared,  or  ninety  per  cent.,  from  ova  brought  more 
than  four  hundred  miles. 

While  the  eggs  were  being  placed  in  the  hatching-boxes,  the  full-grown 
trout  in  the  pond  above  were  seeking  suitable  spawning  beds  in  shoal 
water  in  which  they  deposited  their  eggs,  which  were  duly  fertilized 
and  left  to  hatch  natiu-ally.  Early  in  the  season  large  numbers  were 
observed  just  from  the  Qgg^  brisk  and  vigorous,  the  yolk  sac  unabsorbed, 
and  growing  to  two  or  thi'ee  inches  in  length  by  the  following  A-ugust. 
The  older  trout,  fed  two  or  three  times  a  week  with  fresh  liver,  appeared 
to  have  doubled  in  weight  during  the  year. 

The  experiment  warranted  larger  resources,  and  in  18G8  a  more  spa- 
cious house  was  built,  capable  of  hatching  one  hundred  thousand  in  a 
single  season.  Small  tanks  or  ponds  adjacent  to  the  hatching-house  are 
excavated  for  rearing  the  small  fry,  or  for  keeping  the  spawners  while 
ripening,  by  digging  away  a  foot  or  two  of  bog  earth  at  the  base  of  the 


RECENT  PEOGKESS  IN  FISH  CULTURE.  337 

hills,  exposing  a  bed  of  tine  gray  sand,  in  which  living'  springs  bubble  up 
continually,  and  fill  the  excavation  with  clear  cool  water. 

It  is  proposed  to  increase  the  height  of  the  dam  five  or  six  feet,  and 
obtain  a  pond  of  three  or  four  acres.  Another  pond,  below  the  hatching- 
house  is  also  filled  with  trout.  Yv'hen  the  full  capacity  of  the  works  is 
employed,  it  is  believed  that  some  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  beauti- 
ful Salmo  fGutinalis  may  be  sporting  together  within  their  waters. 

Cold  Spriufj  trout  worlcs  at  Charlestoicn,  New  Hampshire. — Eev. 
Livingstone  Stone  has  a  nursery  of  brook  trout  at  CharIesto"\m,  near  the 
Connecticut,  where  he  has  also  been  exi^erimenting  with  salmon.  He 
received  a  portion  of  the  seventy  thousand,  eggs  obtained  from  the  Miri- 
niichi,  in  New  Brunswick,  a  year  ago,  the  remainder  going  tothehatch- 
irg-boxes  of  J.  S.  Eobinson,  of  Meredith  Village,  toward  the  restocking 
of  the  Merrimack  Eiver.  Mr.  Stone  has  since  obtained,  after  encoun- 
tering opposition  and  hinderauce  from  the  authorities  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, tvvO  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  eggs  from  forty  salmon,  half  of 
which  vrere  left,  b}^  stipulation,  to  be  hatched  in  their  native  stream,  and 
half  were  distributed  among  the  pisciculturists  of  Massachusetts  and 
New  Hampshire,  for  the  stocking  of  the  Connecticut,  Merrimack,  Salmon 
Falls,  and  other  rivers  of  these  States.  The  parent  salmon  weighed 
from  ten  to  thirty  pounds.  The  largest  number  of  eggs  taken  from  a 
single  fish  was  estimated  at  twenty  thousand;  the  eggs  packed  in 
baskets  of  wet  moss,  and  conveyed  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  on 
sleds,  three  liuijdred  and  twenty  by  rail,  and  two  hundred  and  eighty  by 
water.  At  Cold  Spring  there  are  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
trout  hatched,  (one  hundred  and  sixty  tiiousand  eggs,)  and  an  extensive 
salmon  nursery  is  in  full  operation. 

Long  LjJand  trout  ponds. — Experimental  and  initiatory  practice  in 
trout-rearing  is  becoming  common  upon  Long  Island.  An  investment 
of  three  bundred  thousand  dollars,  as  is  reported,  has  already  been 
made.  Eetiunis  have  of  course  been  light  as  yet,  except  in  the  sale  of 
eggs  and  young  fish. 

A  few  of  these  improvements  may  be  mentioned.  The  Sportsman's 
Club  consists  of  one  hundred  members;  entrance  fee,  five  hundred  dol- 
lars; yearly  dues,  twenty  dollars.  Its  property,  (at  Islip,)  sixty  to  seventy 
acres,  with  natural  streams,  improved  by  art,  exceeds  fifty  thousand 
dollars  in  value,  and  is  yearly  increasing  in  pecuniary  and  piscatory 
value.    It  is  at  ISmithtovrn,  on  the  north  side  of  the  island. 

The  "  Stump  Pond,"  owned  by  Phillips  &  Vales,  is  fished  by  the  "Wal- 
ton Club."  The  property  covers  two  hundred  acres.  Perch  and  other 
intruders  reduce  the  value  of  the  property  as  a  trout  preserve. 

Near  this  property  is  one  of  the  best  improvements  on  Long  Island; 
Maitland's  Pond,  costing  thirty  thousand  dollars,  including  forty  acres  of 
land.  A  costly  lesson  in  fish-culture  was  taken  by  the  proprietor,  in 
failing  at  first  to  drain  off  the  stream  and  expel  the  burrowing  pike  and 
eels,  which  fed  to  satiety  upon  the  young  trout,  and  to  remove  the  mud 
and  slime  of  the  bottom. 

A  fine  stream,  ten  miles  west  of  that  of  the  Sportsman's  Club,  owned 
by  Stillingworth  and  Johnson,  has  been  improved,  and  is  valued,  with 
two  liundred  acres  of  land,  at  thirty  thousand  dollars. 

At  South  Oysterbay  is  a  fine  trout  pond,  the  property  of  Timothy 
Carman,  valued  at  fifteen  tlhousand  dollars.  The  most  approved  methods 
of  practical  pisciculture  have  been  adopted  in  fitting  up  a  preserve  upon 
the  property  of  August  Belmont,  as  also  upon  the  Phelps  property,  and 
a  dozen  or  more  other  improvements,  valued  at  five  to  ten  thousand, 
dollars  each,  have  been  nuide  between  Jamaica  and  Islip>- 


338  AGEICULTUEAI.   EEPOET. 

A  very  complete  establishment  is  that  of  ]Mr.  Fnrman,  at  Maspeth. 
The  stream,  passing  throngh  a  marshy  tract,  was  small  and  slaggish, 
and  the  experiment  of  extending  it  in  ctirves  like  the  letter  S  tlii"ongh 
a  eonrse  of  half  a  mile  ■was  deemed  a  doubtfnl  one ;  but  pure  springs 
came  bubbling  up  from  the  sand  below  the  excavated  earth;  the  bottom 
was  covered  with  washed  gravel  and  pebbles,  and  the  sides  lined  to  pre- 
vent the  washing  in  of  mud.  A  dam  shuts  oH"  the  siuiace  water,  and 
the  imjirovements  of  ponds,  spawning  grotmds,  and  nurseries  are  very 
extensive  and  complete. 

Successful  experiments  in  loicer  latitudes. — Theblact  bast^,  (Grystes  fas- 
cicitus.)  ranking  little  Ix-low  the  brook  trout  as  a  game  lish,  and  sur- 
passed by  few  species  in  quality  and  tlavor,  was  a  few  years  since  un- 
known in  the  Potomac,  but  is  now  found  in  moderate  abundance  in  the 
markets  of  Washington.  Two  sportsmen  have  kiiltd  in  a  few  hours  of 
a  summer  day,  a  short  distance  above  this  city,  with  the  ixd  ibis  fly, 
eighty  potmds  of  this  line  fish.  It  is  said  that  these  waters  were  sup- 
plied with  black  bass  as  a  result  of  the  introduction  of  a  dozen  or  more, 
which  had  l>een  brought  from  the  West  in  a  locomotive  tank,  by  a  ^Ir. 
Stabler,  and  tkrown  into  the  Potomac  at  Cumberland.  Maryland.  The 
increase  in  this  river  has  been  rapid,  and  L^  indicative  of  what  may  be 
accouij^lished  in  stocking  eastern  rivers  with  new  species  offish,  as  well 
as  replenishing  them  with  old  kinds. 

The  facility  with  which  the  brook  trout  can  be  propagated  in  situa- 
tions ha\ing  a  constant  supply  of  spring  water  is  well  illustrated  by  an 
ex]>eriment  made  in  Pennsylvania,  and  rei>orted  by  the  editor  of  the 
Tuif.  Field,  and  Farm,  in  which  twelve  hundred  trout,  weighing  one- 
fourth  of  a  pound  each,  were  bred  in  a  large  horse  trough  at  a  country 
tavern  and  fed  upon  oti'al  from  the  kitchen  and  cmds  from  the  dairy. 

In  the  States  west  of  the  Alleghanies  less  attention  has  been  given  to 
the  subject,  the  population  of  that  great  section  not  having  crowded 
upon  subsistence  as  yet.  and  the  lakes  and  rivers  not  yet  gi^^ng  signs 
of  exhaustion.  Here  and  there  a  gentleman  has  a  small  trout  preserve 
upon  his  own  premises,  as  a  matter  of  taste  and  liixurs'. 

A  few  cases  of  more  extensive  efibrt  are  reported.  A  3Ir.  James 
Campbell,  of  Washington  Cotinty,  Intliana.  has  four  rtout  ponds,  in  which 
he  has.  as  is  claimed,  ten  thousand  tine  speckled  trout  weighing  a  pound 
each. 

OYSTEE  CUXTUEE. 

The  culture  of  oysters  in  this  country,  though  mainly  confined  to  their 
planting  and  fattening  in  sheltered  betls.  somewhat  similar  to  the  French 
claires,  or  fattening  l>eds.  is  destined  to  be  greatly  extended,  especially 
in  the  direction  of  breeding  them  by  artificial  aids  and  appbances.  The 
efl:brts  of  ostreoculturists  maybe  stimulated  by  aAiewof  this  branch  of 
French  industry,  condensed  trom  the  London  Technologist : 

••  The  ver^-  latest  novelty  in  French  oyster  cultme  is  the  intrwluction  by 
Mile.  Sarah  Felix,  the  sister  of  the  late  Madame  Eachel,  of  the  Ameri- 
can horse-shoe  oyst^er.  This  lady  is  an  enthusiastic  ostreoculturist,  and 
she  has  a  suite  of  parks  near  ElaA-re.  which  are  said  to  be  very  profitable. 
Many  of  Mile.  Felix's  countrymen  have  of  late  years  taken  to  oyster 
farming,  and  in  a  short  time  the  foreshores  of  France  will  be  crowded 
with  oyster-beds,  when  one  of  the  greatest  industries  of  that  coiuitry  wUl 
assuredly  be  the  breeding  and  fattening  of  that  popular  shell -fish.  The 
expense  of  rearing  oysters  is  so  tritiing.  and  the  retmiis  so  large,  that 
thousands  of  the  seafaring  people  have  gone  into  the  btisiness,  and  many 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  FISH  CULTURE.         339 

of  the  inland  vine-growers  and  general  farmers  have  removed  to  the  coast 
in  order  to  try  their  luck  at  this  new  industry.  There  is  a  great  demand 
for  the  oyster  in  all  parts  of  France,  and  as  the  mollusk  may  be  kept  out 
of  the  water  for  a  few  days  without  any  harm,  or  can  he  kept  in  tanks 
and  be  artificially  fed  till  such  time  as  it  is  wanted  for  table  purposes,  a 
number  of  fishermen,  who  could  not  find  an  outlet  for  either  their  round 
or  flat  fish  in  consequence  of  the  lapid  transit  required  to  insure  their 
fish  being  fresh  on  arrival  at  the  market,  have,  within  a  year  or  two,  taken 
to  the  rearing  and  fattening  of  oysters.  There  are  few  places  now  on 
the  shores  of  France  where  oyster  culture  is  not  carried  on  in  some  of  its 
varied  phases.  I'here  are  either  viviers  for  keeping  them  alive  till  called 
for;  parks  for  breeding  them  in  ;  claires  for  fattening  them,  or  i)its  for 
greening  them.  And  the  French  government,  with  a  view  to  promote 
so  laudable  an  industry,  has  established  model  beds  on  various  parts  of 
the  coast,  in  order  to  teach  practically  the  art  of  oyster  farming.  As 
well  as  being  useful  in  a  commercial  sense,  these  model  beds  have  been 
of  gTeat  use  to  M.  Coste.  and  other  French  naturalists,  by  allowing  them 
to  determine  the  exact  age  at  which  the  oyster  becomes  reproductive, 
without  which  knowledge  no  animal,  sea  or  land,  can  be  profitably  bred. 
The  French  park  system  also  admits  of  the  proper  study  of  the  spat 
mystery,  which  is  now  attracting  the  gravest  attention  of  all  interested 
in  the  natural  and  economic  history  of  the  oyster.  As  an  example  ot 
the  spat  difficulty,  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  while  in  the  basin  of  Arca- 
chon,  the  spat  has  never  been  known  to  fail,  yet  arouud  the  lie  de  Ee 
the  i'all  for  these  some  years  back  has  been  very  intermittent,  as  it  has 
also  been  on  the  English  beds.  In  the  sheltered  basin  of  Arcachon  the 
plentiful  spatting  may  be  accounted  for  on  the  principle  that  the  spat 
has  nowhere  else  to  go — it  must  fall  within  the  basin.  Jn  an  open  ex- 
panse of  sea  it  is  tliiierent;  the  spat  may  be  carried  away  to  great  dis- 
tiinces  by  tidal  influences,  or  a  sharp  breeze  upon  the  water  may  waft 
the  oyster  seed  away  for  many  a  long  mile.  Every  bed  has  its  own  time 
for  spatting;  thus,  one  division  of  the  Re  beds  may  be  spatting  on  a  fine 
waim  day,  when  the  sea  is  like  glass,  so  that  the  spat  cannot  fail  to  fall ; 
while  on  another  portion  of  the  island  the  spat  may  fall  on  a  windy  day, 
and  be  thus  left  to  the  tender  mercy  of  a  tiercely  receding  tide,  and  so 
be  lost,  or  fall,  mayhap,  on  inaccessible  rocks,  a  long  way  from  the  shore. 
On  the  Isle  of  Olerou,  which  supplies  the  green  oyster  breeders  of  Ma- 
rennes  with  such  large  quantities,  it  is  quite  certain  that  in  the  course 
of  the  summer  a  friendly  wave  will  waft  large  quantities  of  spat  into 
the  artificial  parks,  when  it  is  known  that  the  oysters  in  these  parks 
have  not  si)awned. 

The  diflerence  between  French  and  English  oyster  farming  is  not 
much,  but  the  httle  that  there  is,  is  of  great  importance  in  the  economy 
of  an  oyster  farm.  The  endeavor  of  the  French  is  to  obtain  spat  or 
brood  without  purchase.  Hitherto  this  has  not  been  the  case  in  Eng- 
land ;  the  dredgemen  are  but  too  willing  to  pay  for  brood  when  it  can 
be  obtained,  but  of  late  years,  in  consequence  of  a  paucity  of  spat,  it  has 
become  scarce  and  ill  to  get.  The  new  oyster  farms  which  have  been 
laid  down  in  England  of  late  years  are  all  upon  the  French  plan,  and 
already  we  are  hearing  of  theu^  success,  spat  having  fallen  upon  some  of 
them  in  great  plenty.  In  the  Firth  of  Forth  oyster  beds,  no  pains  are 
taken  to  protect  the  oyster;  the  grounds  are  never  oveiijauled  or 
"  worked;"  the  brood  is  sold  by  the  hogshead  to  all  and  sundry  who  will 
come  and  buy  it;  the  result,  as  may  be  expected,  is  that  in  Edinburgh 
oysters  are  scarce,  small  in  size,  and  dear.  While  the  men  of  Whitstable 
have  become  rich  by  their  thrift,  the  men  of  Newhaven  have  become 


340  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT 

poor  from  consenting  to  the  spoliation  of  their  oyster  beds,  wliicli  are 
naturally  the  linest  in  the  vrorkl.  They  have  at  len^h  killed  the  goose 
for  the  sake  of  the  golden  egg. 

Any  attempt  to  hnd  out  the  figures  pertaiimig  to  the  annual  oyster 
commerce  of  France  is  generally  abortive.  Xo  oue  knows  exactly  "what 
these  figures  are,  but,  of  coiu"se,  every  man  forms  his  own  opinion.  An 
oyster  merchant  of  Eochelle,  doing  business  "uith  the  gTOwers  of  the 
adjacent  islands  of  Olerou  and  Ke,  will  say  £230,000  per  annum,  while 
a  Bordeaux  skipi>er,  Avith  large  ideas,  will  give  figures  representing  four 
times  that  sum.  It  is  unquestionable  that  there  is  an  immense  oyster 
business  done  in  France.  Paris  alone  requires  at  present  a  daily  sup^ily 
that,  in  the  course  of  the  season,  is  said  to  amount  to  a  hundred  millions, 
and  the  large  provincial  towns  all  consume  in  proportion.  Countless 
numbers  are,  besides,  exported,  cured,  prepared,  and  pickled.  Oflicial 
figures  state  that  in  1802  the  three  factors  appointed  by  the  government 
for  the  sale  of  oysters  in  the  gi-and  market  disposed  of  07,830,900,  being 
an  increase  of  twelve  and  a  half  millions  on  the  preceding  year.  ^Ve  are 
constantly  coming  across  paragraphs  in  the  pro\"incial  newspapers  of 
France  about  the  oyster  trade.  Lately  the  Phare  de  la  Man-he  told  us 
that  Paris  now  requires  ten  times  as  many  oysters  as  in  18oG,  and  that 
they  are  now  double  the  price;  further,  that  six  thousand  women  get  a 
living  diu'hig  the  oyster  season  in  opening  oysters  alone.  The  same 
paper  also  gave  us  the  astonishing  intelligence  that  Ituifrcs  de  la  Manche 
were  the  most  esteemed  in  Paris;  that  the  green  oysters  of  Mareunes  arc 
not  now  in  demand,  except  for  exportation,  and  that  the  Osteud  pitted 
oysters  had  taken  their  place.  It  is  certain  that  Ostend  furnishes  to 
Paris  about  three  million  oysters  per  annum ;  there  are  oliicial  figures  to 
that  eliect.  There  has  been  also  published  a  cluster  of  reliable  figiires 
about  the  oyster  grounds  of  ^Lrcachon.  in  which  it  is  stated  that  the 
oyster  grounds  of  the  basin,  including  the  royal  parks  on  either  side  of 
the  bank  of  La  Hillon,  occupy  space  to  the  extent  of  twelve  hundred 
acres.  A  stock  of  over  two  millions  of  breeding  oysters  was  laid  down 
in  the  royal  grounds,  and  there  yielded  an  enormous  amount  of  spat.  A 
portion  of  the  two  millions,  viz.,  five  hundred  thousand,  laid  down  in 
1803,  is  said  to  have  A^elded  3'oung  to  the  extent  of  seven  millions!  If 
this  statement  be  correct  as  to  a  fortieth  part  of  the  mother  stock,  what 
would  the  total  jield  be  ?  It  would,  in  fact,  be  too  enormous  for  figures 
to  express  it. 

Everybody  has  heard  about  tbe  immense  fecunditj-  of  the  oyster,  and 
to  yield  such  supplies  as  are  iudicated  by  the  above  figiu-es  the  animal 
would  require  to  be  very  prolific.  The  writer  has  seen  a  little  branch, 
taken  from  an  artificial  bed,  which  contained  a  few  thousands,  and  lie 
has  seen  mauy  common  tiles  with  hundreds  of  oysters  on  each.  The 
AVhitstable of  France  is  on  the  Ilede  He,  where  maybe  seen  a  few  thou- 
sand oyster  ixo-cs  and  also  a  few  hundred  claiirs.  or  i'atteniug  ponds,  and 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  oysters  in  all  stages  of  growth,  from  the  size 
of  a  pin's  head  to  a  crown  piece.  One  of  the  ma.ny  ditiiculties  which  the 
French  oyster-growers  have  had  to  solve  is  the  coustniction  of  a  proper 
medium  for  the  reception  of  the  spat.  Every  kind  of  material  has  been 
tried — branches  of  trees,  logs  of  wood,  fragments  of  rock,  and  now  tiles 
made  of  clay  are  being  extensively  used,  and  with  the  gi'catest  possible 
success.  At  ^^cachon  a  hive  of  an  ingenious  kind,  that  is,  a  suite  of 
small  boxes  filled  with  gravel,  and  contained  in  a  larger  box,  was  tried, 
and  was  found  to  suit  very  well.  The  best  of  all  bottoms  could  be  con- 
structed in  the  2)arcs  by  the  filling  into  them  of  the  numerous  shell  mid- 
dens that  are  to  be  found  in  some  of  the  fishing  places.    The  formation 


Pl.vte  XIV. 


Fig.  1. 


^      R  B  l^'Uflf  |lE|li  rfffelg'ia— '   r  Van  D  ran  csBcrp;^ 


OTSTEB  HOUSES. 


KECEN'T    PEOGKESS    IX    FISH    CULTURE.  rj-iJ 

of  new^jfijvo'  and  claire^  still  goes  on  at  tlie  French  seaboard,  new  con- 
cessions of  jiTound  for  tliat  pui-pose  beinr^"  frequently  made,  and  a  tour 
to  most  of  the  fishing  places  gives  the  idea  of  the  future  wealth  to  be 
obtained  fi'oin  this  source,  more  especially  when  the  natural  and  eco- 
nomic history  of  the  oyster  comes  to  be  more  thoroughly  known. 
TVe  are  indebted  to  AV.  C.  Ledge,  of  Delaware,  for  facts  concerning 

OYSTERS  OF   TIIE   CHE  SATE  \7rn — THEIE  PEOPAGATIOX  AXD   CUETUEE. 

Oysters  are  found  in  most  of  the  saline  waters  of  the  world,  where 
tides  flow  and  ebb.  except  in  the  extremes  of  temperatiuw  but  they 
attam  a  contlition  of  pertectiou.  as  regards  size  and  quality,  only  in  the 
waters  of  temperate  and  semi-ti'opical  climates. 

Natural  beds  of  oysters  exist  in  moderately  deep  water,  generally 
from  seven  to  thirty  feet,  according  to  the  climate,  the  character  of  the 
bottom,  and  other  conditions  favorable  or  otherwise  for  breeding, 
and  the  growth  and  preservation  of  the  young.  They  are  located  near 
the  coast,  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  or  iu  the  semi-fresh  waters  of  the 
bays.  Xatui'al  beds  exist  in  isolated  patches  or  clusters  of  indefinite 
extent  and  varied  thickness.  Those  on  the  coast  are  found  in  indenta- 
tions or  sheltered  localities,  as  the  exposed  portions  of  the  ocean  are 
subject  to  such  agitations  from  violent  winds,  that  the  sand  or  mud  of 
the  bottoms  is  distui'bed  to  such  a  degTee  as  sometimes  to  cover  the 
oysters.  This  is  destructive  to  the  young,  and  even  old  and  perfectly 
gi'own  oysters  will  eventually  jierish  when  covered  by  sand  or  mud. 
The  more  tranquil  the  water,  other  things  being  equal,  the  more  i^rQlific 
and  flomishiug  the  beds. 

Oysters,  as  regards  both  growth  and  quality,  are  influenced  by  the 
condition  of  the  water  in  which  they  exist.  Those  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  in  the  unmitigated  salt  of  the  ocean  waters,  are  small  and  too 
salt  for  use.  while  in  the  neighboring  bays  and  at  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers,  where  the  out-going  fresh  water  mingles  with  that  of  the  sea.  the 
oyster  attains  its  greatest  size  and  best  llavor. 

The  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  tributaries  afford  the  most  favorable 
conditions  for  the  natural  growth  of  the  oyster,  as  well  as  all  needful 
facilities  for  its  artificial  propagation  and  culture.  Located  in  the 
proper  temperature,  its  bottoms  of  sand  and  rock,  its  abundant  produce 
of  sea-moss  as  a  home  and  breeding  place,  its  waters  tempered  in  degrees 
of  saltness  to  suit  aU  varieties,  and  its  numerous  fresh- water  streamS; 
bringing  down  in  their  floods  a  contintious  supply  of  food  and  other 
requirements,  render  the  bay  superior,  in  its  oyster  gToujids,  to  anjr 
body  of  water  on  this  continent  or  perhaps  in  the  world. 

From  Kent  Island,  within  twenty -five  miles  of  Baltimore,  to  Cape 
Henry,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  forty  mdes,  the  bottom  of  the 
bay  is,  with  slight  exceptions,  a  continuous  oyster  bed.  All  the  fresh- 
water sti'eams  that  empty  into  the  bay  within  the  above-named  limits 
rj:e  stocked,  either  natiu'aUy  or  artificially,  with  oysters,  as  far  up 
toward  theu*  sources  as  the  influence  of  the  salt  water  extends. 

Area  of  the  oyster  beds. — The  area  of  the  oyster  beds  of  the  Chesa- 
peake and  its  ti'ibutaries  may  be  safely  estimated  at  three  thousand 
square  miles.  There  is,  however,  great  inequahty  in  the  quantity  of 
bivalves  scattered  over  the  bottoms.  In  some  places  they  are  so  few 
as  to  render  fishing  for  them  unremunerative,  though  such  are  excep- 
tions rather  than  the  general  rule:  whde,  in  other  i)ortions  of  the  bay, 
they  increase  so  rapidly,  that  many  perish  from  the  weight  by  suflbca- 
tiou  or  for  want  of  food. 


'64:2  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT 

The  oyster  business. — Some  idea  of  tbe  magnitude  of  the  oyster  busi- 
ness of  the  Chesapeake  may  be  obtained  fi^om  the  reports  of  the  oys- 
ter commission,  created  by  the  State  of  Virginia  and  of  Maryland. 

The  bay  is  divided  into  two  dei>artments,  and  each  has  its  proper 
police  regulations.  The  Baltimore  department,  which  includes  less  than 
one-half  the  oyster  fisheries,  reports  an  annual  average  of  eleven  million 
bushels,  taken  in  the  legitimate  way  of  di-edging  and  tonging.  The 
reports  of  both  depaitments  aggi-egate  from  twenty  million  to  twenty-five 
million  bushels,  which  are  only  an  approximation  to  the  quantity  actually 
taken.  This  report  does  not  include  the  oysters  taken  from  private 
beds  or  plantations,  owned  by  the  residents  on  the  islands  and  the  shores 
of  the  bay  and  rivers,  who  do  not  regiUarly  engage  in  the  trade,  but 
cultivate  them  for  their  own  uses;  nor  tbe  numbers  taken  by  the  half- 
piratical  "pongys,"  canoes,  (Fig.  3.)  and  other  small  craft  that  contin- 
ually depredate  upon  the  beds  without  the  required  license. 

In  the  city  of  Baltimore  seventy  houses  are  engaged  in  the  oyster 
business,  mostly  in  canning  for  exi)Ortation,  while  at  various  points  in 
the  bay  are  establishments  (Fig.  1)  that  employ  fi'om  fifty  to  fom-  hundred 
hands  each,  during  the  season,  in  opening  and  canning,  (Fig.  2.) 

By  the  oflicial  reports  there  are  fifteen  thousand  persons  engaged  in 
the  business  of  oyster  fishing,  (Fig.  4.)  and  a  fleet  of  one  thousand  seven 
hundred  vessels  of  fifty  tons  burden,  and  over  three  thousand  smaller 
crafts,  are  duly  licensed  for  the  trade. 

Besides  the  regiUar  ti^ansactions  that  come  under  the  cognizance  of 
the  commission,  there  are  numbers  of  men  and  vessels  emj)I<)yed  in 
procurmg  "  plants"  fi^om  various  places  abroad  for  the  artificial  beds,  and 
there  is  a  population  of  20,000  persons,  on  the  islands  and  mainlanil, 
■v\ith  whom  oysters  form  an  article  of  general  consumption  throughout 
the  season. 

Oyster  Jinking. — The  implements  used  in  oyster  fishing  are  few  and  simple 
in  construction.  They  are  the  di-edge,  the  tongs,  and  the  fork  (Fig.  5.) 
The  dredge  is  used  on  the  natural  beds,  in  deep  water.  It  is  an  iron  net 
set  in  pear-shaped  iron  frames,  and  furnished  witli  teeth  so  arranged  as 
to  tear  the  oysters  fi-om  the  beds,  and  gather  them  into  the  net  as  it  is 
dra\vn  over  the  bottom  by  the  vessel,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  means 
of  a  long  roi)e.  It  weighs  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  is 
dJ'a^vu  on  board  the  vessel  by  a  windlass  arranged  for  the  ])UJii)ose.  It 
is  designed  to  hold  about  three  bushels,  though  it  is  rarely  filled  with 
marketable  oysters  at  one  "haul."  When  one-fourth  of  the  contents 
is  good  oysters,  the  "haul"  is  considered  a  good  one.  The  remaining 
emjjty  shells  are  cast  back  into  the  water.  The  tongs  are  comi)osed  of 
two  iron  rakes  attached  to  long  wooden  poles,  with  an  axle  set  near 
the  rakes.  The  fisher  leans  over  the  side  of  his  boat,  and  handles  this 
tool  with  ease  in  water  from  two  to  eight  feet  deep  (Fig.  4.)  It  is  used 
chiefly  on  planted  beds.  The  fork  is  composed  of  ten  or  twelve  tines, 
or  prongs,  set  near  one  another,  and  fixed  to  a  long,  stout  handle.  It  is 
used  for  fishing  in  shallow  water,  on  beds  where  oysters  are  entangled 
in  sea-moss,  and  the  fisher  generally  wades  in  the  water  in  order  to 
manage  it  easily. 

The  jj/««f6'  and  planting  grounds.  —  The  plants  are  gathered  in  the 
months  of  August,  September,  and  October,  chiefly  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  particularly  on  the  coast  of  the  Carolinas,  where  exist  prolific 
beds  of  oysters  too  salt  for  general  use.  In  theu*  native  beds  these 
oysters  do  not  attain  any  considerable  size,  but  transported  into  the 
semi-fresh  waters  of  the  Chesapeake,  they  gi'ow  rapiclly,  fatten,  and 
become  more  fresh  and  consequently  edible.    The  plants  measure  from 


Plate  XV. 


ris  3. 


Pongy  and  canoe. 


Fig.  4. 


Oyster  fishing  at  Cherrystone  Tirginia. 


OrSTEE  riSHIXG. 


RECENT  PEOGRESS  IN  FISH  CULTURE.  348 

oue  inch  to  three  inches  in  length,  and,  when  planted  in  the  best  feed- 
ing grounds,  grow  in  a  year  to  lour  or  live  inches,  when  they  are  regarded 
as  mai'ketable. 

The  best  planting  gi^ounds,  all  things  considered,  are  found  in  Tan- 
giers  Sound,  a  portion  of  the  bay  opposite  the  couiity  of  Dorchester,  and 
of  Somerset,  in  Maryland,  and  marked  off  from  the  bay  proper  by  a  chain 
of  islands  dropped  from  the  Dorchester  Ilook  to  Crisfield,  the  present 
terminus  of  the  Delaware  railroad.  Here  the  water  is  comparatively 
shallow,  and  the  sound  is  so  completely  shielded  by  islands  on  one  side, 
and  the  mainland  on  the  other,  as  to  be  at  all  times  tranquil.  The  busi- 
ness of  planting,  therefore,  may  be  carried  on  without  interruption,  and 
the  plants  are  not  liable  to  be  covered  by  sand. 

Good  planting  grounds  are  valuable,  and  are  seldom  sold ;  but  some- 
times they  are  leased  at  rates  ranging  from  $50  to  $400  annually  per 
acre.  Sales  of  lots  covered  by  three  to  seven  feet  of  water  have  been 
made  at  upward  of  $1,000  per  acre ;  and  the  most  desii^able  grounds  are 
valued  at  rates  above  these  figures,  and  pay  an  interest  of  more  than 
twenty  per  cent,  on  that  valuation. 

There  are  other  excellent  planting  grounds  superior  even,  in  some 
respects,  to  those  of  Tangiers,  but  they  are  open  to  the  objection  of  loss 
from  shifting  sands,  so  destructive  to  "the  ])lants.  On  the  Tangiers  bot- 
toms exists  a  rank  vegetable  growth  called  sea-moss,  in  which  the  oys- 
ters become  securely  imbedded,  and  which  protects  the  spawn  and  the 
young  oysters  until  their  shells  become  sufficiently  hard  to  afibrd  protec- 
tion fi'om  the  numerous  auquatic  foes  that  prey  upon  them. 

The  boundaries  of  the  planting  lots  are  determined  from  stakes  or 
small  evergreen  trees,  firmly  secured  in  the  mud  at  the  corners.  These 
fragile  corner-marks  are  strictly  respected  by  the  neighbors,  and  a  case 
of  trespass  rarely  occurs. 

The  plants  ai-e  allowed  to  remain  from  three  to  six  months,  never 
exceeding  a  year.  The  topping  season  commences  in  September  and 
continues  through  the  following  April,  it  being  a  rule  with  the  fishers  to 
close  operations  before  May ;  as,  according  to  then-  belief,  oysters  are  unfit 
for  use  in  any  month  that  is  not  spelled  with  the  letter  E.  The  breeding 
season  occupies  the  four  mouths  from  May  to  August  inclusive,  and  the 
oysters  are  then  necessarily  not  in  good  condition  for  use.  Consequently 
those  engaged  in  the  business  during  the  other  part  of  the  year  emi)loy 
their  boats  in  freighting  Iruits  and  vegetables,  or  turn  their  attention  to 
trucking,  particularly  to  the  cultivation  of  sweet  potatoes  and  melons, 
for  which  the  islands  and  high  mainlands  are  peculiarly  adapted. 

Quality. — There  is  a  great  difference- in  thequality  of  oysters  of  the  same 
size  and  age.  Locality  has  its  influence  to  such  a  degree  that  most 
natural  beds  and  all  planting  grounds  produce  oysters  of  different  flavors. 
An  experienced  oyster  fisher  can,  at  sight,  generally  tell  the  locality  from 
which  the  oyster  was  taken ;  and  the  epicure,  accustomed  to  the  different 
flavors,  can"^  by  taste  designate  the  bed  on  which  the  oyster  was  grown- 
and  fatted. 

The  oysters  of 'Tangiers  are  excelled  in  delicious  flavor  by  those  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Cherrystone  Eiver,  on  the  coast,  and  by  those  in  Lynn- 
haven  Bay  on  the  west  side,  at  the  mouth  of  the  James  and  the  Nansemond 
Eivers.  The  Cherrystones  deservedly  hold  the  first  rank,  but  are  practi- 
cally little  known  beyond  their  own  neighborhood,  as  the  natural  beds 
are  of  small  extent  and  their  production  limited.  There  are,  however, 
fine  feeding  grounds  in  the  \icinity  of  Cherrystone,  and  all  oysters  planted 
there  become  of  superior  quality,  and  are  sold  abroad  as  Cherrystones. 


344  AGEICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

Tlie  true  Cherrystone,  in  fine  condition,  retains  its  sLape  when  cooked, 
(which  is  that  of  a  cherry  seed,)  and  cuts  as  finely  as  a  tender  sirloin. 

Propagation. — The  art  of  breeding  the  oyster  crop,  by  artificial  means, 
is  still  in  a  primitive  state  in  this  country.  In  France,  where  labor  is 
cheap  and  abimdant,  the  cultivation  of  the  oyster  crop  has  been  carried 
to  the  same  pertection  that  has  been  attained  in  pisciculture.  There  the 
beds  are  as  methodically  marked  out  as  for  a  tiower  garden,  and  a  close 
calcidation  is  made  as  to  the  greatest  profitable  produce  from  a  given 
number  of  plants.  As  a  portion  of  the  crop  becomes  suflicicntly  matured 
for  market,  it  is  gathered,  and  other  plants  are  at  once  put  in  the  place. 

In  the  Chesapeake  the  plants  are  shoveled  from  the  deck  of  the  vessel 
as  she  is  towed  slowly  over  the  space  marked  out,  and  the  quantity  is 
consequently  indefinite.  The  design  is,  however,  to  cover  the  bottom 
with  a  single  layer  of  the  plants.  The  water  on  artificial  beds  varies  in 
depth  from  two'  to  twelve  feet,  three  to  four  feet  being  most  desirable, 
as  the  beds"  may  then  be  inspected  from  the  surface,  when  the  water  is 
clear  and  tranquil.  Such  a  depth,  too,  is  most  favorable  for  forking  and 
tonging.  and  the  entire  crop  may  be  gathered  at  one  time. 

Until  a  comparatively  recent  period  the  oyster  was  regarded  as  herma- 
l)hrodite.  but  the  sexes  are  so  marked  that  those  familiar  with  them  can 
readily  distinguish  them  at  sight,  the  females  being  in  excess  of  the 
males.  Duriug  the  breeding  season  the  oyster  is  said  to  be  ''in  the 
milk,"  which  term  is  applied  to  the  ova.  or  spawn.  The  spawn  is  dis- 
charged in  minute,  viscid  balls,  of  such  gravity  that  they  float  midway 
between  siulace  and  bottom  in  the  water,  and  are  there  met  by  the 
sperm  of  the  male,  which  is  discharged  at  the  same  time.  Fertilization 
is  thus  effected  in  the  water,  and  the  ova  adhere  to  the  first  hard  or 
rough  substance  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  and  at  once  begin  to 
assume  shape,  and  to  exhibit  indications  of  life.  The  spat  at  first  appears 
to  belong  to  the  vegetable  rather  than  to  the  animal  kingdom;  but,  as 
it  continues  to  grow  in  size,  the  animal  assumes  a  more  vigorous  and 
decided  character.  In  a  few  weeks  it  is  capable  of  a  feeble,  independent 
motion  that  gi'adually  increases  until  the  shellg  are  i^erfectly  formed, 
when  it  attains  the  power  to  open  and  close  them. 

The  object  to  which  the  floating  spawn  is  most  likely  to  fasten  is  the 
shell  of  another  old  oyster,  and  this  accounts  for  the  fact  that,  while 
single  oysters  only  are  found  in  the  artificial  beds,  they  exist  in  clusters 
in  the  natural  beds  (Figure  7.) 

The  spawn  gradually  changes  its  rotund  shape,  and  spreads  upon  the 
substance  to  which  it  adheres,  forming  a  white  spot  that  in  time  assumes 
the  appearance  of  a  thin,  flat  shell,  though  it  remains  soft  and  friable. 
It  is  now  called  a  spat,  and  is  covered  by  a  delicate  skin  that  grows 
thicker  and  harder  until  it  becomes  a  shell.  The  spat  is  much  sought 
after  by  fishes,  crabs,  and  turtles,  and  numbers  are  thus  destroyed. 
The  shell  begins  to  harden  when  the  spat  attains  half  an  inch  to  an  inch 
in  (.liameter,  and  thickens  with  the  growth  of  the  oyster.  At  one  year 
old  it  is  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  its  shell  is  suffi- 
ciently hard  to  place  it  out  of  danger  from  most  of  its  enemies.  It  may 
now  be  used  as  a  plant,  thougii  gi'catcr  size  and  more  age  are  desirable 
for  stocking  artificial  beds. 

Although  ranked  by  naturalists  in  a  very  low  scale  of  animal  existeuce, 
the  oyster  is  not  without  certain  physical  power,  and  suflicient  instinct 
for  self-preservation  under  ordinary  circumstances,  as  illustrated  in 
instances  where  the  floating  spawn  has  attached  to  the  inside  of  the 
shell  of  an  old  oyster  Avhile  open  for  feeding.  Were  the  spat  allowed  to 
remain  there,  it  would  soon  so  increase  in  size  as  to  cause  serious  incon- 


Plate  XTI. 


Fig.  S. — Young  oysters  attached  to  various  object's 


OYSTERS  A>T)  FISHES'G  nCPLEMEXTS 


EECEXT  PKOGRESS  IN  FISH  CULTURE.  345 

venieii'^e  to  the  old  oyster,  and  eventually  desti'oy  its  life.  But,  as  soon 
as  it  attaclies  in  dangerous  proximity  to  the  mouth  of  the  shell,  the  old 
oyster  works  it  or  blows  it  from  its  position,  and  it  finds  another  object, 
as  in  fig-ure  S,  which  represents  oysters  attached  to  a  neck  of  a  glass 
mottle,  and  to  a  handle,  and  also  a  fi'agment  of  a  jug;  or  it  fastens  to 
another  place  on  the  same  shell.  It  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  to  find 
in  the  natoi-al  beds  large  central  oysters  literally  encrusted  with  those 
of  smaller  size,  so  arranged  as  to  demonstrate  the  foregoing  fact. 

From  the  gi'eat  prolificacy  of  the  female  oyster,  it  might  readily  be 
inferred  that  the  increase  would  far  exceed  the  demands,  gTcat  as  they 
are.  upon  the  natural  beds.  A  single  female  oyster  contains  about  two 
million  ova,  all  of  which,  under  favorable  circumstances,  should  develop 
into  perfect  oysters.  But  in  deep  water  most  cii'cmu stances  are  luifavor- 
able  to  the  existence  of  the  ova  and  spat.  They  are  beset  by  enemies 
and  casualties  from  the  spawn  until  the  shells  of  the  young  become 
sufficiently  formed  and  hardened  to  afford  i^rotection. 

'n  the  Chesapeake,  as  in  all  the  oyster  waters  of  this  country,  the 
increase  is  altogether  from  the  nararal  beds,  where  the  ova  and  young 
cannot  be  protected.  In  the  deep  water  the  temperature  is  often  too  cold 
for  the  development  of  the  ova.  and  even  when  developed  many  of  the 
delicate  spats  perish.  Planted  oysters  are  not  allowed  to  remain  undis- 
turbed a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  enable  them  to  breed.  In  the  most 
favorable  breeding  localities,  as  in  Tangiers  Soimd.  the  beds  gTow  to 
such  thickness  that  the  underhi.ng  0}"ters  are  destroyed  by  the  superin- 
cumbent weight  of  the  accumulations.  Here  the  beds  are  two  feet  and 
upward  in  thickness,  with  only  a  few  inches  of  the  upper  x^ation  composed 
of  those  living.  Oysters  will  not  survive  for  any  long  time  when  covered 
with  sand,  mud.  or  any  other  matter :  and  sometimes,  by  a  change  of 
current,  or  from  disturbance  of  the  bottom  by  violent  storms,  extensive 
natural  beds  are  covered  by  sand  and  desti'oyed.  The  young  oysters, 
when  they  accumulate  so  rapidly  as  is  the  case  in  Tangiers.  add  a  sti'atum 
yearly  to  the  natural  beds,  and  destroy  a  coiTesponding  stratum  under- 
neath. The  increase  is,  therefore,  only  in  the  extension  of  the  area 
occupied  by  the  beds.  Here  dredginghas  been  found  most  beneficial,  as  the 
dredge  relieves  the  beds  of  their  weight,  and  spreads  the  oysters  over  the 
bottom.  A  half  century  since,  the  botrom  of  the  Chesapeake  was  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  isolated  beds  of  small  extent  and  gi"eat  thickness, 
but  dredging  has  so  scattered  them  that  they  now  form  almost  a  contin- 
uous bed.  covering  the  whole  bottom.  Dredging  also  clears  the  upper 
portions  of  the  beds  of  the  accumulations  of  mud  and  sand.  The  ova 
adhere  best  to  clean  objects,  and  the  diit  destroys  the  delicate  spat. 

Varieties. — Notwithstanding  the  proximity  of  the  different  A'arieties  of 
the  oyster,  each  jjreserves  its  identity,  and  they  remain  as  it  were  in  sepa- 
rate families.  The  number  of  varieties  found  in  the  Chesapeake  has  not 
been  precisely  asceitained,  but  it  is  supposed  to  be  about  thii-ty.  Some 
of  them  have  been  imported  from  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  others  from 
the  southern  rivers  as  plants,  but  most  of  them  are  indigenous.  Those 
in  the  deep  waters  of  the  bay  differ  from  such  as  are  on  the  shoals,  and 
the  same  variety  is  not  u'equentiy  found  in  two  rivers,  however  near  theu" 
entrance  into  the  bay.  Xature  has  provided  thick,  hard  shells,  capable 
of  affording  perfect  security  from  their  numerous  enemies,  for  those  in 
deep  watery  while,  in  the  small  and  comparatively  shallow  rivers,  where 
their  foes  do  not  exist  in  such  numbers,  the  shells  are  thin  and  easily 
broken. 

In  the  deposits  of  crastacea  and  acephala.  forming  a  great  portion  ot 
the  marl  beds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Chesapeake,  there  are  many  varieties 


346  AGRICCXTUEAL    EEPOET. 

of  the  oyster  and  clam  that  have  existed  iu  its  -waters  iu  some  unknown 
l>eriod  of  the  past,  but  which  are  now  extinct.  Oyster  shells  measuring 
fourteen  inches  in  length,  (Fig.  6,)  and  clam  shells  one  and  a  half  inch 
thick  and  six  or  seven  inches  in.  breadth,  are  found  in  a  state  of  perfect 
preservation. 

More  recent  banks  or  deposits  of  shells  found  on  the  shores  of  the  bay 
iu  the  county  of  Talbot  and  of  Dorchester,  in  ^Maiyland.  show  but  little 
difierence  in  size  or  conformation  from  those  existing  at  the  present  time. 
Here  are  banks  of  shells  one  foot  to  four  feet  thick,  extending  indefinitely 
into  the  mainland,  and  covered  by  soil  to  such  a  depth  as  to  admit  of 
cultivation. 

Food. — From  the  investigations  of  scientific  men  nothing  certain  is 
learned  as  regards  the  peculiar  food  of  the  oyster.  The  regular  oyster-men, 
who  obsen-e  them  at  all  seasons  and  in  all  conditions,  entertain  no  other 
idea  on  the  subject  than  that  they  feed  upon  the  salt  water.  Certain  it  is 
that  they  feed  only  on  the  Hood  of  the  tide,  as  their  shells  are  then  open, 
while  they  are  closed  dui'iug  the  ebb.  That  they  do  cat  or  swallow  and 
digest  their  food  is  inferred  from  their  internal  construction,  as  nature 
has  provided  them  with  the  full  complement  of  organs  adapted  to  the 
pui^^ose.  E\idence  that  other  food  than  that  derived  simply  fi'om  salt 
water  is  consumed,  is  fuinished  in  the  fact  that  they  grow  and  fatten  near 
the  land,  in  shallow  water  better  than  iu  the  open  sea,  and  become  more 
perfect  iu  sLze  and  condition  in  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  the  floods  of  which 
cany  down  the  elements  of  gi^owth  and  thril't. 

Artijlcial  breeding. — With  all  these  uatui'al  advantages  afiforded  by  the 
Chesapeake  for  the  successful  propagation  and  culture  of  the  oyster  crop, 
the  business  is  not  efficiently  managed  by  the  unscientific  men  who  are,  at 
present,  engaged  in  the  work.  Were  the  operations  conducted  with  skill 
and  judgment,  the  profits  would  be  gi'catly  enlarged,  and  the  annual  pro- 
duct could  be  almost  indefinitely  multiplied.  The  artificial  propaga- 
tion and  cultm^e  of  oysters  are  not  attended  by  the  risks  and  expenses 
of  pisciculture,  and  require  less  skill  and  attention  to  insure  success;  yet 
streams  heretofore  tenantless  of  fish  are  now  well  stocked  artificifdly 
with  the  finest  and  most  delicious  of  the  finny  tribe.  Oyster  planting 
is  here  conducted  iu  a  slovenly  and  wasteful  manner,  while  new  plan- 
tations are  seldom  made  fi  om  the  spawn  or  the  yoimg  oysters.  The  plan 
here  adopted  for  the  foimation  of  new  beds  is  to  fasten  in  the  natural 
beds,  previous  to  the  breeding  season,  a  few  stakes  with  brash  attached. 
The  spAwu  will  attach  to  these  in  considerable  numbers,  and,  when  the 
ova  are  developed  to  the  proper  condition,  the  stakes  are  withdrawn, 
and  fixed  in  the  bottoms  where  it  is  intended  to  form  new  ])lautations 
or  beds.  In  the  third  year  from  the  spawn  the  new  iilantatiou  begins 
to  breed,  and  after  that  i>eriod  it  rapidly  multiplies  when  the  conditions 
are  favorable. 

IU.  Coste,  a  scientific  gentleman  and  eminent  naturalist  of  France, 
who  has  made  the  study  of  the  oyster  a  specialty,  proposes  to  stock  the 
whole  available  coast  of  France  with  oysters,  at  a  cost  of  about  six 
dollars  per  acre.  lie  has  invented  a  small,  portable  machine,  which  he 
sinks  in  the  natiual  beds  prexious  to  the  breeding  season,  and  leaves  it 
to  become  freighted  with  the  ova,  and  these  to  be  develoi>ed  into  young 
oysters,  when  he  withcfraws  the  machine,  and  places  it  with  its  living 
attachments  in  some  favorable  localit\-  that  he  wishes  to  stock  with  the 
bivalves.  M.  Coste  has  thus  transplanted  20.000  young  oysters  at  one 
time  on  "his  apparatus,  which  he  assures  us  may  be  easily  managed,  and 
and  on  which  the  young  oysters  may  be  carried  to  any  reasonable  dis- 
tance.   It  may  be  seen,  therefore,  what  immense  i>rofits  the  extensive 


EECENT  PROGEESS  IN  FISH  CULTUEE.  347 

oyster  gTOunds  of  the  Chesapeake  might  be  made  to  yield  with  skillful 
management  and  improved  machinery,  when  under  the  present  clumsy 
system  a  profit  is  realized,  after  paying  an  annual  rent  of  $300  or  8^00 
-per  acre. 

The  oyster  commissioners  of  the  Chesapeake  report  a  gTadual  dim- 
inution in  the  oyster  crop  in  the  past  ten  years,  and  estimate,  by  the 
same  rates  of  decrease,  that  the  -vvhole  stock  will  be  exhausted  in 
a  half  century.  It  behooves  the  sovereign  States  that  have  Jurisdiction 
over  these  valuble  oyster  grounds  to  encourage,  by  legislative  aid  or 
otherwise,  the  propagation  and  culture  of  oysters,  both  as  a  source  of 
wealth  to  the  States  themselves,  and  as  an  article  of  food  and  luxury  for 
the  people.  The  means,  as  well  as  the  knowledge  and  skill,  are  now 
required  to  increase  successfully  the  numbers  and  protect  tiie  spat,  as 
well  as  to  discriminate  as  to  the  best  and  most  prohfic  varieties;  for 
improvement  may  as  readily  be  made  in  quahty  as  in  quantity.  Until 
recently  the  supply  by  natui-al  increase  was  considered  inexhaustible, 
and  no  aids,  either  legislative  or  otherwise,  were  deemed  needful  or 
ad\isable.  But  now,  when  an  interest  of  so  much  importance  to  the 
States  most  directly  concerned,  and  to  the  whole  country,  is  threatened 
with  extinction,  the  means  for  its  preservation  become  a  necessity.  Not 
only  its  preservation  may  be  readily  accomplished,  but  its  value  may  be 
greatly  enhanced;  and,  by  proper  management,  the  oyster  grounds  of 
the  Chesapeake  can  be  made  to  supply  a  demand  equal  to  that  of  our 
whole  country  at  the  present  time. 


COUNTRY  ROADS  AND  ROAD  LAWS. 


The  term  "  conn tiy  roads"  is  iutended  to  include  fill  descriptions  of 
wagon  roads  in  rural  districts,  -which  are  made  and  repaired  under  the 
general  direction  of  "  county  commissioners,"  "  police,"  or  "  circuit  courts," 
or,  as  in  some  States,  under  a  board  of  "  town  supervisors,"  and  in  others 
under  the  "selectmen"  of  the  towns.  The  immediate  super^ision  of 
construction  and  repairs  is  generally  under  the  direction  of  local  "road 
supervisors,"  or  "path  masters,"  as  they  are  termed  in  some  districts. 
The  tax  for  road  repairs  is  generaUy  a  capitation  tax  on  male  citizens 
between  sixteen  and  sixty  years  of  age.  The  number  of  days'  labor 
required  on  public  roads  per  annum  varies  in  the  different  States  from 
one  day  to  fifteen.  Although  this  system  of  levyiug  road  tax  generally 
prevails,  it  is  conceded  that  it  is  very  defective,  and,  so  long  as  it  is 
continued,  poor  roads  will  be  the  inevitable  consequence.  There  is  prob- 
ably no  public  interest  in  which  sound  and  intelligent  legislation  is  more 
needed  than  in  the  enactment  and  revision  of  our  road  laws.  Any  sys- 
tem which  jDrovides  for  the  assessment  and  collection  of  a  road  tax  in 
labor  -will  be  found  inefficient,  and  totally  inadequate  to  the  purpose  for 
which  such  tax  is  levied.  The  recorded  experience  of  reliable  men  in  all 
rural  districts  in  this  country — in  some  cases  covering  a  period  of  more 
than  two  hundred  years — of  the  defects  of  this  system,  is  sufficient  evi- 
dence that  reform  is  greatly  needed. 

Although  the  amount  of  statistical  information  obtained  in  answer  to 
the  circulars  issued  from  this  Department  is  far  short  of  what  was  antici- 
pated, we  are  enabled  from  the  data  furnished  to  arrive  at  many  import- 
ant facts,  that  will  serve  as  guides  to  those  specially  interested  in  the 
construction  and  repair  of  roads.  It  w»as  hoped  that  the  returns  would 
be  so  full  and  explicit  that  a  complete  tabular  report  could  have  been 
compiled  in  accordance  with  the  questions  propounded. 

The  unsettled  condition  of  many  of  the  southern  States  since  the  close 
of  the  war  has  been  such  that  few  repairs  of  bridges  or  roads  have  been 
made,  and  probably  few  will  be  undertaken  untd  reconstruction  is 
thorougldy  effected. 

A  report  from  Florida  says:  "Xo  road  laws,  no  bridges j  streams  are 
crossed  by  ferries,  fording,  or  swimming." 

P.  T.  Tannehill,  of  Henderson  County,  Texas,  says:  "Our  roads  are 
not  worked,  the  wagoner  making  hivS  own  way.  Soil  remarkably  favorable 
for  roads,  ^o  macadamizing  material  in  tlie  State,  none  needed.  Eoad 
laws  in  this  magnificent  State,  like  other  laws,  seldom  executed.  No 
turnpikes ;  don't  need  them.  Eoads  last  until  they  become  too  miry, 
when  wagoners  cut  a  new  one.  Texas  can  boast  of  the  best  roads,  with 
the  least  work,  of  any  State  in  or  out  of  the  Union.  Our  citizens  gen- 
erall}-  regard  work  as  vnconstituiionaV^ 

E.  S.  Holden,  of  Stockton,  San  Joaquin  County,  California,  writes  that 
"the  general  character  of  public  roads  throughout  the  State,  during  wet 
seasons,  is  bad ;  in  Jaiuiary  and  February,  almost  impassable.  Necessity 
has  stimulated  the  people  to  construct  good  and  durable  roads  and  turn- 
pikes, and  quite  a  nimiber  of  pikes,  from  two  to  thirty  miles  in  length 
each,  have  been  finished,  or  are  in  process  of  construction.  Those  con- 
structed will  be  passable  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.    They  are  made  by 


COUNTEY  ROADS  AND  ROAD  LAWS.  349 

the  use  of  heavy,  strong  i^lows,  Tvith  eight  to  ten  yokes  of  oxen,  or  as 
many  horses.  The  roacl-bed  is  back-furrowed  up,  so  that  the  side  gutters 
are  from  two  to  four  feet  in  depth ;  the  road-bed  made  is  usually  forty 
feet  at  base,  and  about  thh-ty  feet  on  the  top,  the  natural  soil  covered 
with  gravel  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  depth.  Such  roads  become  hard 
and  dry,  and  equal  to  the  best  roads  in  the  eastern  States.  Thus  con- 
structed they  cost  about  $G,000  per  mile.  There  are  about  sixteen  miles 
of  such  roads  in  this  countj^,  and  it  is  proposed  to  construct  other  similar 
roads  soon." 

The  report  from  Utah  Territory  states,  that  ^' there  are  in  Salt  Lake 
County  thirty-two  miles  of  gravel  road,  and  about  eight  miles  of  macad- 
amized. The  average  cost  of  the  former  is  $3,500  per  mile  5  of  the  latter 
about  $3,800  per  mile." 

Eeport  from  Marshall  County,  Iowa,  states  that  one  mile  of  graded 
and  graveled  road  in  that  county  costs  $10,000,  and  yet  the  average' cost 
of  road  repairs  in  the  coimty  is  only  $3  per  mile.  Eeport  from  Fond 
du  Lac  Count3%  Wisconsin,  states  that  there  are  twenty  miles  of  turn- 
pike in  that  county,  twelve  miles  of  which  are  graveled,  and  cost  $1,000 
per  mile;  and  eight  miles  macadamized,  costing  $2,000  per  mile. 

The  report  from  Baltimore  County,  Maryland,  states  that  that  county 
has  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  of  macadamized  road,  which  cost  $5,000 
per  mile  for  construction,  and  $100  per  mile  annually  for  repairs.  The 
metal  of  the  roads  is  principally  of  very  hard  trap  rock,  expensive  to 
break  by  the  hand  process,  by  which  it  was  all  prepared.  The  quan- 
tity originaEy  applied  was  not  more  than  ten  cubic  feet  per  linear  foot 
of  road,  or  about  two  thousand  perches  of  twenty-five  cubic  feet  per 
perch  per  mile. 

Washington  County,  Maryland,  has  about  one  hundred  miles  of  Mac- 
adam road,  which  cost  $2,100  per  mile.  This  metal  is  of  limestone  rock, 
which  is  obtainable  on  the  line  of  all  the  roads,  and  may  be  broken  at 
about  one-half  the  cost  of  the  trap  rock.  The  repair  of  these  roads  is 
said  to  cost  about  $50  j^er  mile  i^er  annum. 

William  Bacon,  of  Eichmond,  Berkshire  County,  Massachusetts,  says: 
"We  have  a  system  of  taxation  for  making  and  repairing  rofids  that  is 
tolerated  by  a  law  of  the  State,  and  is  as  old  as  the  roads.  It  requii'es 
towns  to  raise  annually  such  an  amount  of  money  as  may  be  deemed 
necessary  to  keep  the  roads  in  repair  for  the  year,  to  divide  the  towns 
into  districts,  and  appoint  a  highway  siu'veyor  to  each  district,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  see  that  the  money  apportioned  to  his  district  is  seasonably 
and  properly  expended.  This  system  is  generally  adopted  in  agricultural 
districts,  and  is  popular,  as  it  gives  to  any  one  the  jorivilege  of  paying 
his  tax  in  money  or  working  it  out  with  teams,  at  a  price  stipulated  by 
the  town.  The  system  is  good  where  the  people  are  all  interested  in 
good  roads,  but  there  are  many  who  are  never  ready  to  work  or  pay ; 
and,  if  they  pretend  to  work,  it  is  more  of  a  holiday  affair  than  a  matter 
of  public  benefit."  This  is  the  general  experience  of  aU  observers  of  the 
working  of  this  and  similar  systems.  Mr.  B.  adds:  "We  had  formerlj- 
many  turnpike  roads  in  this  county,  but  the  introduction  of  railroads, 
which  now  traverse  more  than  half  of  the  towns  in  the  State,  has  set 
them  aside  entirely,  and  ail  have  become  county  roads." 

This  is  the  case  in  many  other  districts,  even  where  railroads  are  not 
so  numerous  as  in  Massachusetts.  The  most  favorable  location  for  a 
turnj)ike  is  frequently  selected  by  the  railroad  engineer,  nearly  parallel 
with  the  railroad  or  contiguous  to  it ;  hence  much  of  the  hea\'y  transpor- 
tation is  by  rail,  and  the  collateral  turnpike  is  little  used.  With  the  in- 
crease of  railroads  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  the  effect  on  nearly  parallel 


350  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

tiu'iipike  roads  Tvill  be  as  above  described ;  lience,  when  locating  a  new  turn- 
pike road,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  the  probabilities  of  the  construction 
of  a  railioad  at  an  early  day  in  the  same  direction  or  route.  If  probable 
that  the  railroad  will  be  constructed  at  no  distant  day,  and  yet  the  neces- 
sity is  gTcat  for  a  hard  road  for  immediate  use,  the  width  of  the  hard 
bed  of  such  road  might  be  made  as  narrow  as  would  answer,  thus  reduc- 
ing the  cost  of  the  road,  and  correspondingly  reducing  the  sum  sacrificeil 
by  the  loss  of  traffic  which  may  leave  the  turnpike  for  the  railway. 
While  the  foregoiug  is  undoubtedly  true,  as  regards  turnpikes  running 
in  the  same  direction  and  near  the  railroatls,  it  is  equally  true  that  these 
same  railroads  will  cause  an  increased  demand  for  improved  lateral  roads, 
by  which  products  may  reach  the  iron  Avay.  As  the  railroads  usually 
thread  the  valleys  and  mountain  passes,  and  cannot  be  worked  profit- 
ably in  the  dh-ection  of  the  heaA'y  mountain  slopes,  the  products  of  the 
hill  country  and  of  the  vales  betvveen  it  and  the  raih'oads,  together  with 
return  supplies,  mu«t  be  transported  on  wagon  roads,  at  least  until  a 
great  improvement  is  effected  in  the  traction  of  the  locoDiotive.  As  these 
roads  will  be  permanent,  and  are  frequently  required  to  overcome  heaA-y 
grades,  skillful  engiueering,  thorough  construction,  and  repaii's  are 
demanded. 

The  rei)orts  from  nearly  all  the  States  in  which  "  plank  roads  "  have 
been  tested,  under  a  great  variety  of  circumstances,  coucm'  in  condemn- 
ing them  on  account  of  the  great  cost  of  coustruction,  as  well  as  for  their 
lack  of  durabilit}'.  From  careful  investigation  we  find  that  they  have 
generally  become  unfit  for  use  in  from  five  to  eight  years,  even  where 
the  material  used  was  of  a  good  quality.  One  i)lauk  road  only  is  men- 
tioned on  which  repair  with  the  same  material  is  continued.  For  their 
average  cost  see  statement.  The  agents  of  decomposition,  heat  and 
moisture,  being  everywhere  active,  timber  of  the  same  kind  and  quality 
is  found,  when  used  in  plank  roads,  to  be  most  durable  in  climates  and 
positions  unfavorable  to  a  i)erj)etual  supi)ly  of  these  elemeuts.  The 
writer  was  familiar  with  a  jilank  road  in  JMadisou  County,  New  York, 
about  twenty  years  since.  This  road  was  mainly  in  an  elevated  moun- 
tain regioii  having  a  northern  aspect,  and  was  covered  with  snow  on  an 
average  fully  four  mouths  of  the  year,  and  yet  the  remains  of  the  mate- 
rial used,  it  beiug  hemlock  three  inches  in  thickness,  were  all  removed 
in  eight  years.  The  same  material  used  in  the  Carolinas  or  in  Florida 
would  probably  have  become  worthless  in  four  years.  A  slight  covering 
of  earth  on  the  i)lanks  is  found  to  hasten  decaj',  though  it  prevents 
wear.  Yellow  pine  and  cypress  logs,  used  in  the  southern  States  in 
"  cordiu'oy  "  or  causeway  roads,  where  the  logs  are  constantly  covered 
with  water  from  never-faning  springs,  and  with  a  covering  of  earth  of 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches,  and  shaded  by  a  tall,  dense  forest,  have 
been  known  to  remain  sound  for  thirty  years. 

The  causeway  of  logs  has  been  a  common  mode  of  primitive  road- 
making  in  low  marshy  regions,  and  is  still  common  in  the  southern 
States,  even  on  mail  routes.  The  logs  shoidd  have  a  good  covering  of 
earth,  and  depressions  occasioned  by  irregidar  decay  should  be  repaired 
as  they  occur.  The  durability  of  causeway  logs  is  much  greater  when 
covered  with  ten  to  twelve  inches  of  compact  clay  well  rounded  off,  and 
if  it  is  obtainable,  with  gravel  on  the  clay,  than  where  they  are  entirely 
covered  with  gravel ;  the  latter  being  porous,  rain  falling  on  the  road- 
bed penetrates  tlirectly  to  the  logs,  and  draws  the  warm  air  after  it, 
thus  rapidly  promoting  decay,  whOe  the  clay  covering  will  shed  off"  the 
water  before  it  reaches  the  logs.  The  log  causeway  system  of  road- 
making  in  regions  where  the  sod  is  wet,  timber  abundant  on  the  bpot, 


COUNTRY  ROADS  AND  ROAD  LAWS.  351 

only  costing  the  cutting-,  and  drainage  among  the  green  roots  too 
expensive,  must  necessarily  continue  in  use  many  years  to  come.  From 
the  statements  elicited,  it  appears  that  a  very  large  i)roportion  of  the 
roads  of  all  the  States,  even  in  the  older  ones,  are  little  more  than  a 
belt  of  natural  surfoce,  just  wide  enough  to  admit  of  vehicles  passing 
when  they  meet ;  sufficiently  cleared  of  trees,  rocks,  and  stumps  to  be 
passable  with  the  worst  marshes  causewayed.  ]\Iany  of  the  unfordable 
sti'eams  are  still  crossed  by  tiat-boat  ferries  of  the  most  primitive  charac- 
ter ;  more  shallow  ones  are  forded,  and  a  tree  felled  across  the  stream 
for  foot  travelers  is  the  only  bridge  seen  on  streams  many  miles  in  length. 
The  i)rimitive  bridges,  for  vehicles  on  such  streams,  are  usually  made 
by  placing  tln-ee  or  more  round  logs  from  bank  to  bank,  without  abut- 
ments, and  covering  them  with  tiatteued  poles.  As  civilization  advances, 
or  these  primeval  structures  become  unsafe,  their  places  are  usually 
supplied  with  hewed  or  sawed  timbers  and  Hooriiig,  with  ''King's  post 
truss"'  on  either  side,  using  juns  and  wedges  instead  of  the  rods,  or  bolts 
and  nuts  used  in  more  modern  structures.  Unless  suitable  stones  are 
at  hand,  and  more  convenient  than  timber,  logs  are  flattened  and  pin- 
ned one  ni)on  another,  and  used  for  abutments.  These  are  in  turn 
supplanted  by  more  scientific  wooden  structures,  such  as  the  ''  Burr," 
"  Howe,"  "  Improved  Dowe,"  and  other  forms  of  trussed  wooden  bridges ; 
or  perhaps  by  iron  bridges  constnicted  ujion  some  one  of  the  many 
plans  now  in  vogue — those  loiovni  as  the  Bollman  and  Fink  being  con- 
sidered tbe  best  in  use  in  this  counti*y  for  railroad  jnirposes. 

AVitb  each  successive  improvement  in  tbe  coustniction  of  bridges  in 
all  districts,  where  other  characteristicsof  civilization,  such  as  the  clear- 
ing up  of  forest.s,  &c.,  have  made  collateral  and  corresponding  progress, 
it  has  been  found  necessary  constantly  or  periodically  to  increase  the 
span  and  height,  from  the  water  at  ebb,  of  all  bridges  to  be  built.  This 
necessity  arises  from  the  moie  sudden  escape  of  rain-fall  from  the  sur- 
face of  cleared  and  swarded  land,  than  from  that  of  the  forest  with  its 
accumulated  mulch  of  ages,  maintained  by  a  net-work  of  undergTowth, 
through  which  water  is  greatly  impeded  in  its  flow  to  the  stream,  and 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  it  is  absorbed  by  the  earth  than  when  flow- 
ing on  a  surface  of  smooth  turf.  Another  effect  of  the  sudden  rising  of 
streams  from  the  rapid  escape  of  water  into  them  during  excessive  rain- 
ffiJl,  is  a  waste  of  the  fertility  of  steep  tillage  lands,  which  shed  water 
directly  into  the  streams.  AVTiere  interval  lands  to  any  considerable  ex- 
tent border  on  the  streams,  this  waste  is  intercepted,  and  the  fertile 
washings  of  the  higher  lands  are  deposited  on  the  meadows,  by  which 
the  fertility  is  augmented  by  each  successive  flood,  often  forming  valua- 
ble muck  deposits  which  enterprising  farmers  return  to  the  hilly  lands, 
thereby  restoring  their  lost  fertility.  Where  the  interval  land  is  nar- 
row, the  eflect  of  the  excessive,  increasing  floods  is  to  sweep  these  wash- 
ings into  the  creeks  and  rivers.  The  eflects  of  floods  in  dissipating  the 
fertility  of  rolling,  cleared  lands  bordering  streams  may  be  prevented, 
in  a  good  degi'ce,  by  keeping  them  in  gxass  as  large  a  portion  of  the 
time  as  is  practicable;  and,  when  they  are  laid  down  to  grass,  by  con- 
sti'ucting  numerous  surface  water  furrows  in  succession  from  the  sum- 
mit to  the  base  of  slopes,  giving  them  good  capacity  and  very  gentle 
fall ;  thus  the  washing  of  the  soil  will,  in  a  great  degTce,  be  prevented, 
a  larger  amount  of  water  will  be  absorbed,  and  that  escai)ing  to  the 
streams  will  be  a  longer  time  in  reaching  them,  and  the  destructive 
eflects  of  inundation  lessened  materially. 

The  proportion  of  area  of  the  .cleared  lands  of  the  middle  and  the 
eastern  States,  which  would  be  greately  benefited  by  the  i)recautionai^ 


352  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

system  of  surface  gutters  above  recommended,  is  very  large,  and  the 
aiinual  Traste  of  fertility  and  the  damage  from  loss  of  fences,  bridges, 
buildings,  and  even  of  hiiman  life,  are  so  great  as  to  warrant  a  notice  in 
this  connection,  apart  from  its  direct  pertinency  to  the  general  subject 
in  hand.  We  have  been  frequently  called  to  relocate  roads  that  liave 
been  entirely  destroyed  by  floods  in  collateral  streams,  many  of  which 
roads  had  been  repeatecEy  destroyed  in  places,  and  as  often  rebuilt.  An 
ordinary  degree  of  sagacity  and  common  sense  should  have  suggested 
the  folly  of  locating  such  roads  originally  so  low  as  to  be  subject  to 
such  casualties,  and  certainly  the  repeated  ocular  evidence  of  the  error 
committed  by  the  pioneer  road  surveyor  (for  such  he  must  be  called,  as 
there  was  no  engineering  in  the  case)  shoidd  have  deterred  the  com- 
missioner of  highways  from  reconstructing  such  roads  on  the  same  sites. 
Many  cases  of  injudicious  road  construction  and  waste  of  public  money 
could  be  cited,  were  it  necessary,  to  establish  the  fact  that  reform  and 
reti^enchment,  greater  skill  and  wiser  legislation,  arc  needed  for  the  more 
economical  and  efficient  management  of  the  pubhc  roads  throughout  the 
country. 

As  the  existing  road  laws  in  all  the  States  are  generally  '•  luisatisfac- 
tory,"  a  recital  of  many  of  them  in  this  article  is  unnecessary.  Oscar  T. 
Strong,  of  Pocahontas  County,  Iowa,  reports  the  following  road  laws  in 
that  State :  "  The  board  of  supervisors  has  the  general  supervision  of 
roads  in  the  coimty,  with  power  to  establish  or  change  them  as  provided 
by  law.  The  town  trustees  le^y  a  road  tax  each  year  of  not  less  than 
one  mill  nor  more  than  three  on  the  dollar  of  the  taxable  property'  in 
each  road  district.  A  road  supervisor  is  elected  in  each  district,  who 
has  the  supervision  of  the  roads  in  his  district,  and  it  is  his  duty  to 
keep  these  roads  in  as  good  repair  as  he  can  with  the  fimds  at  his  dis- 
posal; it  is  also  his  duty  to  require  each  able-bodied  man  between 
twenty-one  and  lifty  years  of  age  to  perform  two  days'  labor  on  the 
roads,  between  April  and  August  of  each  year.  ITie  operation  of  tlie 
law  does  not  giA'e  satisfaction.  The  average  amount  of  work  done  on 
oiu'  roads  does  not  exceed  six  dollars  per  mile  per  anniun.  The  best 
road  in  the  coimty  is  made  of  saw-dust.'' 

E.  M.  Mackemery,  of  Leavenworth  County,  Kansas,  reports  as  follows: 
'•  All  the  i^rincipal  roads  in  the  coiuity  are  under  the  super^■ision  and 
care  of  a  scientific  engineer,  who  is  the  adviser  of  the  board  of  county 
commissioners.  The  roads  are  graded,  and  worked  on  an  estabhshed 
system,  and  all  thoroughly  and  substantially  bridged  with  blue  limestone 
of  superior  quality.  In  no  State  in  the  Union  is  there  a  greater  pride, 
or  a  more  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  value,  comfort,  and  peciuiiary 
profit  arising  from  a  well-devised  system  in,  and  a  thorough  improve- 
ment of,  all  classes  of  roads.  An  experience  of  twenty-nine  years  in 
Illinois,  Iowa,  and  ^Missouri  has  established  the  conviction  that  more 
gratuitous  labor  is  performed  on  the  roads  of  Kansas  than  in  any  other 
western  State,  At  a  cost  of  a  bttle  less  than  $2.50,000  the  county  has 
bridged  every  stream  on  the  principal  roads  leading  from  Leavenworth 
City.  The  city  of  Leavenworth  has  also,  at  a  large  expenditm^, 
built  all  stone  bridges,  even  beyond  the  city  Limits,  to  facilitate  trade 
with  the  interior.  After  roads  are  opened,  the  annual  amoimt  expended 
per  mile  does  not  exceed  $250. 

Arthur  Parks,  of  San  Bernardino  Cotmty,  California,  states  that 
"  every  male  citizen  in  the  county,  Indians  excepted,  is  taxed  one  day's 
work  or  two  dollars  per  annum,  besides  which  there  is  a  small  direct  tax. 
The  law  is  generally  enforced,  but  is  not  satisfactory,  as  it  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  keep  one-fourth  of  the  roads  in  order.    Private  subscriptions  oi 


cou>:try  roads  and  road  laws.        353 

one  hunclred  dollars  each  are  not  rare  for  '  mending  our  -^ays.'  The 
citizens  of  this  county  fully  indorse  the  leading  paragraph  of  yonr  cir- 
cular ;  and,  realizing  its  correctness,  we  are  determined  to  take  hold  with 
a  will,  and  have  good  highways/' 

There  is  great  similarity  in  the  systems  of  taxation  for  road  purposes, 
it  being  generally  a  '•  poll  tax"  in  lalior,  varying  in  the  different  States 
from  one  day  to  five  per  annum  ;  and  in  some  portions  of  the  country  a 
money  tax,  varying  from  one  mill  to  two  cents  on  the  one  himdred  dol- 
lars :  "^and  in  others  a  tax  for  bridge  pm-poses  alone,  as  high  as  four  cents 
on  the  one  hundred  dollars  of  taxable  property.  Owing  to  the  abun- 
dance and  excellence  of  material  in  some  regions,  and  the  scarcity  and 
inleriority  of  it  in  others,  there  is  a  difference  of  at  least  tenfold  hi  the 
cost  of  construction  and  maintenance  of  good  roads.  Good  ones  are  the 
exceptions  in  all  the  States.  Those  of  eastern  Xew  York  and  of  Xew 
England  have  generally  a  surface  superior  to  those  of  almost  any  other 
portion  of  the  country!  but  the  gTades  are  rarely  reduced  to  what  they 
should  be.  To  the  steepness  of  the  grades  in  the  Une  of  the  axis  of  the 
roads  in  those  regions,  and  to  the  care  ia  surface  drainage,  their  dry- 
ness and  smoothness  of  surface  are  mainly  attributable,  as  it  causes 
them  to  shed  water  rapidly. 

The  proper  mode  of  construction  of  a  road  adapted  to  a  large  amount 
of  heavy  traffic,  at  aU  seasons  of  the  year,  deijends  gTcatly  on  local  cir- 
cumstances. The  perfection  and  the  durabihty  of  a  road  must,  of  course, 
depend  on  the  material  used  in  its  construction,  all  other  circumstances 
being  equal.  We  shall  treat  the  subject  ia  the  order  in  which  the  earthy 
and  the  miueral  materials,  in  the  various  parts  of  the  country,  possess 
their  respective  superiority  for  use  in  the  construction  of  coimty  roads : 
First,  the  macadamized  or  broken  stone  road ;  second,  the  gTavel,  or 
proper  admixture  of  natural  x)ebbles  of  various  sizes  with  a  proper 
quantity  of  clay  and  sand,  or  loam  ;  third,  rotten  rock,  of  various  char- 
acter; fourth,  rotten  rock,  artificially  mixed  with  clay;  fifch,  loam,  in  a 
natural  state ;  sixth,  artificial  loam,  made  by  mixing  clay  and  sand  j 
seventh,  clay;  eighth,  sand. 

THE  MACADAJMIZCD   OR  EEOKE^^  STOXE  ROAD. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity  in  treating  class  Xo.  1,  we  shall  designate  the 
rock  to  be  used  by  the  terms  hard  and  soft.  The  mode  of  preparing  the 
foundation  of  a  ^Macadam  road  should  be  modified  according  to  the 
character  of  the  soil  of  which  it  is  to  be  made.  It  may,  however,  be 
premised  that  one  essential  condition  to  be  seciu-ed  in  the  use  of  every 
character  of  material  is  that  of  dryness.  This  secured,  almost  every 
variety  of  soil  will  form  a  suitable  substructure  for  a  macadamized  road. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  fiu^nish  specifications  for  the  gTeat  variety  of 
cases  that  may  be  presented,  but  we  shaU  endeavor  to  give  such  general 
instructions  as  will  meet  all  probable  cases  inteUigibly,  and  w^  com- 
mence with  the  most  difficult  cii'cumstances  likely  to  be  presented,  viz., 
an  extensive  plain,  level,  or  nearly  so,  with  a  tenacious  clay  soil. 

To  effect  drainage  under  such  circumstances  there  are  but  two  modes 
known  to  the  writer :  First,  by  surface  di-ainage,  by  the  use  of  open 
ditches,  or  g-utters,  excavated  on  both  sides  of  the  road  in  the  manner 
described.  If  practicable,  the  fall  should  be  made  both  ways,  from  a 
point  as  nearly  central  as  may  be,  and  each  gutter  be  extended  to  a 
point  of  discharge  lower  than'  the  plane.  The  advantage  of  draining 
both  ways  is,  that  with  ditches  of  the  same  depth  at  their  discharge  end, 
the  fall  wiU  be  doubled.    In  case  the  distance  is  great,  and  the  labor  of 


354  AGRICULTCKAL    REPORT. 

producing  sufficient  faU  in  the  ditches  is  considered  too  expensive,  it 
vd\l  then  be  judicious  to  test  the  practicability  of  the  other  method. 
This  consists  in  what  we  call  pit-draiuag-e.  Its  practicability  can  always 
be  ascertained  by  digging  a  well,  or  by  boring  with  a  pile  or  post  auger. 
If  a  stratum  of  sand  or  gravel,  which  will  absorb  water,  is  reached  at  a 
reasonable  depth,  say  not  more  than  forty  feet,  this  plan  may  be  adopted. 
Thj-ee  or  foiu'  wells,  equally  distributed  as  to  distance  will  be  ample  to 
draui  a  mile  of  road.  If  the  wells  are  to  be  stoned  with  rough  stones, 
they  shoidd  be  excavated  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  depth  continued 
three  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  stratum  which  is  found  to  absorb 
water.  The  rough  stone  wall  may  be  laid  iliy,  but  the  stones  should 
extend  from  the  inner  face  to  the  bank,  the  smaller  ends  forming  the 
inner  face,  thus  forming  a  comyjlete  arch  of  every  layer  of  stones.  The 
wells  may  all  be  on  one  side  of  the  road,  or  a  portion  of  them  on  each 
side,  and  they  should  be  covered  with  a  strong  lattice  of  cast  iron,  with 
meshes  about  two  inches  square. 

The  gutters  shoidd  fall  each  way  toward  the  wells,  and  the  low  jilaces 
in  the  gutters  on  the  other  side  of  the  road  shonld  be  opposite  the  wells. 
At  each  of  these  low  i^oints  a  well  a  foot  or  two  in  depth  should  be 
excavated  and  stoned  up.  A  tile  or  a  stone  di-ain  v.ith  good  fall  should 
connect  the  shallow  with  the  deep  well.  The  greater  the  fall  in  these 
cross  drains,  the  smaller  may  the  conduit  be.  and  the  less  the  hability 
to  clog.  A  slight  circular  depression  shoidd  be  made  in  the  bottom  of 
the  surface  gutters  around  the  wells,  in  which  the  sediment  in  the 
drainage  water  may  be  deposited  before  it  Hows  into  the  wells.  It 
sometimes  occui\s  that  the  water,  not  being  carried  otf  rapidly  enough, 
win  rise  up  to,  and  even  above,  the  top  of  the  well :  but  this  is  rare,  and 
the  foregoing  mode  will  generally  provide  satisfactory  di'ainage  under 
the  circumstances  described,  "V\lien  practicable,  the  surface  gutters 
conveying  the  water  to  streams  or  to  ravines  may  be  of  more  simple 
and  of  iireferable  construction.  TThere  the  water  is  to  be  conveyed  a 
long  distance,  say  half  a  mile  in  one  direction,  a  fall  of  thi'ce  inches  to 
one  hundred  feet  will  answer.  This  will  require  the  gutter  to  be  six  feet 
eight  inches  in  depth  at  the  discharge  end.  The  bottom  of  the  glitters 
must  be  smooth  and  graded  with  acciu'acy.  The  angle  of  the  slope  of 
the  banks  should  not  exceed  thirty  five  degrees. 

In  tenacious  clay  soils  the  margin  of  the  surface  of  the  substructure, 
on  which  to  place  a  Macadam  road-bed.  shoidd  be  at  least  one  foot 
above  the  bottom  of  the  gutters.  It  shoidd  be  made  smooth  and  solid, 
and  have  an  iinderdrain  at  each  margin  of  the  macadamizing  from  six 
to  twelve  inches  in  depth,  and  an  average  of  twelve  inches  in  width. 
These  drains  may  have  a  fall  each  way  for  five  to  seven  rods,  to  a  low 
point  from  which  a  lateral  drain  should  extend  under  the  side  road  to 
the  gutter  into  which  they  are  to  discharge.  The  longitudinal  under- 
drains  are  to  be  made  of  broken  stones,  and  are  to  be  filled  up  to  the 
level  of  the  surface  upon  which  the  macadamizing  is  to  rest.  The  eaith- 
banks  on  each  side  of  the  macadamized  portion  of  the  road  should  be 
twelve  inches  in  height,  and  be  sufficiently  sloped  to  be  self-sustaining 
until  the  broken  stone  has  been  applied,  which  wiU  render  them  per- 
fectly secure.  The  stone  shoidd  be  so  broken  that  all.  or  nearly  all,  the 
pieces  will  pass  'through  a  two-inch  ring.  This  is  the  rule  adopted  in 
England,  where  this  kind  of  road  has  reached  the  greatest  perfection. 

We  say  "uearl}-  aU,"  for  of  course  there  will  occasionally  be  stones 
which,  unless  too  much  time  is  spent  in  breaking  them,  will  not  come 
up  to  the  standard.  This  subject  is  one  of  the  utmost  importance;  and, 
if  we  are  to  be  governed  by  the  opinion  of  Macadam  himself,  we  find 


COUNTRY  EOADS  AND  EOAD  LAWS.  355 

him  declaring  that  cubes  of  one  and  a  quarter  inch  are  better  than  any 
larger;  and  he  alfirmed  before  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
that  his  experience  went  to  prove  that  the  expense  of  keeping  roads  in 
repair  was  almost  in  the  exact  ratio  of  the  sizes  of  stone  used  in  each 
instance.  Thus,  a  road  constructed  of  metal  broken  down  to  cubes  oi 
one  and  a  quarter  inch  would  require  to  keep  in  repair  but  one-half  the 
outlay  necessary  for  one  constructed  of  cubes  of  two  and  a  half  inches ; 
so  that  the  increased  cost  of  construction  in  using  the  smaller  broken 
metal  will  be  fully  compensated  for  by  the  saving  in  repairs  and  greater 
diu'ability.  In  speaking  of  the  metal  as  being  in  the  fonn  of  cubes,  it 
is  not  intended  to  convey  the  idea  that  each  piece  of  stone  must  be  a 
perfect  cube,  and  all  of  equal  size ;  practical  men  will  of  course  under- 
stand that  the  term  is  figurative,  and  that  the  metal  must  of  necessity 
be  more  or  less  irregular,  and  vary  in  size  considerably.  The  broken 
stone  for  a  new  road  shoidd  be  applied  to  the  depth  of  twelve  inches 
and  twenty  feet  in  width  to  produce  a  first-class  road.  The  lateral 
slope  either  way  fi'om  the  center  of  the  road  should  correspond  with 
that  of  the  surface  of  the  foundation;  this  slope  should  be  about  one- 
quarter  of  one  inch  to  a  foot.  There  should  be  an  earth  side  track  on 
either  side  of  the  macadamized  portion  of  the  road.  The  earth  road,  when 
dry  and  in  good  order,  is  more  desirable  than  the  Macadam,  and  mate- 
rially saves  the  wear  upon  it.  The  foregoing  specification,  although 
referring  more  particidarly  to  a  road  nearly  level  longitudinally,  is  equally 
applicable  as  a  direction  for  macadamizing  any  road  of  the  width 
mentioned. 

The  preparation  and  application  of  broken  stone  in  road-making  have 
hitherto  been  very  expensive,  thus  presenting  great  discouragement  to 
those  desiring  to  improve  roads  upon  this  system,  which  we  have  no 
hesitation  in  pronouncing  the  best  all  things  considered,  as  yet  dis- 
covered. The  cost,  however,  has  of  late  been  greatly  reduced  by  the 
introduction  of  the  "Blake  Stone-Breaker,"  a  machine  of  immense 
strength  and  eflBciency,  which  has  been  satisfactorily  tested  in  practical 
use.  Thirty  perches  (twenty-five  cubic  feet  to  a  perch)  of  the  hardest 
trap  boidders  can  be  broken  into  the  best  road  metal  in  ten  hoiu's  by  this 
machine.  It  requires  about  nine  horse  power  to  perform  this  amount  of 
work  in  the  time  given.  In  a  single  hour  it  has  been  known  to  break 
four  perches,  or  one  hundi'ed  cubic  feet,  of  stone  of  the  foregoing  char- 
acter. With  this  machine  the  cost  of  breaking  is  reduced  to^thirty 
cents  per  perch,  using  coal  at  $5  50  per  ton,  and  labor  at  $1  50  per 
diem,  and  an  engineer  at  $2  50  per  diem,  yrho  assists  the  two  laborers 
employed  in  feeding  the  machine.  The  average  day's  work  for  a  good 
hand  in  the  spring,  summer,  or  autumn  is  less  than  one  perch,  and  in 
winter  still  less.  The  average  price  of  such  labor  is  about  $1  50  per 
day  at  present,  so  that  the  reduction  of  expense  by  the  use  of  the 
machine  is  not  less  than  eighty  per  cent. 

The  stone-breaker  referred  to  has  elevators  connected  with  it,  which 
carry  the  stones  to  a  considerable  height  above  the  machine,  where 
they  are  deposited  upon  a  sieve,  through  which  the  fine  sand  produced 
in  ])reaking  the  stone  passes,  and  is  deposited  by  means  of  a  chute  in  a 
tight  compartment  on  the  ground  -,  while  the  stones  running  over  the 
sieve  are  deposited  in  a  kind  of  hopper,  from  which  they  are  loaded 
upon  wagons  or  carts  by  simply  opening  a  slide  or  trap,  in  this  man- 
ner the  cost  of  loading  is  reduced  to  a  nominal  figiire,  being  done  almost 
instantaneously;  while,  if  done  by  hand  by  shoveling  from" the  heap,  the 
cost  of  loading  would  be  nearly  half  as  much  as  breaking. 

Alter  what  has  been  said  with  regard  to  the  sand  being  carried  down 


356  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

through  a  chute  into  a  tight  compartment,  we  will  explaiu  why  Iho 
trouble  is  taken  to  separate  the  sand  from  the  In'ohen  stones  at  all,  or 
care  taken  to  deposit  it  in  a  tight  compartment.  It  was  found  that  this 
sand,  produced  by  the  trituration  of  stones  of  this  qnality  in  the  process 
of  breaking,  is  the  very  l>est  material  yet  discovered  for  manufactiuing 
''concrete  stone"'  under  the  Eansom  patent  of  England,  which  is  rapidly 
coming  into  use  in  this  country.  About  one  hundred  pounds  of  sand 
are  made  for  each  perch  of  stones  broken,  and  all  yet  made  by  the 
machine  in  question  has  found  ready  sale  to  the  "  Eansom  Concrete 
Stone  Company  of  Maryland,"'  at  one  cent  per  pound.  It  will  be  seen 
that  in  the  neighborhood  of  cities,  where  the  concrete  stone  is  being 
manufactured  to  any  considerable  extent,  a  road  may  be  macadamized 
at  a  very  lovr  cost,  if  indeed  it  is  not  found  that  the  stones  can  be 
broken  and  applied  at  a  cost  which  shall  be  less  than  the  proceeds  of 
the  sale  of  sand  ])rodueed  from  the  amount  of  broken  stone  required, 
thus  prejiaring  the  road  metal  free  of  cost,  and  leaving  a  profit  to  the 
constructors  besides. 

In  the  application  of  the  broken  stones  to  form  a  road-bed,  although 
the  ]irocess  is  simple,  it  is  important  that  the  siu-face  of  the  earth  sub- 
structure be  kept  fi'ee  from  ruts  and  tracks,  as  any  depressions  will  till 
with  water,  and  soften  the  foundation  at  these  points,  thus  causing  the 
road  to  settle  unevenly.  Depressions  in  the  stoned  surface  cannot  be 
well  repaired  without  •'  picking  up  "  the  metal  to  the  depth  of  several 
inches.  The  material  used  in  repair  should  be  somewhat  smaller  or 
liner  than  that  of  which  the  road  is  formed.  The  portion  repaired  is  to 
be  thoroughly  rammed  ■v^ith  a  '•  paver  s  rammer,"  and,  when  finished, 
should  be  slightly  above  the  siu'face  around  it,  which  remains  uudis- 
tm"bed.  "When  the  metal  has  been  properly  graded  on  a  new  road,  the 
surface  shoidd  have  a  slight  dressing  of  clay,  and  a  heavy  roller  should 
be  passed  over  it  until  the  metal  comes  to  its  bearing,  before  vehicles 
are  allowed  to  pass  over  it.  A  road-bed  twenty  feet  in  width  and  tvrelve 
inches  in  thickness  will  require  4,224  perches  of  broken  stone  to  the 
mile.  The  siuiace  gi'ade  of  the  earth  side  tracks  should  correspond  with, 
and  be  a  continuation  of,  the  grade  of  the  macadamized  portion.  The 
side  tracks  should  not  be  more  than  nine  feet  in  width,  as  Tumecessar^- 
width  increases  the  difficulty  of  surface  drainage. 

Many  professional  road  makers  will  take  exception  to  the  clay  surfoce 
tb'essing,  but  it  has  been  thoroughly  tested  in  practice,  anil  ahvays 
with  success.  The  etiect  is  to  bring  the  metal  to  a  bearing  at  once,  and 
to  prevent  the  action  of  the  wheels  from  destroying  the  angularity  of 
the  surface  metal,  a  very  important  quality,  as  it  is  almost  impossible, 
after  the  surface  stones  have  become  rounded,  to  get  them  to  bind  one 
with  another,  and  form  a  first-class  road  surface.  The  quantity  of  clay 
applied  shoidd  be  sufficient  only  to  fill  the  interstices  between  the  stones, 
ou  the  immediate  surtace,  when  the  metal  has  come  to  its  bearing. 
Another  advantage  of  such  an  application  is  to  render  the  superstruc- 
ture of  macadamizing  water-proof,  almost  from  the  first,  the  importance 
of  which,  in  assisting  to  maintain  a  dry  foundation,  is  almost  self- 
evident. 

THE  GRAVEL  AND  OTHER  ROAD-BEDS. 

Where  the  natural  soil  of  a  road  consists  of  gTavel  of  proper  texture, 
in  its  natural  state,  the  process  of  producing  a  very  desirable  road,  for 
aU  except  very  hea\"y  traffic,  is  simple  and  inexpensive.  It  only  reqmres 
to  have  the  surface  of  the  road-bed  raised  by  repeated  plowings,  the 


COUNTRY  ROADS  AND  ROAD  LAWS.  357 

fiuTows  all  beiug  tiirued  toward  the  center  of  tlie  road.  In  case  the 
natnral  siu'fitco  has  a  slope  to  one  side,  the  execution  can  still  be  mainly 
and  most  economically  i^erformed  by  the  use  of  the  plow,  by  turning  the 
furrows  in  one  tlirectlon.  The  plow  should  be  what  is  called  the  •'  double 
right  and  left-hand  plow,"  which  may  be  used  with  gxeat  advantage. 
When  the  desired  grade  of  the  surface  of  the  road  and  gutters  shall  have 
been  produced,  as  nearly  as  practicable,  by  the  use  of  the  plow,  it  should 
then  receive  repeated  harrowings.  The  remainder  of  the  work  may  be 
most  economically  and  efficiently  performed  by  means  of  the  gratling 
machine,  exce])t  the  removal  of  considerable  hills,  or  the  filling  of  cor- 
responding depressions,  which,  if  the  distance  is  short,  may  be  best  per- 
formed by  the  use  of  the  common  scraper;  but.  if  it  exceeds  five  or  six 
rods,  wheeibanows,  carts,  or  dump-wagons  will  be  necessary.  Xo  hand 
grading  is  necessary,  as  the  gTader.  propelled  by  a  pair-  of  active  horses, 
wid  perform  more  of  this  character  of  work  than  fifty  men.  and  at  the 
same  time  do  it  better. 

The  width  of  such  gravel  road  wQl.  of  course,  be  controlled  by  cir- 
cumstances* the  amount  of  travel  and  the  character  of  it  being  the  most 
important  considerations.  It  may  be  remarked,  however — and  it  is 
equally  api^licable  to  aU  roads,  of  whatever  material — that  they  should 
not  be  made  wider  than  is  really  necessary,  otherwise  the  cost  is  gTcatly 
increased,  as  well  as  the  difficulty  of  siulace  di-aiaage.  which,  as  was  re 
marked  in  connection  with  Macadam  road,  is  of  gTcat  iiniDoitance.  A 
road  constnicted  of  natural  gTavel,  and  having  a  gxavel  sub-sod,  will 
require  to  be  raised  less  in  the  center,  and  the  side  gutters  may  be  made 
more  shallow  than  would  be  admissible  with  any  other  material. 

Botten  rod: — This  material  is  frequently  found,  in  a  natural  state, 
quite  well  adapted  to  forming  a  road  that  will  serve  all  the  pinrposes  for 
which  earth  and  gi'avel  roads  are  adapted.  It  rarely  has  a  proper 
degree  of  tenacity,  however,  to  enable  it  to  bind,  or  retain  desirable 
compactness. 

Where  this  material  lacks  tenacity  the  defect  is  easdy  conected  by 
adding  a  due  pioporrlon  of  clay,  but  the  proper  i)roi)ortion  of  each  can 
be  ascertaiued  only  by  experiment.  THien  prepared  as  they  should 
be,  a  good  road  for  ordinary  cotintry  travel  can  be  made  from  these 
substances. 

Loam. — By  the  term  loam  we  mean  clay  with  an  admixture  of  fine 
sand,  and  generally  a  liberal  proportion  of  vegetable  matter. 

TThen  the  proportions  of  clay  and  sand  are  such  that  the  sod  will  not 
bake,  nor  iucrust  when  *lry,  nor  become  very  adhesive  when  wet.  it  may 
properly  be  called  loam.  When  the  sod  of  a  road-bed  consists  of  loam, 
or  the  best  sod  obtainable,  the  directions  for  the  use  of  clay  are  apph- 
cable,  with  the  exception  that  loam  does  not  require  the  exti'eme  degree 
of  suiface  slope  recommended  for  clay. 

The  natural  soil  of  the  bed  may  be  either  clay  or  Siind.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  other  by  hauhng  it  on  to  the  bed  and  incorporating  it  by  means 
of  the  i)low  and  harrow,  avOI  enable  the  engineer  to  jn'oduce  from  these 
two  materials  (each  iUy  adapted  alone)  an  artificial  sod,  which  will  answer 
the  piui^oses  of  a  road-bed  quite  satisfactorily.  Gravel,  consisting  of 
water- worn  pebbles,  without  an  admixture  of  clay  by  which  to  cement 
them,  is  a  poor  road  material,  as  it  rolls  from  under  the  feet  of  the  ani- 
mals and  from  beneath  the  wheels,  making  the  labor  of  teams  on  such  a 
road  very  severe.  A  proper  amoimt  of  clay  added  to,  and  weU  mixed 
with  gravel,  \vill  gTcatly  improve  it  as  road  material.  The  character- 
istics of  ail  these  materials  are  so  various  in  thflerent  locahties  that  the 
proportions  need  to  be  modified  according  to  cuxiimstances ;   and  the 


358  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

proper  proportions  in  each  respective  case  will  be  most  readily  and  satis- 
factorily determined  by  experimenting  with  a  number  of  samples,  say  a 
cart  load  of  each,  in  diflerent  proportions,  whicli  should  be  carefiilly 
noted,  all  beinj;  placed  contiguously  on  the  road-bed  where  they  wiU' 
be  equally  exposed  to  wet  and  to  use.  A  few  months'  experience,  under 
such  test  of  the  various  mixtures,  will  give  the  road  maker  data  which 
theory  cannot  furnish. 

In  some  sections  of  great  area  no  other  material  than  clay  can 
be  obtained;  hence  it  must  be  used  as  road  material  in  its  natural 
state.  The  general  principles  involved  in  the  construction  of  gi'avel, 
loam,  and  other  roads,  and  described  under  those  heads,  are  to  be 
observed  in  constructing  a  road  exclusively  of  clay ;  the  gutters,  how- 
ever, should  be  made  as  deep  as  is  practicable,  and  the  road-bed  as  nar- 
row as  the  travel  will  admit,  and  be  as  highly  crowned  as  is  admissible, 
thus  guarding  against  absorption  of  water  from  the  gutters,  and  effectu- 
ally shedding  the  rain-fall  from  the  bed.  There  is  no  material  in  the  cata- 
lopie  treated  that  forms  so  perfect  and  delightful  a  road  for  i)leasiu'e- 
driviug  as  clay,  when  in  a  certain  condition  ;  but  it  is  so  difficult  to 
be  maintaineil  in  the  desired  state  that  it  is  judicious  to  incorporate  sand 
or  gravel  with  it,  wherever  practicable. 

There  are  districts  of  country  many  miles  in  extent,  where  nothing 
but  drifting  sand  can  be  obtained  for  "making  roads.  AMiere  the  depth 
of  the  sand  is  great  before  reaching  a  tenacious  subsoil,  a  road-bed  of 
sand  vii]\  be  more  compact  and  better,  if  made  lower  than  the  smface  of 
the  laud  on  either  margin,  so  that  water  may  flow  on  to,  instead  of 
being  drained  off  from,  the  road.  Like  clay,  pure  sand  is  not  a  desirable 
•oad  material,  and  quicksands,  not  unfrequently  found  in  extensive 
sandy  regions,  are  dangerous.  AAliere  drainage  of  quicksands  is  impracti- 
cable, two  thicknesses  of  planking  laid  over  the  place  to  be  crossed,  the 
lower  planks  running  in  the  dkection  of  the  road,  and  the  upper  ones 
across  it,  have  been  found  to  answer  very  well  as  a  sort  of  a  tloating- 
road.  A  contractor  on  the  Knox  and  Lincoln  railroad  in  Maine  has 
recently  encountered  a  quicksand  into  which  he  has  sunk  pile  upon  pile 
to  the  depth  of  one  hundred  and  forty  feet,  and  no  indications  of  a  hard 
substratum  are  yet  apparent. 

PLA2s^  EOADS. 

Plank  roads  have  been  so  universally  unsatisfactory  that  valuable 
space  need  not  be  occupied  with  directions  for  their  construction. 

I.  A.  Lewis,  of  Howard  County,  Missouri,  says  that  a  plank  road  was 
constructed  in  that  coimty  twenty--six  miles  in  length,  costing  8100,000; 
butithaslong  since  been  abandoned.  Numerous  instances  may  be  cited  of 
their  failure  from  all  parts  of  the  comitry,  but  not  one  in  which  they  have 
been  a  success.  A  plank  road  is  a  good  road  when  in  proper  condition, 
and  may  be  a  necessary  kind  in  some  districts  of  the  country ;  hence 
it  may  be  well  to  state  that  it  is  claimed  that,  by  steaming  the  plank, 
and  charging  them  with  creosote,  costing  about  eight  dollars  per  thou- 
sand feet,  board  measure,  their  durability  will  be  doubled. 

THE  LONGITUDINAL  GRADE  FOR  A  ROAD. 

There  is  perhaps  no  branch  of  the  subject  imder  consideration  which 
demands  more  attention  by  the  engineer  than  that  of  the  reduction  of 
road  grades  to  the  minimum  under  all  practicable  circumstances.  We 
can  better  afford  to  increase  the  length  of  a  road  considerably  than  to 


COUNTRY  ROADS  AND  ROAD  LAWS.  359 

retain  grades,  in  places,  so  heavy  that  a  team  is  unable  to  haul  more 
than  half,  or  perhaps  one-quarter,  the  load  it  can  on  all  the  remainder 
of  it.  Eoads  which  are  steep  in  the  line  of  their  axis  are  not  only  more 
severe  on  teams,  but  they  are  daugerous,  and  much  more  expensive  to 
keep  in  repair.  Various  opinions  have  been  expressed  by  engineers  and 
essayists  on  this  subject.  Mr.  H.  F.  French,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
in  a  very  able  paper  on  roads,  contained  in  the  report  of  this  Depart- 
ment for  ISGG,  says :  "In  view  of  every  consideration,  except  drainage, 
the  level  line  is  probably  the  best;  but,  as  drainage  is  essential,  and,  as  will 
be  seen  when  we  come  to  consider  the  construction  of  roads,  it  is  desira- 
ble to  make  them  as  flat  as  possible  transversely,  a  slight  slope  in  the 
length  of  them  is  found  expedient.  This  slope  should  be  one  in  two 
hundred,  which  is  sufficient  for  drainage  without  injury  by  washing,  and 
adds  little  to  the  draught." 

A  grade  of  one  in  two  hundred  is  a  very  desirable  one,  so  far  as 
drauglit  is  concerned,  but  it  is  nearer  level  than  is  practicable  on  any 
considerable  proportion  of  our  country  roads ;  and,  as  regards  drainage, 
it  will  be  of  little  service.  Much  lateral  slope  is  objectionable,  but  we 
do  not  consider  that  a  slope  of  one-quarter  of  an  inch  to  one  foot  is  so, 
while  it  is  sufficient  to  provide  lateral  drainage,  which  is  more  efficient 
than  longitudmal  drainage.  The  widest  track  of  country  wagons  does 
not  exceed  five  feet,  and,  with  a  slope  of  one- quarter  of  an  inch  to  one 
foot,  the  difference  in  the  height  of  the  wheels  when  the  vehicle  is  on 
the  side  of  the  road,  is  but  one  and  a  quarter  inch,  and  this  is  reversed 
in  returning.  It  often  occurs  in  rural  districts  that  it  is  practicable  to 
drive  a  large  proportion  of  the  distance  on  the  summit  of  the  road  bed, 
where  the  vehicle  will  be  on  a  level.  It  is  next  to  impossible  to  prevent 
road  surfaces  from  rutting  to  some  extent,  and  a  "  slope  of  one  in  two 
hundred"  only,  while  it  is  so  gentle  that  there  will  be  no  tendency  to  wash, 
■will  certainly  keep  surface  water  on  the  road-bed  so  long  that  much  of 
it  wiU  be  absorbed,  which  may  be  avoided  in  lateral  dramage,  without 
injury  to  vehicles,  displacement  of  lading,  or  inconvenience  to  passen- 
gers. It  is  not  practicable  to  give  a  rule  for  the  exact  amount  of  longi- 
tudinal gTade  of  roads,  as  they  are  affected  by  so  many  circumstances. 
Primarily  the  best  provision  for  business  traffic  should  be  considered 
paramount  to  all  else,  yet  this  has  often  to  be  modified  by  local  circum- 
stances, vrhether  in  regrading  old  roads  or  in  locating  new  ones.  In  the 
latter,  if  the  locality  is  mainly  unsettled,  and  the  probabilities  are  that 
the  building  sites  will  be  most  popular  near  the  summits  along  the  line 
of  the  projected  road,  the  engineer  should  prospect  contiguous  lands, 
and  so  modify  the  route  tliat  the  necessary  laterals  may  connect  with 
the  road  by  grades  that  shall  be  easy,  safe,  and  inexpensive. 

There  has  been  a  very  general  and  striking  change  in  the  taste 
evinced  in  locating  rural  homes,  country  seats,  and  farm  buildings,  of 
late,  to  provide  for  which  a  corresponding  change  in  the  roads  by  which 
they  are  to  be  reached  has  become  indispensable.  Formerly,  the  popular 
site  for  rural  buildings  was  under  the  lee  of  elevated  ranges  of  land, 
near  the  streams,  or  springs  at  the  base  of  hills,  to  accommodate 
which  the  public  roads  generally  traversed  the  banks  of  streams,  in  which 
position  the  drainage  of  all  the  high  lands  must  pass  under  or  over  them. 
The  advantages  of  the  modern  system  are  numerous,  and  the  disadvan- 
tages few.  The  salubrity  of  the  high  sites,  the  more  extensive  and 
pleasant  view  secured  from  the  buildings,  as  well  as  from  the  summit  or 
the  hill-side  road  by  which  the  buildings  are  reached,  the  reduction  of 
cost  of  construction  and  maintenance  of  such  roads,  the  superiority  of 
the  grade  generally  obtainable,  as  compared  with  those  along  the  streams, 


360  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

and  the  greater  feasibility  of  securing  dryness  about  the  buildings,  as 
well  as  of  beautifying  the  landscape  in  their  A'icinity,  are  among  the 
most  prominent  advantages  of  the  modern  selections  over  the  primitive. 
Some  have  urged  as  objections  to  the  high  sites,  that  they  are  bleak  and 
cold,  and  that  water  is  not  convenient.  The  former  objection  is  fully 
met  in  the  modern  improved  methods  of  building,  and  of  economically 
generating  and  circulating  heat ;  while,  by  the  use  of  improved  hydraulic 
apparatus,  the  ^supply  of  water  is  made  ample,  and  luxuries  unknown  in 
the  old  system  are  fully  enjoyed. 

Where  objectionable  gi'ades,  say  often  feet  to  one  hundred,  the  heav- 
iest that  should  ever  be  tolerated,  are  unavoidable,  the  following  instruc- 
tions for  construction  and  repair  should  be  observed :  Avoid  short  curves 
in  the  road;  make  the  bed  wider  on  the  hiUs  than  on  the  plains,  and 
especially  in  the  ciirves.  If  the  road  runs  along  the  side  of  a  slope, 
grade  the  surface  of  the  bed,  so  that  all  water  falling  on  it  shall  be  cast 
to  the  gTitter  on  the  upper  side,  as  there  is  great  danger  of  accident  in 
icy  times,  if  any  portion  of  the  bed  has  a  lateral  slope  with  the  hillside. 
On  such  road  jn-ovide  low  water  bars  across  the  road  at  intervals  of  thirty 
to  forty  feet.  These  bars  should  be  placed  obliquely,  and  should  discharge 
all  the  water  in  the  g-utter  on  the  uj^per  side.  If  the  gutter  is  dis]iosed  to 
wash,  it  should  be  paved,  and  the  curb  of  the  pavement  on  the  road  side 
set  so  low  that  water  from  the  road-bed  may  tiow  into  the  gutter  the 
entire  distance  from  bar  to  bar,  instead  of  being  required,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  to  flow  in  the  ruts  of  the  road-bed  until  it  reaches  the  bar, 
which  it  often  overflows  and  washes  away  continuing  to  flow  on  the  road 
until  dangerous  gullies  are  cut,  requiring  much  expense  to  repair 
them.  If  the  hiil  is  long,  say  one-fourth  to  half  a  mile,  the  water  should 
be  carried  across  the  road  in  culverts,  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and 
fiity  feet  apart.  The  best  and  cheapest  common  road  culvert  may  be 
made  of  hard-burned  terra  cotta  pipes.  On  hilly  roads  they  are  rarely 
required  of  more  than  eight  to  ten  inches  caliber.  These  pipes  need  no 
sleeves,  or  bells,  nor  any  cementing  of  the  joints;  and  are  less  exi)ensive 
than  the  common  stone  culvert,  even  where  the  stones  are  at  hand.  The 
capacity  of  the  pipes,  owing  to  the  smoothness  of  their  interior  surface, 
is  much  gi'cater  thau  that  of  a  stone  culvert  of  the  same  area  of  ci-oss 
section.  The  pipes  should  be  burned  like  hard,  red  brick,  and  are  then 
as  durable  as  granite.  The  pipe  culvert  should  leceive  tlie  water  from 
a  shallow  well,  walled  up  with  stones  or  bricks.  This  well  should  be  in 
the  line  of  the  gutter  on  the  upper  side  of  the  road.  The  water  from  the 
gutter  should  fall  into  the  well  over  a  flag  on  the  wall  of  the  well,  and 
between  two  side  walls,  carried  u^)  with  the  other  Avails  to  a  height  suf- 
licient  for  a  proper  opening,  wlien  the  well  and  tlie  opening  in  th,e  upper 
side  should  be  covered  with  a  strong  flag.  This  flag  should  overlap  the 
inner  face  of  the  wall  of  the  well  at  the  opening,  at  least  one  foot,  that 
animals  may  not  step  into  the  well.  This  arrangement  makes  the  upper 
end  of  the  culvert  sightly,  secure,  and  free  from  all  dangerous  effects. 
The  trench  in  which  the  ])ipes  are  laid  should  have  a  fall,  so  that  the 
water  from  the  culvert  may  be  discharged  upon  a  natural  surface,  as  it 
will  be  less  liable  to  gully  it  than  an  artilicial  bank. 

STONES  ON  EARTJI  AND  GRAYEL  ROADS. 

In  in^eparing  earth  and  gravel  road-beds,  all  small  stones,  down  to 
half  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  should  be  removed  from  the  surface  soil,  as 
the  tendency  is  for  them  constantly  to  work  up  to  the  surface,  where 
they  are  injurious  to  the  feet  of  the  horses,  and  to  vehicles,  wear  and 


oja  T>;^     e 


>  ij  ^i-^-Ei  Met.!- 


COUNTRY  ROADS  AND  ROAD  LAWS.  361 

hreak  the  lading,  and  destroy  the  road.  The  -wheel  of  a  loaded  vehicle, 
falling  from  a  SK)ue  over  which  it  has  rolled,  even  if  it  is  not  more  than 
two  inches  in  height,  will  injiu'e  a  road  siu'face  more  than  the  natural 
rolling  wear  on  a  smooth  siu'face  in  running  a  mile.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  effect  of  loose  stones  on  a  macadamized  road,  only  that  the 
damage  to  the  latter  is  more  serious  than  to  the  earth-road  siu-faces, 
which  will  in  some  degTce  repair  themselves ;  hut  the  displaced,  macadam- 
izing material  is  strewed  upon  the  siui:ace  of  the  road,  gTcatly  increas- 
ing the  evil.  Xext  in  importance  to  drainage  is  the  removal  of  loose 
stones  from  the  surface  of  the  road,  and  the  best  and  cheapest  mode  in 
thus  clearing  earth  and  gTavel  roads  is  to  run  the  rut  scraper  or  gTader 
over  the  road,  commencing  at  each  margin  with  the  scraper,  so  set  that 
the  surplus  eaith.  stones.  &c..  will  be  continally  deposited  toward  the 
center  of  the  road.  Ha\'ing  passed  the  scraper  over  the  entire  surface, 
by  passing  up  one  side  and  down  the  other,  all  the  small  stones  to  be 
removed  will  be  deposited  in  a  narrow  row  on  the  middle  of  the  road- 
bed, from  which  they  may  be  rapidly  gathered  by  the  use  of  the  malle- 
able cast-iron  coal-scoop,  which  being  latticed  allows  the  earth  and 
gTavel  to  fall  through.  Loose  stones  may  thus  be  removed  from  the  sur- 
face of  earth  and  gravel  roads  at  perhaps  one-tenth  the  cost  of  hand- 
picking,  and  all  ruts  fflled  at  the  same  time.  The  loose  stones  on  mac- 
adamized roads  should  be  frequently  picked  off.  and  the  side  tracks  kept 
in  order  by  the  use  of  the  gTader.  as  above  described. 

Great  advantage  and  economy  result  fi-om  passing  the  rut  scraper  over 
earth  and  gTavel  roads  as  soon  after  every  rain-fall  as  the  soil  l3ecomes 
dry  enough  to  flow  before  the  scraper,  and  readily  fall  into  the  ruts  and 
depressions  in  the  road  siu'face.  TSliere  water  is  allowed  to  stand  until 
evaporated  from  the  ruts,  large  and  frequently  dangerous  mud-holes  are 
the  consequence :  and  as  they  are  generally  repaired  by  casting  in  stones, 
small  and  large,  the  road  is  made  worse,  instead  of  better.  Mud-holes 
in  roads  are  striking  examples  of  a  veriffcation  of  the  adage  that  ''pre- 
vention  is  better  than  cure :  "^  and  x>revention  can  be  effected  in  the  most 
simple  and  economical  manner,  by  the  use  of  the  rut  scraper.  If  taken 
in  time,  it  is  rarely  necessary  to  haul  soil  for  repairs,  that  removed  by 
the  scraper  from  the  margins  of  the  ruts  generally  being  ail  that  is  re- 
quisite to  raise  the  depressions  to  the  proper  grade. 

The  objectionable  coiuse  of  conveying  siuiace  water  across  roads  on 
the  surface,  instead  of  by  the  use  of  a  proi^er  culvert,  is  common  in  aK 
parts  of  the  country,  even  on  macadamized  roads  charging  heavy  tolls. 
The  damage  annually  done  to  teams  in  such  cases  is  more  than  the  cost 
of  a  culvert.  These  water  crossings  are  often,  in  winter,  a  sheet  of  ice 
ten  to  twenty  feet  in  length  and  as  wide  as  the  road,  in  crossing  which 
teams  are  often  seriously  injured  by  slipping. 

WATER  FOE   TEA:.IS. 

It  is  a  matter  of  so  great  importance  that  a  fuU  jjui^jLv  of  water  by 
the  roadside  be  provided  for  teams,  at  intervals  of  at  least  an  aver- 
age of  live  miles,  that  the  subject  should  no  longer  be  neglected,  but  a 
provision  for  seciuiug  a  supply  should  be  made  in  the  cotiuty  road  laws. 
Except  in  very  flat  dry  countries,  it  is  generally  practicable  at  trifling 
cost  to  arrange  water  troughs  at  proper  intervals,  so  that  water  will  flow 
in  and  out  iierpetually.  The  supply-pipe  should  always  be  inserted  into 
the  bottom  of  the  trough,  and  not  rise  much  above  the  surface  of  the 
water  when  the  trough  is  fuU;  for,  if  it  does,  the  water  is  apt  to  be  blown 
about  and  to  freeze,  so  as  to  make  the  approach  to  the  trough  danger- 


362  AGEICULTURAL   EEPOET. 

ous.  If  the  water  is  received  at  the  bottom  of  the  trough,  and  the  over- 
flow is  taken  from  near  the  snpply,  in  a  pipe  to  a  enlvert.  tbere  will  he 
no  ice  abouL  the  trough.  The  supply-pipe  should  rise  about  half  an  inch 
above  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  trough,  so  as  to  form  a  drinking 
fountain  for  teamsters  and  travelers.  In  the  heat  of  summer,  teams  will 
instinctively  hurry  Their  pace  as  they  approach  these  grateful,  thirst- 
slaking  stations,  and  their  comfort  will  be  promoted  to  a  degree  that 
will  well  compensate  for  the  outlay.  The  temperature  of  water  standing 
in  a  trough  exposed  to  the  sun  is  more  wholesome  for  working  teams 
than  that  from  cold  wells. 

WATEE  BAES. 

The  pmpose  of  the  bar  is  to  cast  the  surface  water  fi-om  the  road  to 
the  side  or  sides  before  it  has  accumulated  in  such  amount  as  to  cut  the 
ruts  into  gullies.  "When  the  surface  of  the  road  has  a  slope  to  both 
sides,  the  bars  should  be  placed  opposite  each  other  in  the  form  of  an 
obtuse  T.  The  bottom  of  the  Y  should  be  up  the  grade.  There  shoidd 
be  no  gutter  excavated  in  the  road  surface  on  the  up])er  side  of  the  bars, 
but  the  bar  should  be  raised  shghtly  above  the  road  sui'face.  ^o  stones 
or  timbers  should  be  used  in  the  bars ;  good  gi-avel,  where  obtainable,  is 
the  best  material.  K  the  bars  are  placed  as  near  each  other  as  they 
should  be  on  the  heavy  grades,  the  highest  portion  of  the  bars,  that  is, 
at  the  margins  of  the  road,  need  not  be  more  than  tlu'ce  inches  above 
the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  road.  On  newly  constructed  roads, 
whether  of  broken  stone,  earth,  or  gravel,  the  water  bars  need  frequent 
and  particular  attention  until  they  become  firm  :  in  fact  there  is  no  i)or- 
tion  of  the  road  that  will  give  a  better  return  for  the  required  outlay  of 
of  labor  than  the  water  bars. 

SHELL    EOADS. 

A  pleasant  and  diu-able  road  for  ordinary  light  coimtiy  travel  may  be 
made  on  a  properly  drained  foimdation.  by  applying  shells  to  the  depth 
of  about  eight  inches,  with  a  lateral  surface  grade  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
to  the  foot,  but  not  sufficiently  durable  to  be  profitable  for  heavy  traffic. 
A  few  years  since,  one  of  the  main  macadamized  turnpikes  leading  out 
of  Baltimore  was  repaired  over  a  section  of  about  half  a  mile  in  length, 
by  dressing  the  stoned  road  with  shells,  applied  about  six  inches  in 
thickness.  The  solid  bed  of  stones  imderneath  and  the  heavy  traffic 
on  the  surface  soon  ground  the  shells  to  powder,  and  when  wet  it  became 
a  bed  of  thin  lime  mortar,  two  to  foiu*  inches  in  depth,  which  was  so 
objectionable  that  the  company  were  obliged  to  scrape  up  and  haul  off 
the  whole  mass  in  less  than  two  years  after  the  shells  were  ajiplied. 
The  circumstances  described  were  particulary  unfavorable  for  shells,  as 
a  test  of  their  durability.  The  wear  upon  an  ordinary  carriage  road  in 
private  gi'ounds  is  not  usually  sufficient  to  reduce  the  shells  to  a  good 
road  in  many  years ;  hence  they  are  not  adapted  for  that  use.  A  shell 
surface  is  inclined  to  rut,  and  work  to  the  margins,  and  the  shells  are 
very  difficidt  to  move  so  as  to  repair  the  road  by  any  hand  process  ; 
while  by  the  use  of  the  grader,  they  may  be  readily  and  rapidly  leveled 
in  the  construction  of  a  new  road,  or  regraded  when  displaced  by  wear. 
An  active  man  with  a  pair  of  horses,  with  this  implement,  will  repair  two 
or  three  miles  of  shell  road  in  a  day,  which  would  reqidre  the  labor  of 
at  least  seventy-five  men  to  perform  in  the  same  time. 


COUNTRY  ROADS  AXD  ROAD  LAWS.  363 

ROAD  GUTTERS. 

So  much  depends  on  the  proper  condition  of  the  side  gutters  for  the 
thorough  maintenance  and  protection  of  the  road,  that  the  writer  has  been 
induced  to  give  this  branch  of  the  subject  special  attention,  and  to  test 
a  variety  of  phms.  in  the  hope  of  arriving  at  vahiable  and  permanent 
improvement.  Having  reahzed  his  fullest  hopes  in  one  direction,  a 
detailed  description  of  the  aim  and  its  results  may  be  given.  Finding 
that  the  gutters,  from  the  perpetual  moisture  maintained  in  them,  Tvere 
inclined  to  clog  with  rank,  aquatic  gTasses,  he  sought  to  devise  a  plan 
to  prevent  the  difficidty.  The  course  pursued  was  to  pave  the  gutters 
with  boulders,  set  in  about  eight  inches  of  washed  gTavel,  and  when 
they  were  all  rammed  in  place,  the  gTavel  was  swept  fi'om  the  interstices 
between  the  stones,  to  the  depth  of  one  inch,  and  its  place  supplied  with 
heated,  clean  sand,  which  was  satiu^ated  as  it  was  applied,  with  a  hot 
mixture  of  coal-tar  and  coal-tar  pitch,  two  parts  of  the  former  and  one  of 
the  latter,  fiUing  the  interstices  level  with  the  surface  of  the  pavement, 
producing  a  smooth  uniform  surface.  The  first  experiment  was  made 
about  twelve  years  ago.  and  has  proved  a  perfect  success,  the  effect 
being  to  prevent  the  gTowth  of  all  vegetation,  while  the  suilace  being 
smooth  prevents  any  clogging  with  leaves,  dead  wood,  and  the  like. 
Another  valuable  result  attained  was  that  the  pavement,  being  made 
water-proof,  is  hardly  affected  at  all  by  frost,  keeping  its  place  much 
better  than  when  the  stones  are  set  in  gTavel  alone,  in  the  ordinary 
manner.  This  concrete  dressing  is  not  adapted  to  use  in  gTitters  where 
vehicles  are  allowed  to  run  over  it.  particularly  in  cold  weather ;  but  it 
is  admirably  adapted  to  use  in  side  gutters  for  country  roads,  and  is 
greatly  superior  to  any  other  gutter  for  carriage  roads  and  walks  in 
private  gTounds.  The  cost  is  about  two  cents  per  superficial  foot  more 
than  the  ordinary  stone-paved  gtitter. 

COirN'TRY  ROAD  EXGLS'EERLN-G. 

Eoad  engineering  as  a  profession  has  not  been  sufficiently  in 
demand  in  this  country  hitherto,  to  enUst  the  attention  of  those 
possessing  experience,  skill,  and  a  thorough,  scientific  knowledge  ot 
the  subject.  The  engineering  of  new  roads  and  the  alteration  of  old 
ones  have  generally  been  done  by  a  land  sm-veyor,  or  some  student  in 
railroad  engineertug,  each  deficient  in  a  knowledge  of  the  important 
work  he  attempts  to  execute ',  hence  the  defective  character  of  most  of 
these  roads  thoroughout  the  country,  Xot  until  the  professional  engineer 
shall  receive  gTcater  encoiu-agemeut  to  make  commoii  road  engineering, 
in  all  its  details,  more  a  speciiilty,  will  it  be  more  skillfully  executed,  and 
this  encouragement  will  not  be  afforded  until  the  masses  are  made  more 
familiar  with  the  importance  of  the  subject. 

There  is  one  important  principle  in  road  engineering  that  should 
always  control  the  grade  of  a  road  as  far  as  practicable,  and  yet  it  is 
observed  and  acted  upon  only  as  the  exception  instead  of  the  ride.  It 
is  that  when  a  road  is  to  connect  two  points,  whether  terminal  or  inter- 
mediate, and  one  is  higher  than  the  other,  the  inciination  of  the  road 
shoidd,  if  practicable,  continually  tend  upward  in  one  direction,  and  the 
reverse  in  the  opposite.  Instead  of  this  we  have  examples  all  over  the 
country  where  there  is  a  descent,  a  faU  in  the  gTade,  made  up  of  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  or  larger  hills,  fi-om  the  low  to  the  •  high  point,  that  is 
really  greater  than  the  actual  elevation  of  the  high  above  the  low  point. 
A  trifling  divergence  in  the  direction  of  the  road,  and  frequently  with 


364  AGKICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

but  a  slight  increase  iu  its  length,  if  auy,  vrill  almost  always  remedy 
this  great  defect ;  so  that  a  team,  iu  traversing  the  road  from  the  low  to 
the  high  point,  shall  have  but  little,  if  anything,  more  than  the  real  dif- 
ference iu  the  altitude  of  the  two  points  to  overcome.  This  error,  if  cor- 
rected in  all  existing  cases  in  this  country,  would  be  of  incalculable 
advantage  to  the  community. 

VriDTH  BETWEEN  FENCES. 

It  is  important  that  the  width  of  a  road  between  fences  should  be 
ami)le  to  provide  the  material  required  in  constniction  and  repair,  with- 
out endangering  the  fences  by  undermining  the  banks,  and  also  to  leave 
a  grade  that  will  be  self-sustaining.  Greater  width  is  necessary  in  snowy 
districts  than  in  those  not  subject  to  blockade  from  this  cause.  In  the 
northern  portions  of  this  country  there  are  districts  where  the  cost  of 
keeping  roads  open  iu  winter  exceeds  that  of  repaii^s  in  summer.  In- 
creasing the  width  between  tbe  fences  and  keeping  the  g-utters  suitable 
for  the  use  of  sleighs  have  proved  to  be  the  most  efficient  remedy.  The 
width  reqnii'ed  by  law  varies  in  the  dillereut  States  from  two  to  four  rods. 
In  the  opinion  of  the  wiiter  the  latter  width  is  not  too  gi-eat  to  be 
economical  for  highways  generally.  "Walls,  close  fences,  or  close  belts 
of  trees,  on  road  margins,  are  also  objectionable,  as  they  tend  to  block- 
ade them  with  snow,  and  prevent  the  surface  from  drying. 

SHADE  TOR  ROADS. 

On  all  earth  roads  shade  is  objectionable  in  its  eliects  on  the  sui'face, 
yet  it  is  admissible  to  provide  a  good  shade  with  deciduous  trees  on  the 
summits,  where  the  fullest  benefit  of  the  fanning  breeze  maybe  enjoyed, 
and  shade  will  be  least  injurious.  The  effect  of  shade  on  stoned  roads 
is  less  injurious  than  on  those  of  earth.  Abnipt  banks  or  dense  tbickets 
on  the  soutli  side  of  a  road-bed.  so  high  and  near  as  to  exclude  the  sun 
fi^om  it  in  winter,  are  A'ery  objectionable  and  dangerous,  as  such  portions 
of  the  road  are  generally  icy,  when  the  remainder  is  free. 

EXISTING  ROAD  LAWS. 

There  is  a  great  similarity  in  the  general  load  laws  of  the  diflerent 
States  pertaining  to  the  maintenance  of  county  roads,  the  tax  being 
generally  a  poll-tax  on  the  male  inhabitants  between  certain  ages, 
though  iu  some  there  is  a  trifling  iavy  in  money.  The  levy  for  the  cost 
of  new  roads  and  bridges  is  usually  in  money,  on  all  the  taxable  pro- 
perty in  the  rural  districts.  The  system  of  labor-tax  and  of  selecting 
road  supervisors  alternately  throughout  the  districts,  to  direct  the  outlay 
of  such  tax,  regardless  of  qualification  or  fitness  for  the  work,  notwith- 
standing it  has  so  long  and  generally  prevailed,  is  everywhere  acknowl- 
edged to  be  \ery  defective  and  unprofitable  in  its  resulis. 

PROPOSED  SYSTEM. 

All  mone,\'  ie<juired  to  construct  and  maintain  the  roads  and  bridges 
in  each  county  should  be  raised  by  le\'j'ing  a  tax  in  money.  A  compe- 
tent county  road  engineer  should  be  ])ermanently  employed,  who  should 
have  the  entire  direction  of  all  construction  anil  repaii'S  of  roads  and 
bridges  in  his  district,  T\ith  the  power  to  draw  on  the  ti'casury  for  the 
necessary  means  to  meet  all  reasonable  requirements  in  defi-aying  the 


COUNTRY  ROADS  AND  ROAD  LAWS. 


365 


cost  of  the  work  to  be  executed.  He  should  be  authorized  to  purchase 
all  teams,  vehicles  and  implements  required,  the  same  to  be  the  property 
of  the  county,  and  to  employ  as  many  competent  foremen  as  required 
for  his  disti'ict.  They  should  have  charge  of  these  teams,  <S:c.,  and  have 
power  to  employ,  control  and  discharge  the  number  of  laborers  directed 
to  be  employed  by  the  engineer.  The  foremen  should  each  have  their 
respective  districts  allotted  them  to  be  kept  in  repair".  The  engineer  and 
his  foremen  and  the  laborers  employed  should  be  rcquii^ed  to  devote 
their  entire  time  to  labor  on  the  roads.  The  water  bars,  culverts, 
bridges,  and  gutters  shordd  be  examined  as  often  as  once  a  week,  and 
all  loose  stones,  and  other  surface  obsti'uctions  removed.  Work  for 
repaii'  of  surtaces  shoidd  l^e  constantly  pursued,  and  the  principal  amount 
of  material  requii'ed  on  the  earth  roads  should  be  applied  in  the  dry 
season.  The  winter  should  be  devoted  to  quarrying  stones  for  bridges, 
cidveits,  and  macadamizing,  and  in  raising  and  haiding  gravel,  and 
depositing  it  where  it  may  be  readily  applied  at  the  proper  season.  With 
such  a  force  in  charge  of  the  roads  the  amount  and  quality  of  work 
executed  would  be  more  than  double,  and  the  actual  tax  required  less 
than  under  the  prevaiUng  system. 

COST  OF  ROADS  AJN'D  EXPENSES  OF  REPAIRS. 

According  to  all  the  returns  from  different  States,  the  average  cost  of 
construction  of  gravel  roads  is  $2,241  per  mile,  and  the  average  annual 
cost  per  mile  for  repair's  is  $103.  It  appears,  from  the  reports,  that  only  a 
very  few  of  the  roads  are  imjiroved  by  a  gravel  bed.  and  neither  the 
width  of  the  beds  so  improved  nor  the  quantity  of  material  applied  is 
given.  TTe  may  reasonably  infer,  however,  that  neither  is  gTeater  than 
is  absolutely  reqiuied,  and  yet  we  find  the  cost  of  construction  per  mile 
to  range  from  $700  to  $1,000,  and  to  average  $2,211.  The  annual  outlay 
per  mile  varies  from  $1  to  $200,  the  average  being  as  above  stated,  $103. 

By  reference  to  the  table  showing  the  cost  of  repafrs  to  common  roads 
per  mile  throughout  the  coimtry,  we  find  it  to  vary  fi'om  $1  to  $59,  and 
the  general  average  is  $18  11  per  mile. 

The  returns  show  that  the  average  cost  of  construction  of  macad- 
niized  roads  per  mile  is  $3,290,  and  it  varies  in  the  different  States  fr^om 
$500  to  $0,330.  The  average  annual  cost  per  mile  for  repafrs  of  mac- 
adamized roads,  as  reported,  is  $10,  varying  fr'om  $10  to  $100  iier  mile. 

The  average  cost  of  consti'uctiou  of  plank  roads  per  mile  is  reported 
to  be  $3,000.  and  the  average  annual  cost  of  repafrs  per  mile  is  $550. 

The  following  table,  compiled  from  replies  to  cfrcular  issued  by  the 
Department,  shows  the  average  annual  cost  per  mile  of  repairs  of  com- 
mon roads  in  the  respective  States : 


Stat*. 


I   Cost 
,  p.  mile. 


yetrTork $2182 

Xew  Jersey 27  50 

Massachnsetts .tO  16 

Rhode  Island 33  75 

Michigan 23  60 

Wisconsin til  70 

Pennsylvania IS  -28 

Msiine" 4<i  00 

ConnecticKt 0  00 

>"ew  Hampshire 16  00 

Vermont 25  00 

3iar>land 11  00 

Delaware 14  50 

I 


State. 


I   Cost 
p.  mile. 


Virjrinia 

Xorth  C.irolina . 

South  Carolina. 

Georgia 

Ilorida 

Alabama 

Mis.aissippi 

:  Louisiana 

;  Texas 

I  .iXjrkansas 

I  Tenne.ssee 

I  West  Virginia . 
I  Kentackv 


State. 


Cost 
p.  mile. 


li 

Missouri I  flO  59 

Illinois :  10  31 

Indi.-ma I  33  23 

Ohio ;  23  60 

ilinnesota |  20  CO 

Iowa Ii  20  00 

Kansas i  SOO 

Is  ebi-aska I  5  00 

rtah 43  CO 

Colorado . .  -  - 

California 23  00 

Xevada 10  CO 

Oregon 25  00 


366  AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

BRIDGES. 

The  writer  has  obser%'ed  iu  various  parts  of  the  country  common 
errors  in  bridge  construction,  which  he  proposes  to  notice,  T\ith  remedial 
suggestions.  At  the  present  comparative  i)rices  of  wood,  stone  and  iron 
in  all  districts,  except  perliaps  on  extensive  praiiies,  where  the  former 
two  are  very  scarce,  wood  and  stone  are  considered  so  much  cheaper 
than  iron  that  they  are  generally  used.  'Where  good  quarry  stones  and 
suitable  sand  and  lime  or  cement  are  conveniently  attainable,  the  span 
required  not  more  than  thirty  feet,  rock  foundations  for  the  abutments 
within  reasonable  depth,  and  the  banks  of  a  proper  height,  the  stone 
arch  with  stone  parapets  is,  perhaps,  as  economical  a  structure  as  can 
be  adopted.  Where  greater  spans  are  required,  and  the  banks  are  low, 
stone  abutments  and  well  constructed  frame  covered  bridges  are  prefer- 
able. Not  a  doubt  exists  of  the  economy  of  siding  and  roofing  wooden 
bridges,  and  of  extending  both  over  the  abutments,  so  as  to  effectually 
protect  from  rain  the  timbers  and  planking  at  these  points,  as  they  are 
kno^vn  to  decay  first  when  not  protected.  There  is  a  fi-ame  covered  bridge 
iu  Harford  County,  Maryland,  which  was  built  more  than  fifty  years 
since,  and  is  still  safe. 

Among  the  errors  in  bridge  construction,  those  most  common  are  the 
injudicious  distribution  of  material,  particidarly  of  timber  ;  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  water  way,  so  as  to  expose  the  superstructure  to  liability  to 
be  swept  from  the  abutments ;  neglecting  to  bolt  the  superstructure 
to  the  abutments;  laying  the  flooring  with  close  joints,  instead  of 
with  proper  openings,  to  prevent  water  from  standing  on  the  floors; 
using  perishable  varieties  of  timber,  and  even  allowing  the  saj)- 
wood  to  be  used  in  part,  by  which  all  is  reduced  to  its  ephemeral  char- 
acter. Xo  error  is  perhaps  more  common,  and  none  results  in  so  need- 
less and  speedy  destruction  of  the  longitudinal  timbers  of  bridges,  as 
the  want  of  attention  to  keeping  them  cby,  where  they  rest  on  the  abut- 
ments, and  especially  at  the  ends  where  they  sui)port  the  earth-filling 
of  the  road-bed. 

The  diu\ability  of  the  timbers  maybe  increased  by  introducing  a  light 
back  sill  and  short  light  joist  about  two  feet  iu  length,  with  a  plank  on 
edge  resting  against  them,  to  support  the  filling  independent  of  the 
main,  horizontal  timbers,  that  air  juay  circulate  around  the  ends;  and 
by  covering  the  ends  of  all  timbers  resting  on  abutments  and  piers  with 
several  thickness  of  tarred  paper,  these  being  the  points  where  decay 
often  desti-oys  when  the  other  parts  are  unaffected. 


MINERAL  FERTILIZERS  OF  THE  ATLANTIC 

STATES. 


The  economy  and  necessity  of  the  use  of  mineral  fertilizers  have  been 
so  long  admitted  and  are  noAv  so  generally  appreciated  that  it  is  deemed 
sufficient,  in  the  limits  of  this  article,  to  state  the  locality,  extent,  and 
nature  of  the  wide-spread  and  liberal  deposits  of  mineral  manures  in  the 
Atlantic  States,  with  some  analyses,  and  such  statistics  as  are  attainable, 
showing  their  accessibility  and  cost. 

Fertdization,  in  its  widest  sense,  includes  two  processes :  1st,  supply- 
ing the  soil  with  materials  intended  to  furnish  plant  food,  either  directly 
or  by  rendering  available  substances  already  present ;  2d,  the  addition 
of  matter  for  its  physical  efiect  merely;  the  former  method  is  chemical, 
the  latter  mechanical,  fertilization.  Lime  and  greensand  are  examples, 
among  mineral  agents,  of  the  tirst  class ;  sand  and  clay  of  the  second. 

The  elements  supplied  to  the  plant  by  mineral  fertilizers  are  (omitting 
the  least  im])ortant,  and  those  existing  in  the  vegetable  but  in  extremely 
minute  quantities)  lime,  soda,  potash,  and  acids  of  phosphorus  and  sid- 
phur.  Fertilizers  of  this  class,  then,  generally  speaking,  will  include 
all  minerals  capable  of  supplying  these  materials,  either  with  or  without 
chemical  or  mechanical  jireparation  prior  to  admixture  with  the  soil. 
Practically,  however,  the  number  of  substances  used  is  determined  by 
the  ingTedients  needed  by  the  plants  cultivated  and  lacking  in  soils, 
and  the  expense  of  obtaining  them  and  reducing  them  to  a  form  easily 
assimilable  by  the  vegetable. 

Lime  constitutes  the  base  of  all  the  important  fertilizers  of  this  class 
in  the  United  States,  excepting  the  greensand  marls,  of  which  the  New 
Jersey  formation  is  the  type,  in  which  the  percentage  of  lime  is  so  small 
that  it  may  x>ractically  be  left  out  of  consideration. 

Limestone,  or  natru-al  stratified  carbonate  of  lime,  in  all  its  varieties, 
is  available  for  agTicultural  purposes  wherever  it  can  be  economically 
mined  and  prepared.  This  preparation  consists  essentially  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  stone  to  a  finely  comminuted  state,  which  is  usually  accom- 
I)hshed  by  burning.  In  districts  where  fuel  is  scarce  and  water-power 
at  hand,  stamping  or  gTinding  may  be  found  more  economical,  though 
the  product  will  be  slower  in  its  action ;  and,  lacking  the  causticity  of 
burned  lime,  will  not  aid  so  effectually  in  the  decomposition  of  organic 
matter. 

Admixture  of  magTiesia  with  lime  is  not  now,  as  once,  believed  to  be 
injurious  to  the  fertiliziug  power  of  the  latter.  Dolomites  and  dolomitic 
limestones  accordingly  find  a  place  among  mineral  manures ;  but,  from 
their  composition,  are  necessarOy  less  efficient  than  the  purer  lime- 
stones. 

Suliihate  of  lime,  gjpsum  or  plaster,  has  a  well-established  and  high 
rank  among  fertilizing  agents,  fiu'nishmg  to  the  soil  sidphuric  acid,  in  a 
readily  assimilable  form,  as  vrell  as  lime ;  and,  though  not  widely  dissem- 
inated, exists  in  large  quantities,  so  as  to  be  cheaply  obtainable  at  most 
points. 

Phosphate  of  lime  is  found  in  many  natural  forms.  The  shell  beds, 
sands,  and  marls  contain  it ;  and  one  or  two  veins  of  almost  pure  apatite 
have  been  opened.    The  fossil  excrement  of  marine  animals,  known  as 


368  AGRICULTURAT^   REPORT. 

coprolites,  is  very  rich  in  phosphate  of  lime ;  and,  althoujfh  not  found 
in  gi'eat  mass  in  the  United  States,  forms  an  important  part  of  many  of 
the  richest  marls  of  the  south.  By  far  the  most  important  source  of 
this  material,  however,  is  the  recently  discovered  deposit  of  South  Car- 
olina. 'While  lime  may  be  considered  the  base  of  this  fertilizer,  un- 
doubtedly its  most  important  ingredient  is  its  phosphoric  acid. 

The  term  "marl"  having  so  many  and  such  diHerent  significations,  de- 
pendent upon  local  usages,  as  well  as  the  various  classifications  of  scien- 
tific geologists,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  it  should  be  limited  to  some 
specific  fertilizing  material  or  class  of  materials,  rather  than,  as  now,  be 
made  to  include  deposits  as  far  apart  in  their  chemical  constitution  and 
value  as  in  their  period  of  formation.  At  least,  when  used,  it  should 
be  so  qualified  as  to  indicate  the  mineral  species  to  which  the  substance 
belongs. 

The  marls  of  the  United  States  may  be  divided  into  argillaceous, 
glauconitic  or  greensaud,  and  calcareous.  Argillaceous  marls  are  ot 
comparatively  little  agricultural  value,  if  we  consider  their  chemical 
constitution  only,  consisting  mainly  of  clay  and  sand,  with  a  trifiing 
percentage  of  lime.  There  are  circumstances,  however,  as  before  alluded 
to,  in  which  they  may  become  true  and  valirable  fertilizers.  Glauconitic 
marls  include  the  gTcensands  of  ZSTew  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Maryland, 
and  a  few  localities  fmther  south.  They  are  dependent,  for  their  power 
of  permanent  beneficial  action,  upon  the  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
they  contain.  Full  analyses  of  these  deposits  will  be  found  in  the  rej)ort 
of  the  chemist. 

Calcareous  marls  are  the  debris  of  cotmtless  successive  generations  of 
life,  the  remains  of  which  may  or  may  not  be  recognizable,  according 
to  the  amount  of  piilverization  and  attrition  they  have  undergone  from 
the  motion  of  the  water  in  which  they  were  deposited,  and  the  subse- 
quent conditions  to  which  they  have  been  exposed.  These  deposits 
range  in  time  from  the  cretaceous  epoch  of  geologists  to  the  present  era, 
and  are  even  now  in  process  of  formation  both  in  marine  and  inland 
waters.    They  are  found  in  gTcatest  amount  in  the  tertiary  strata. 

The  foregoing  account  of  the  origin  of  marl  applies  with  equal  force 
to  most  of  the  limestones.  Marls,  however,  are  generally  understood  to 
be  friable  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  this,  together  with  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  marls  retain  a  sensible  proportion  of  organic  matter,  con- 
stitutes a  Une  of  distinction  between  the  two.  This  line  is  one.  how- 
ever, often  hard  to  draw ;  for,  if  it  is  true  that  even  the  hard  and  crys- 
talline limestones  are  but  the  result  of  various  forces,  as  heat  and  pres- 
sure, acting  upon  sedimentary  strata  containing  organic  remains,  it  is 
evident  that  there  may  be  all  grades  of  consolidation  and  homogeneity 
according  to  circumstances. 

The  physical  character  of  calcareous  marls  varies  with  the  class  of 
animals,  remains  of  which  form  theii"  active  ingredient,  and  the  state  of 
preservation  of  the  latter ;  and  their  agricultural  value  varies  with  the 
proportion  of  inert  matter  they  contain,  and  which  fi-equently  forms  a 
matrix;  for  the  shells  and  other  organic  formations. 

The  deposits  known  as  pond  marl,  or  sometimes  as  shell  marl,  found 
in  our  lakes  and  ponds,  or  upon  their  former  sites,  and  often  under  peat,  ex- 
plain, by  their  formation,  which  may  be  watched  in  all  stages,  the  mode 
of  origin  of  the  gTcater  part  of  the  calcareous  group.  TN'ater  contain- 
ing carbonic  acid  is,  under  pressure,  a  solvent  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
from  which  the  microscopic  testaceous  animals  inhabiting  such  water, 
by  absorption  and  secretion,  form  their  shells ;  and,  dying,  these  are  de- 
posited, either  to  accumtdate  in  vast  masses,  or,  if  the  water  is  not 


Plate  XVIII. 


MAP  ILLUSTRATING  THE  LOCALITY  OF  THE  LIMEST0;NES  AND  CRETACEOUS 
DEPOSITS  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 


MIXER AL  FEETILIZEKS  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  STATES.     369 

siiGiciently  caarged  "vdtli  iime,  to  be  redissoived,  reabsorbed,  and  to  sup- 
ply new  generations  with  covering. 

Any  excess  of  ciirbonate  of  lime  in  the  earth  is  absorbed  in  the  pa^i- 
sage  of  the  water  throngli  it :  and  thus  deposits  of  this  kind  form  chiefly 
in  limestone  regions. 

In  some  locahties  a  process  similar  to  the  foregoing  has  caused  the 
formation  of  large  beds  of  silicious  marl,  so  called.  Various  species  of 
l^hj-tozoa — organisms  occupying  the  border  between  the  animal  and  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  m  spite  of  miiuy  attempts  to  locate  and  classify 
them,  not  yet  definitely  assigned  to  either — possess  a  shell  or  skeleton 
of  silica.  These  accimiulate,  as  in  the  case  of  the  testacea,  and  like  the 
calcareous  piind  marls  are  both  fossil  and  recent.  The  beds  underlying 
Eichraond,  Virginia,  are  of  the  former  character. 

Silicious  mari,  beiug  a  fertihzer  only  in  the  sense  that  fine  sand  is, 
namely,  a  physical  amendment,  will  not  be  further  noticed ;  as  it  isnov,- 
believed  that  all  soils  contain  sufocient  silica  to  supply  the  wants  of  plant 
hfe,  and  only  requii'o  assistance  in  rendering  it  soluble. 

Pond  marl,  from  its  friabihty,  minute  division,  and  superficial  loca- 
tion, is,  in  districts  where  it  can  be  had,  the  cheapest  and  best  of  the 
purely  calcareous  mamu'es.  It  may  be  applied  as  extracted  or  in  a 
calcined  condition.  In  some  localities  large  amounts  of  this  marl  are 
manufactiu'ed  into  lime. 

The  recent  calcareous  tufa,  travertin  or  calcareous  sinter,  formed  by 
the  precipitation  of  carbonate  of  lime  direct  from  its  solution  in  water 
when  exposed  to  the  air,  is  often  called  marl.  It  is,  however,  a  true  and 
pure  limestone :  and,  physically  much  resemblmg  the  pond  marl,  is  for  the 
same  reasons  a  cheap  and  ready  fertilizer. 

Few  States  having,  as  yet,  been  throughly  surveyed  with  reference  to 
their  agTicultm-al  and  their  geological  character  and  economical  re- 
sources, statistics  are  necessarily  incomplete,  and  much  fuller  for  some 
regions  than  for  others  of  perhaps  equal  importance.  The  object  of  this 
article,  however,  being  as  much  to  point  out  deficiencies  as  to  present 
the  results  of  investigations  already  undertaken,  such  information  as 
is  accessible  v.lll  be  presented,  in  the  hope  that  those  interested  may  be 
induced  to  communicate  more  complete  and  recent  information. 

If  the  recent  discoveries  en  the  southeastern  coast  may  bo  taken  as 
an  indication  of  what  is  to  follow,  the  field  of  research  is  indeed  a^i 
inviting  one. 

The  older  calcareous  formations  of  the  Atlantic  States  constitute  a 
belt  of  considerable  breadth,  coincidiug  nearly  with  the  great  eastern 
mountain  chain  of  the  continent,  and  having  numerous  ofishoots  and 
local  outcrops,  at  greater  or  less  tlistances  from  the  main  range.  (See 
map.)  In  the  eastern  States  the  limestones  belong  to  the  so-called  Azoic, 
and  to  the  Lower  and  the  Upper  Silurian  formations;  in  other  words, 
the  earlier  geological  ages,  The  limestone  of  the  Upper  Siliuian  enters 
jlaine  from  Xevr  Brunswick  on  the  northeast ;  v.hile  the  same  together 
v.ith  the  Lower  Silurian  (Trenton)  appears  in  the  mountains  of  Vermont. 
Extending  along  the  east  line  of  Xew  York,  and  approaching  somewhat 
near  the  coast  in  northern  Xew  Jersey,  the  limestone  belt  described 
passes  through  Vestern  Virginia,  Xortli  Carolina,  and  northern  Geor- 
gia to  its  southern  limit  in  northern  xUabama. 

The  newer  calcareous  rocks  and  deposits  lieloag  either  to  the  Carbon- 
iferous, the  Cretaceous,  or  the  Tertiary  formation.  The  Carboniferous 
limestone  appears  in  Pennsylvania,  and,  lying  west  of  and  parallel  to 
the  SiUu'ian,  is  traceable  to  the  same  distance  southwest,  occasionally 
being  found  in  or  east  of  the  tract  occupied  bv  the  older  rocks. 


370  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Limestone  of  the  Cretaceous  epoch  of  the  States  under  consideration 
is  found  iu  Georgia  only,  the  formation  being-  represented  further  north 
by  the  greensand  marls.  These  marls  iu  New  Jersey,  Delaware  and 
Maryland  lie  next  to  the  Tertiary,  but  further  inland,  and  outcrop  irreg- 
ularly, but  in  a  general  direction  easily  traced,  through  the  latter,  along 
the  whole  Atlantic  coast. 

The  Tertiary  formation  occupies  a  belt  of  very  gradually  increasing 
width,  extending  from  southern  Xew  Jersey  to  and  including  Florida, 
separated  from  the  limestone  range  by  gneiss,  slates,  and  sandstones, 
over  a  wide  area,  iu  the  tertiary  are  found  large  and  numerous  beds 
of  shell-marl  and  limestone,  the  latter  invariably  the  residt  of  consolida- 
tion and  cementation  of  the  former.  In  these  deposits  the  shells  are 
frequently  almost  imchanged  either  in  appearance  or  chemical  composi- 
tion. 

At  many  points  on  the  coast  is  found  a  still  more  recent  formation, 
the  Quarternary  or  Post-Pliocene.  This  is  the  locality  of  the  South 
Carolina  phosphates. 

Having  thus  indicated  the  general  topography  and  geological  charac- 
ter of  the  mineral  fertilizers  of  the  Atlantic  States,  the  specific  localities 
in  each  State  will  now  be  noticed. 

MAINE. 

Maine  is  well  supplied  with  limestone  of  good  quality,  and  so  distrib- 
uted through  the  State  as  to  be  readily  available.  With  the  exception 
of  the  calcareous  beds  of  the  Lower  Helderberg  of  northern  and  of  east- 
ern Maine,  which,  as  before  mentioned,  is  continuous  with  that  of  Xew 
Brunswick,  the  limestone  of  Maine  is  of  the  azoic  age,  audof  crj'stalline 
or  saccharoid  texture.  The  largest  outcrops  of  this  rock  are  in  the 
counties  of  Knox  and  Waldo,  and  have  long  been  worked  for  lime,  for 
manj'  years  supplying  the  greater  i^art  of  the  lime  used  in  the  eastern 
States.  The  cojivcnience  of  access  to  the  main  quarries,  those  of  Thomas- 
ton,  and  the  excellence  of  the  lime  there  manufactured,  very  early 
created  a  large  demand,  which  still  continues. 

The  beds  lying  immediately  upon  the  Keag  Eiver,  Knox  County,  are 
strongly  dolomitic.  The  beds  of  V^aldo  County  are  located  in  its  south- 
ern part,  and  have  been  largely  worked.  Numerous  small  outcrops  are 
found  in  York,  Oxford,  and  Androscoggin ;  and  in  Franklin,  Somerset, 
and  Kennebec  the  beds  arc  not  only  numerous  but  extensive.  In  south- 
ern Sagadahock  several  localities  of  the  rock  are  reported ;  also  in 
southern  Ai'oostook  and  Lincoln,  and  in  Penobscot  Counties.  In  Han- 
cock County  the  rock,  so  far  as  examined,  seems  to  be  so  altered  as  to 
be  of  little  economic  value. 

The  Helderberg  limestone  of  northern  xVi^oostook,  northern  Penob- 
scot, eastern  Washington,  and  central  Piscataquis  probably  underlies 
a  large  extent  of  country,  but  has  not  yet  been  thoroughly  examined. 
This  rock  has  been  manufactured  into  lime  to  only  a  limited  extent:  its 
liroduct,  however,  is  of  good  quality.  Tliorough  analyses  of  the  lime-rocks 
of  Maine  are  not  accessible.  Tlie  percentage  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  a 
few  specimens  is  as  follows: 


Oxford  County 

An«lr()Rcoj;giu  County 

Fr.inklhi  County 

Somerset  County,  hi;;liest 

Kennebec  Conuty,  averajje  .  - 
Pcnolwcot  Connty,  highest... 
Piscataquis  Coxuity,  average. 


79.6 
4:i.6 
C5.0 

8ao 

75.0 

89.2 
62.0 


MINERAL   FERTILIZERS    OF   THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 


371 


Comparathtly  few  localities  of  pond-marl  ai'e  reported  in  Maine ;  but 
from  tlieir  distribution,  and  the  geological  cbaractcr  of  the  "State,  it  is 
probable  that  many  others  exist.  Near  Ambejijis  Lake,  Piscataquis 
County,  and  in  Limericlv,  York  County,  are  large  and  easily  worked  de- 
posits, the  Limerick  marl  lying  under  peat.  Beds  are  reported  at  sev- 
eral points  in  Hancock  and  Y/asbington.  In  the  former  county  these 
have  a  special  value  from  the  lack  of  limestone  of  good  OiUalit5^  Marl 
is  found  in  Oxford  and  Franklin  also ;  though  of  the  Oxford  marls  one 
bed  at  least,  that  near  JBiownfield,  is  jiurely  silicious.  Largo  deposits 
of  pond-marl  are  suspected  to  exist  in  the  county  of  Aroostook  ;  and  a 
few  have  already  been  opened,  from  one  of  which  the  marl  vras  obtained 
of  which  the  following  is  an  analysis : 


Carbonate  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  magnesia. . 

Sesquioxide  of  iron 

Organic  matter,  vegetable 

Alumina  and  silica 

Loss 


84.51 
O.U 
%  12 
2.C8 
i).  13 
1.  p-2 


ICO.  00 


NEW  HAIVIPSHTRE. 

The  h'mestone  of  Kew  Hampshire  is  altogether  crystalline,  and  of  tte 
same  formation  as  the  older  lime-rock  of  Maine.  It  has  been  found  and 
described  in  the  counties  of  Grafton,  Hillsborough,  Sullivan,  and  Coos. 
Analyses  of  New  Hampshire  limestones  give  results  of  some  economical 
importance,  some  specimens  yielding  sufficient  magnesia  to  indicate  a 
probable  value  as  water-lime ;  and  others,  such  a  proportion  of  silica  as 
to  cause  the  formation  of  slag  in  burning,  unless  great  care  is  exercised. 
These  remarks  at)ply,  of  course,  to  any  limestones  of  similar  composition. 

Limestone  from  Grafton  County. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

Carbonate  of  lime 

99.3 
0.5 
0.2 

9X66 
3.80 
5.  51 

90  8 

8  2 

1.0 

100.0 

100.  CO 

100.  0 

Limestone  from  Hillshorourih  County. 


Carbonate  of  lime 

Oiide  of  iron  and  alumina 
Silica 


Limestone  from  SuUivan  County. 


Carbonate  of  lime I  so.  4 

Carbonate  of  magnesia, \  lo!  8 

Oxide  of  iron Trace. 

Silicions  matter .' '. ....  33.  o 


2.4 
21.0 


23.8 

40.0 

2.8 

25.0 


100 


'>C'.2 


372  AGRICULTURAL    HErOKT. 

Pond  marl  is  reported  in  Coos  County  ouly,  but  there  is  every  proba- 
bility of  its  existence  elSL^where.  A  decomposed  limestone  found  near 
Lyme,  Grafton  County,  is  there  known  as  marl. 

VEIi3I0^'T. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  greater  amount  of  limestone  in  Vermont  is 
found  along  or  near  the  line  of  the  Green  Mountains ;  though,  in  the  ^yords 
of  Professor  nitchcock,  there  is  scarcely  a  town  in  the  State  where  it 
does  not  exist  in  some  form.  Generally  speaking,  west  of  the'  mountains 
the  limestones  are  iiurcly  calcareous,  wh'le  to  the  east  they  are  often 
decidedly  maguesian.  The  azoic  crystalline  limestone  appears  in  Ver- 
mont, as  in  the  preceding  States,  and  is  widely  distributed.  It  is  found 
in  the  eastern  parts  of  Franklin  and  Addison,  in  Lamoille,  western 
Washington,  Pvutland,  Windham,  and  Bennington.  In  Windsor  tlie 
rock  is  extensive!}'  manufactured  into  lime. 

Thelimestones  of  Vv'estern  Vermont  areof  the  Hudson,  Trenton.,  and  so- 
called  Eolian  or  Taconic  groups.  It  has  been  recently  clai:ned,  however, 
that  the  limestones  of  the  Trenton  formation  and  the  Eolian  are  iden- 
tical. The  Eolian  supplies  the  finest  marbles  of  Vermont,  and  extends 
through  v>'estern  Bennington,  central  Kutlaudand  Addison,  and  vrestern 
Chittenden,  easily  reached  at  most  points,  and  furnishing  a  strong  and 
pure  lime.  The  Hudson  and  the  Trenton  limestones  are  found  in  a  nar- 
row range  along  the  northern  half  of  the  western  border  of  Eutland 
Comity,  occupying  a  wide  area  in  western  Addison  and  southwestern 
Chittenden ;  then,  dipping  under  the  lake,  they  reappear  in  Grand  Isle 
and  Isle  Lamotte,  and  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Franklin  County. 

Orange  County,  Caledonia,  and  Essex  seem  to  possess  no  limestone 
rocks.  Through'  the  center  of  Orleans  County,  running  nearly  north 
and  south,  lies  an  isolated  ledge  of  Upper  Helderberg  limestone,  very 
silicious,  as  will  be  seen  from  its  analysis. 

Liincstonc  from  Chiikndrn   Countii. 


Carhonatft  of  liruo 

Carl)onato  of  ma  Sri''-"'''* 

Alumina  and  osidoof  ii'ou. 

Silica,  eui 

Water  and  lows 


84.45 
12.14 
l.Ol 
1. 50 

0.  Oil 


100.00 


Limcslonc  from  FraAldin  County. 


Carlwnatd  of  Ijiiio 92.  J) 

Carbonatn  of  magnesia 5-5 

Silica ^ l<i 


TAmcstonc  from  VriiuVunn  Coiiiilii. 


Carbonato  of  limo. .  -» • 30.  FJ 

Carbonato  of  maKiii'sia I  2.  ."il 

Alumiua  and  oxitlo  of  iroa I  2.  CO 

Silica i  «:'-<^! 

Water  and  luss I  '^-  C- 

i  100.  Hi) 


MINERAL    FERTILIZERS    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 
McrNe  from  Iiutland  County. 


0<, 


Carbonate  of  limo 97. 73 

Alumina  and  osida  of  iron i  0.  59 

Silica  and  mica I  1.  08 


Limestone  from  Bcnniiigion  Countt/. 


Carbonate  of  lime 

Ciirbouato  cf  majrnesia 

Alomina  and  oxide  of  iron 
Silica,  &c 


S5. 18 

13. 11 

1.79 

1.4'J 


101. 57 


Limestone  from  Addison  Count;;. 


Carbonate  of  lime I  "il.  35 

Carbonate  of  maMesia i  44. 76 

Alvunina  and  oxide  of  iron '2.00 

Silica.  &c ;  1.40 

Water  and  los.s I  0. 49 


100.00 


In  view  of  tliis  ,2:eiieral  distribiitiou  of  calcareoii.s  rocks  it  -woiLld  natu- 
rally be  exi^ected  that  many  localities  of  i^ond-mai-l  Tronld  be  found  in  Ver- 
mont, and  accordinr^ly  we  find  numerous  beds  of  this  fertilizer  in  a  belt  of 
country  twenty  to  tliirty-five  miles  in  width,  extending-  through  Wind- 
ham, TTindsor,  and  Orange,  along  the  Connecticut  Ei\"er,  and  northward 
through  VTashingtou,  Caledonia,  and  Orleans,  In  the  western  portion 
of  the  State  the  only  deposits  reported  ai-e  on  Grand  Isle  and  at  Monk- 
ton,  Addison  County.  But  four  analyses  of  Vermont  marls  are  at  hand, 
but  these  may  safely  be  taken  as  representative. 

Marl  from  Grand  Isle. 


Carbonate  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  m.-igmesia 

Silica,  and  trace  of  alumina,  aiul  oxide  of  iron 
Water  and  organic  matif  r 


2farl  from   Orange  County,  (TTilliamstown.) 


62.6 
'2. 5 
•J.  6 

li.3 


rarl)onate  of  lime j  S9. 0 

Carbonate  of  nia-rnesia I  4.  U 

Silica,  and  trace  of  alumina,  and  oxide  of  iron ]  1.0 

Water  and  orjranic  matter •  5.  5 


Marl  from  Caledonia  County. 


Carbonate  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  mapne-^ia 

Silica,  and  trace  of  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron 
Water  and  orcranic  matter 


S3. 5 

1.0 
4.2 

10.5 

99.  -Z 


374 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 
Marl  from  Addison  County. 


Carbonate  of  lime j  1^9 

Carbonate  of  ma^oiesia |  2. 4 

Silica,  and  trace  of  alnmina.  and  oxide  of  iron i  H.  2 

Water  and  organic  matter 13. 6 


IOj.  1 


MASSACHUSETTS. 

The  Eolian  limestone  of  Vemiout  extends  into  western  Massacliusetts, 
and,  as  in  tlie  former  State,  furaisbes  lime  of  tlie  best  quality  and  in 
immense  quantities.  Its  outcrops  are  confined  to  Berkshire  County, 
ranning  north  and  south  across  the  State ;  but  the  crystalline  azoic 
makes  its  ap]>earance  in  all  the  counties  of  the  State,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  except  in  the  peninsula  of  Barnstable  and  its  neighboring  islands, 
which  are  recent. 

Limestone  from  B€r]:shire  County. 


Went 


Carbonat*  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  magnesia. 

Oxide  of  iroD 

Silica,  alumina   6^c 


Sheffield. 


99.60 


Trace. 
0.40 


98.10 
1.16     , 
0.14    <. 
0.60    I 


97.80 
"2.26 


100. 0>J 


100.00 


Limestone  from  Middlesex  County. 


Chelms- 
ford. 


Littleton. 


Carbonate  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Oxide  of  iron , 

Silica,  alnmina,  &c 


56.52 

54.70 

39.38 

43.35 

0.90 

0.51 

3.  HJ     '■ 

1.46 

100.00 


Limestone  from  FranMin  County. 


Asfafield. 


Carbonate  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Oxide  of  irnn 

Silica  and  alnmina 


46.85 
l.CO 
1.55 

50.  CO 


100.00 


Limeitone  from  Eampsldrc  County. 


MiJdlfefield. 


Carbonate  of  lime 

CarboDnte  of  magnesia. 

Oxide  of  iron 

Silica,  alnmina,  Sx 


56.25 

31.56 

1.12 

11.07 

100.00 


MINERAL    FEETILIZEKS    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES.  375 

Limestone  from  Hampden  Connbj. 

\  Agawam.  'SpringSdd. 


Carlwnate  of  lime ,         3j.  SI  ,             ^m 

Carbocnte  of  magnesia ■         '?-?^ 

Oride  of  iro n . . .  r. , 5"  i^ '."f^ 

Silica  raid  alumina 4  j.  o3  u.  CO 

1  ;..-•.■  :-'.  ys 


Limestone  from  Xorfolk  County. 


"Waloole. 


Carbonate  of  lime ~'^'-  ^ 

Silica  and  alTuuina  . . . '. i39. 4O 


Lime-stone  from  Es.3c:c  Countu. 


Carlionate  of  Ume ;  60.  'HJ 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 2.97 

Oxide  of  iron....". I  ^■'•^ 

Silica  and  alumina J  8.  CO 

i  92.41 
Limestone  from  JTorcesfer  County. 


Eoltoa. 


Carlwnate  of  lime ; 1  61. 60 

Carbonate  of  magnesia '  27. 00 

Silica  and  alamina I  1. 20 


jJ.OO 


Pond-marl  is  reported  only  in  Berksliiie  County,  at  Stockbridge,  Pitts- 
field,  and  Lee.    It  is  of  rich  quality,  as  seen  by  the  follo\ring  analyses : 


1 

Stockbridge.    PittafielJ.          L«o. 

?.  9                  0.  G                       4. 4 

0.7      ,            0.7                       1.0 

73.4      1          S6.4                     SS.  3 

0.1'            0.4              Vo  trial 

SJieious  matter 

TVater : 

13. 5                  3.  1                        4. 4 

I                3.3                   3.1;                         1.4 

1 

99.0      ,        1.0. -.i                    lv>X0 

In  the  Tertiary,  on  the  coast  of  Plymouth  Connty,  and  at  Gay  Head, 
a  gTeensand  was  described  by  Professor  Hitchcock,  and  hopes  were  at 
one  tinie  entertained  that  its  fertilizing  value  might  be  found  to  approx- 
imate to  that  of  the  ZSTew  Jersey  formation.  These  expectations  were 
hardly  warranted  by  its  chemical  constitution,  which  lacks  both  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash ;  and.  so  far  as  is  knov.u,  no  use  is  at  present 
made  of  this  material,  in  agTiculture  at  least. 


376  AGEICCLTUEAL   REPORT. 

EHODE  ISLAXD. 

Limestone  in  Ehode  Island  exists  only  in  the  nortbeastern  portion  of 
the  State,  in  the  townships  of  Cumberland,  Smithfield,  and  Providence, 
and"  on  the  Lime  Islands  of  Xewport  Harbor.  It  is  of  a  geolo^.cal  form- 
ation similar  to  that  of  eastern  Massachusetts,  and  frequently  dolomitic 

to  a  considerable  degree. 

Lhode  Island  limestone. 

;  CTKEberland. .  ProTidcnce. 


Carbonate  of  lime' 

Carbonate  of  mas^nesia. . 
Insoicble  matter. 


5i2 

4  J.  6. 

&0 


5fi.I 
11.4 


SmiihfielJ.  I  Lime  IsLuul. 


Carbonate  cf  Unie 

Carbonate  oi  li^jccsia . 

Osideof  iron 

Insoloble  matter 


92.4  53.3 

L3  37.9 

0.4  •                   1.9 

C.  0  7. 0 

l'X>.  0  lOD.  0 


Xo  marl  of  any  kind  has  been  found  in  Ehode  Lsland ;  or,  if  found, 
has  not  been  rejjorted. 

COXr^CTICUT. 

The  Eolian  limestone  may  l^e  followed  from  ^lassachusetts  nearly 
across  the  State  of  Connecticut,  western  Litchfield  County  and  Fairfield 
possessing  large  and  raiuabie  beds  of  limestone  and  marble.  ^S^umerous 
localities  of  limestone  are  found  through  eastern  Fairfield  and  the  west- 
era  half  of  Xev/  Haven  and  northeastern  Litchfield.  Lime.stone  is 
reported  in  Xew  London  County,  but  as  being  difficult  of  extraction.  A 
liimminous  lime.stoue  is,  found  in  the  southern  part  of  Hartford  County 
iu  limited  quantity.  Analyses  of  the  Connecticut  limestones  are  not 
acce«5sible.  In  general  character,  however,  they  agree  with  those  of 
western  Massachusetts. 

Pond-marl  is  reported  in  Fannington  onlv,  the  analvsis  of  which  is  as 
l\illows : 


12i5 
0.4 

j  64.4 

' . _i bvii^:t.-  Li  uuignesia ..i      So  triaL 

Si!  icious  laatter I  17. 8 

Water I  2.9 


9e.o 


XEW  YOnK. 


The  largest  development  of  limestone  which  occurs  in  the  Atlantic 
States,  outside  of  the  great  belt  already  described,  is  found  in  Xew 
York.    This  lies  i^arallel  with  the  lake  coast  of  the  State,  and  includes 


''mineral    fertilizers    of    the    ATLANTIC    STATES.  377 

tlie  :Sia-ara,  tbo  Salina,  tlie  Lower  and  the  Upper  Helderberg,  aud  the 
Hamilton  limestones  of  the  Xew  \  ork  survey :  or,  in  more  general 
terms,  the  later  lime  rocks  of  the  Upper  Silm-ian  and  the  earlier  one  of 
the  Devonian  age.  The  cxilcareons  members  of  the  Lower  Silurian 
group,  including  that  heretofore  mentioned  as  Eolian,  are  foimd  running 
on,  and  parallel  with,  the  eastern  boimdary  of  the  State,  and  also  bear- 
ing southeast  from  the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Ontario  through  several 
counties.  The  azoic  crystalline  variety  appears  to  some  extent  in  the 
counties  along  the  St.  La\vi'once  river.  The  follo\>"ing  counties  are  re- 
ported as  having  limestone  within  their  limits,  under  circumstaqces 
rendering  it  available  for  economic  purposes :  Albany.  Clinton.  Colum- 
bia, Dutchess,  Essex,  Franklin,  Jefierson,  Lewis,  Xew  York.  Niagara, 
Oneida,  Onondaga,  Madison,  Otsego,  Orange,  Putnam.  Eockland,  St. 
La-^Tcnce,  Saratoga,  Scoharie,  Seneca,  L'lster,  Wayne,  TTarren,  T^  ash- 
ington,  and  Westchester. 

In  Scoharie  C  ounty  is  found  a  pulverulent  tufa,  known  as  agaric  mineral, 
of  which  an  analysis  will  be  found  below.  This  exists  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  be  of  some  importance.  Large  beds  of  the  same  formation,  but 
of  "more  compact  texture,  are  found  in  Herkimer,  Onondaga,  Monroe, 
CajTiga,  Tompkine,  Livingston,  Erie,  Franklin,  Greene,  Niagara,  and 
Saratoga.  Some  of  the  tufa  beds  are  sufliciently  consolidated  to  fiu-nish 
building  materials. 

The  State  of  New  York  furnishes  nearly  all  the  gyi^smn  or  plaster 
manufactiu'ed  in  the  United  States — perhaps  the  most  important  beds 
being  located  in  the  district  traversed  by  the  Erie  canal ;  though  the 
distribution  of  the  mineral  is  wide,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  list 
of  localities.  Gypsum  is  found  in  quantity  sufacient  to  pay  for  extrac- 
tion in  the  counties  of  Cayuga,  Herkimer,  Livingston,  Madison,  Monroe, 
Niagara,  Oneida,  Onondaga,  Ontario,  Seneca,  and  Tompkins.  An  impure 
variety,  but  tit  for  agricultural  purposes,  is  foiuid  in  Wayne  County 
also. 

A  vein  of  phosphate  of  lime,  at  Crown  Point,  Essex  County,  was  at 
one  time  somewhat  extensively  worked ;  but,  being  so  much  mingled 
with  rock  as  to  preclude  its  profitable  extraction,  it  has  been  abandoned. 

Of  the  extent  of  the  lime  and  i^laster  industry  in  New  York  some  idea 
iuay  be  formed  from  the  fact  that,  in  1SG3,  one  hundred  and  fifty  manu- 
factories of  tliese  materials  were  reported,  including  only  those  on  a 
somewhat  extensive  scale,  and  manufacturing  for  commercial  x^iu-poses. 
These  mmerals  form  the  basis  of  a  large  manufacturing  industry,  namely, 
the  making  of  hydraulic  cements,  (water-limes,)  mastics,  &c.,  of  which 
the  gyiisum  aud  magnesian  limestones  form  the  necessary  constituents. 

Pond-marl  is  reported  in  more  than  one-half  of  the  counties  of  New 
York,  namely:  ^Ubany,  Allegany,  Cayuga,  Cattaraugus,  Chautauqua. 
<  'liemung,  Columbia,  Cortland,  Dutchess,  Genesee.  Greene,  Livingston, 
Madison,  Monroe,  Montgomery,  Niagara,  Oneida,  Onondaga,  Ontario, 
Orleans,  Eensselaer,  St.  Lawi-ence,  Saratoga,  Seneca.  Steuben,  Tioga, 
Tompkins,  Ulster,  Warren,  Washington,  and  Wayne.  Of  these  deposits, 
those  of  Ca^"uga  aud  Columbia  are  the  most  extensive,  and  those  of  Tioga, 
Orleans,  and  Warren  probably  the  least. 

Limestone  from  Dutchess  County. 

C:irl(onate  of  lime 60. 50 

C.aboiiate  •!'  mat^nesia 39. 50 


378  .  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT 

Limestone  from  Xiaf/ara  Count;/. 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Carbouato  of  magnesia 

Silica  anrl  alumina 

Oxide  of  iron 

"Water  and  loss 


75.  Co 

£0.70 

•Z25 

0.35 

i.to 

100. CO 


Limestone  from  ilad'noa  County. 


Carbonate  of  lime. 

Oxide  of  iron 

Insoluble  matter.. 


03.53 
C.35 
0.90 

Sfi.30 
0.20 
0.40 

09.90 


Limestone  from  Rockland  County. 


Carbonate  of  lime. 
Insoluble  matter. . 
Water  and  loss 


93.50 
3.75 

2.75 


100.00 


Limestone  from  Westchester  County. 


Carbonate  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Silica,  alumina,  and  oxide  of  iron. 


53.24 
45.89 
0.87 

100.00 


Tufa  from  ScoTiarie  County. 


Carbonate  of  limo 

Silica 

Organic  matter 


97.25 
0.80 
1.95 


100.00 


Carbonate  of  lime 

Silica,  alumina,  carlx)n. 


Tufa  from  Saratoga  County. 


95.00 
S.OD 


100.00 


Gypsum  from  Cayuga  County. 


Carbonate  of  lime 
Sulpbatv  of  lime... 
Clay 


21.65 

7L75 

6.60 


100.00 


Fond-marl  from  OnoMaga  County. 


Carbonate  of  litno 

Silica 

Alumina 


S3. 00 
10.00 

7.00 

103.00 


MIXERAL    FERTILIZERS    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 
Fond-marJ  from  Orange  Couni>/. 


Carbonate  of  liiee  . 
Silica  raid  aliimiua 


Pond-marl  from  Ulster  County. 


379 


93.75 
6.25 


ICO.  00 


Carbonate  of  lime i      ^75 

Silica  and  alnmiua I        3. 25 

Organic  vegetable  matter I       4. 00 


100.00 


Pond-r.iarl  from  Ecrkimcr  County. 


Organic  matter 

Silica 

Phosphates  of  iron  and  alumina 

lime 

Maffnesia 

Carbonic  acid 

Potash 

Soda 

Chlorine 


19.20 
1.10 
0.45 

46.25 
0.45 

31.05 
0.55 
0.35 
Trace. 

99.40 


Pond-marl  from  Greene  Co 

unty. 

f!arhoTintfl  of  linip 

97.32 
2.15 
0.53 

91-75 

Insolnble  silica  and  alumina 

8.25 

Trace. 

ICO.  00 

ICO.  00 

Pond-marl  from  Essex  County . 


Pond-ma 

•Ifrom 

Seneca  County. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

4.50 

a  50 

6.«W 

77.10 

2.10 

1.23 

2.50 
.90 
11.70 
79.40 
3.53 
2.00 

1.00 
4.20 
6.00 
83.33 
2.16 
2.80 

2.71 
4.32 
5.53 
8X93 
3.60 
.81 

3.43 
1.65 
5.00 
63.35 
4.00 
.86 
.20 

9.96 
2.12 
13.00 
67.30 
3.00 
.61 
.13 

8.57 

2. 10 

26,65 

56.80 

1.60 

.37 

CMnriHf  nt  sntlinni , 

.11 

.50 

Sulphuric  acid 

.46 

.38 

.27 

100. 00 

ICO.  00 

99. 09 

100.  CO 

99.  CO 

96.50 

96.50 

Silicic  acid 

Phosphoric  acid 

Carbonic  acid 

Snlphuric  acid. . 

Xime 

Iron 

Magnesia 

Potassa. 

Soda 

Chlorine , 

Organic  matter. 


59.90 
1.15 
9.^2 
0.15 

12.78 
3.40 
0.55 
0.45 
0.40 
0.11 

11.61 


22.60 
2.35 

28.15 
0.C9 

36.26 
1.15 
0.35 
0.36 
0.C7 
0.12 

a44 


99.  "ra         99.94 


XETT   JEESEY, 


The  limestones  of  Xew  Jersey,  adoptiug  the  classification  of  Professor 
Cook,  State  geologist,  are  the  white  crystalline  of  the  azoic  age,  the 
magnesianj  and  the  fossiliferous.    The  out-crops  of  all  these  are  easily 


380  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

traceable  to  corresponding"  formations  in  Xevr  York  an<l  Pi'nusylvauia, 
and  are  limited  to  the  northvrestern  portion  of  the  State.  The  azoic 
limestone  is  iound  in  tlie  counties  of  Sussex  and  Vrarren,  mainly  in  the 
Sparta  anc  the  Yernon  Yalley,  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  in  the  southern 
part  of  Passaic,  and  the  northern  townships  of  ^Morris  County.  Analyses 
of  this  limestone  are  appended.  This  rock  has  been  vrorked  for  lime  to 
only  a  triilinj^:  extent,  though  yielding  an  article  of  good  quality.  Mag- 
nesia, in  considerable  proportion,  is  found  in  by  far  the  gTeater  number 
of  the  lime  rocks  of  Xew  Jersey,  some  of  them  being  true  dolomites. 
The  formation,  distiuguished  as  magnesian  by  Professor  Cook,  is  found 
principally  in  the  counties  of  Sussex  and  Yv'arrcn,  which,  indeed,  contain 
nearly  all  the  limestone  of  the  State.  It  extends  into  northern  Hunter- 
don, and  is  found  in  small  beds  in  southwestern  ]\Iorris,  northern  Somer- 
set, and  eastern  Passaic.  This  rock  is  considered  by  Professor  Cook  to 
correspond,  in  geological  position,  with  the  calcareous  sand  rock  of  the 
Xevr  York  siu'X'ey,  lying  beneath  the  Trentojj.  Probably  ninety  per  cent, 
of  the  lime  manufactured  in  Xew  Jersey  is  from  this  formation. 

The  fossiliferous  limestone  corresponds  to  the  calcareous  rocks  of  the 
Trenton  and  the  Helderbcrg  grou[).  A  belt  of  the  former  extends  from 
the  Xew  York  line  southwest  to  Belvidere,  oil  the  Delaware,  and  of  the 
latter  from  the  northern  to  the  southern  line  of  Sussex  County,  along  the 
Delaware,  west  of  Kittatinny  ^Mountain.  These  fossiliferous  rocks  yield 
an  almost  pure  lime. 

The  so-called  yellow  marl,  or  limestone  of  the  cretaceous  epoch,  found 
in  connection  with  the  greensand,  is  also  made  available  as  a  source  of 
lime.  It  is  confined  to  the  counties  of  Monmouth,  Burlington,  Camden, 
Gloucester,  and  Salem,  varying  in  quality  with  its  location.  In  Salem 
County  it  is  hard  and  compact,  and  is  bm^ned  for  building  purposes. 

Several  extensive  deposits  of  calcareous  tufa  are  reported  in  north- 
western Sussex,  near  the  Delaware  Elver. 

Xear  Hurdstown,  Morris  County,  crystalline  phosphate  of  lime  (apa- 
tite) is  found,  sometimes  in  large  masses.  The  same  causes  which  en- 
forced the  abandonment  of  the  Crown  Point  mine,  in  New  York,  have 
[irevented  the  profitable  extraction  of  the  Xev/  Jersey  phosphates. 

The  greensand  marls  of  Xew  Jersey,  the  discovery  of  which  revolu- 
tionized the  agriculture  of  that  State,  are  described  fully  in  the  report 
of  the  chemist.  The  recent  report  on  the  geological  survey  of  Xevr  Jer- 
sey presents  some  statements  as  to  the  amount  of  gTcensaud  raised, 
transported,  and  used,  of  which  the  following  is  an  abstract. 

The  amount  transported  by  rail,  and  used  almost  exclusively  beyond 
the  greensand  region,  was : 

In  1SG7 12G,7-iO  tons. 

In  18G8 134,000  tons. 

In  18G7,  marl  v.as  delivered  along  the  line  of  the  Delaware  and  Raritan 
railroad  at  prices  ranging  from  $1  oO  to  81  CO  per  ton,  and  to  other 
points  as  follovrs: 

r vice  per  ion  of  iivcniy  hushcls. 


Sqnanknin 
Company. 

Ppiubertoa 
Company. 

AVhito  Uorso 
Company.* 

■\Vo8t  Jersey 
Company." 

Biidjeton 

^  85 

Buiiinjrtou 1 

n  25 

3  95 

1  1)0 

J;ilvjdcre 1 

Uirmiii!;h.im ' 

1 

Burrtcnto'WTi 

53  43 

2  45 

*  Along  the  lino  (il  Cam'lcn  und  Atlantic  railro;i<l,  at  tO  cents  per  ton,  and  rpTrard. 


MINERAL    FEKTILIZEES    OV    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES.  381 

Price  per  ion  of  {wentij  hii-ahch — Coiitiimed. 


Company. 

Temberton 
Company. 

ATliita  Hon.se 
Companj-.* 

"West  Jersey 
Company." 

1  70 

1  "•■) 

2  40 

I'O 

9', 
2  90 
■•{  00 

:»  311 

3  30 

3  41 

3  M 

2  00 

3  40 

2  10 

"  05     ~ 

*  Along  the  lino  of  the  Camdeu  anil  AtliMitic  lailioad,  at  80  cent.s  per  ton,  and  upward. 

Freiglits  upon  the  Delaware  aiul  Earitan  canal  were  loAver  thau  the 
preceding  by  thirty  to  lifty  cents  per  ton.  Prices  at  pits  range  from  two 
cents  to  eleven  cent.s  per  square  foot  in  the  ground,  and  from  thirty-five 
to  fifty  cents  per  ton  when  dug.  The  aggregate  amount  of  greensasid 
marl  used  annually  in  ISTew  Jersej'  is  estimated  at  one  million  tons.  The 
extraction  of  the  marl  is  accomplished,  either  by  removing  superin- 
cumbent strata  and  digging  from  above  downward,  or,  more  generally, 
by  working  into  hillsides  and  the  banks  of  vrater-courses.  In  both  cases 
much  trouble  arises  from  the  accumidation  of  water.  At  Squankum  and 
Woodstown,  after  removal  of  the  overlying  material,  the  surface  of  the 
marl  is  flooded,  an<l  the  vrork  done  rapidly  and  economically  bj-  floating- 
steam-dredges. 

Shell  marl  of  the  Tertiary  period  is  found  in  Cumberland  County,  at 
and  near  Horse  Eun.  It  is  of  two  qualities,  distinguished  as  black  and 
gray,  of  which  the  latter  is  the  best  and  most  plentiful.  The  black,  con- 
taining a  large  x>ercentage  of  sulphuric  acid,  should  be  neutralized  by 
lime  before  application  to  the  soil. 

Of  pond-marl,  large  and  easily  accessible  beds  exist  in  the  Wallkiil 
and  the  Kittatinny  Yallejs  of  Sussex  Cdunty. 

Azoic  limestone. 


Lime 

Magnesia 

Oxido  of  ir(m  and  alumina. 

Potash  and  soda 

Phx).sphoric  acid 

Silicic  acid,  quai'tz,  &c 

Carbonic  acid 

Insoluble  in  acid 

Water  arid  loss 


Pas.saic.       Wan-on. 


29.01 
10.  PO 
5.30 
0.21 


M.  C4 

0.  53 

1.  30 


Sussex. 


23.00 

20.  J# 

2.38 


0.  no 

43.  00 


2S.  31 

18.  04 

1.20 

Trace. 

Trace. 

0.  50 

4.2.08 


43.  32 


Morris. 


2j.  74 
Tg.  82 
■15.  70 


14.70 
26. 2  J 


Magnesian  limestone. 

Somerset. 

Huntoidon. 

Passaic. 

Wai'ren. 

Su.saex. 

2G.  3 

17.4 

41.1 

1.3 

4.0 

.3 

33.4 
1.5.  5 
42.5 

43.0 

i.y 

20.  5 
20.3 
45.0 

2.2 

20.  8     30. 1 
10.1J     2').  1 
45.  4     44.  4 

i-«'J:2 

r 

20.  G 
10.2 
46.2 

} 

23.5 
17.3 
41.5 

29.4 
20. 3 
45:7 

.6 

30  4 

1-)  1 

('arbonic  ncid 

44.  0 

\  :3 

Potash 

Soda 

.3 

•- 

s 

- 

Phosphoric  acid 

2.  9 

Trace 

9.9 

.3 

Silicic  acid  and  (inartz; 

Water 

8.0 

2.0 

7.  2 

l.l 
1.0 

..'.'..'-      ^A 

1.8 

3.6 

00. 4   100.  8  1        97. 2 

OO.T 

00.5  ■  90.7 

i 

90.3  1  'X).2 

97.8 

100.3 

382 


AGMCULTUEAL    REPOET. 
FosisiUfcroHS  limt-^/tone  fi'vm  JSussei  Counig  and  Warnn . 


Line 

Macneaia. 

Cp.rlx'nic  acid 

AiTuiiina  and  oxide  of  iron - 

Alkalies 

SiHcic  acid  and  qnartz 


53w4 

.4 

42.6 

1.0 


4a2 
2.2 

3L4 
L6 


IaS 


100.1 


V4.-2 


YtlJoir  Ivncfstor..?  from  Sslcm  Couniif, 


43.0 


.4 

1.8 


1^?,1 


Phosphoric  acid . . 
SulpLiiric  acid  ... 

Siiicie  acid 

Magnesia 

Alumina 

Oxide  of  iron 

Carlwnate  of  lime 
"Water 


0.P4 

ao6 

2J.31 

La 

0.91 

3.07 

69.61 

0.C4 


sa  (.5 


Fliospliaie  of  lime  from  3'jydstovrn,  2IorrU  Coup.i>!. 


Phosphoric  acid i  4i34 

Oxide  ot  iron \  0.  C»4 

Lime ■  55. 06 

Chlorme I  a34 


5*7. »      I 


43.23 

trac*. 

53.37 

L02 


97.62 


G'ra'j  tcri'tmry  TiarU  from  Cumherlaud  Couviii. 


SUicT  and  qtiartz 

Oxide  of  iron 

Alnmin.i 

Linie 

Maimesia 

Pota.'^h 

Soda 

Sidjihnric  acid — 
Phosphoric  acid.. 

Carbonic  acid 

"Water  and  loss. . . 


1        09.  3j 

50.-20 

i          3.07 

X38 

!        -2.84 

1.S6 

!        15.30 

19.71 

0.69 

0.50 

1          0.97 

0.58 

0.63 

a56 

2.09 

a45 

0.10 

9.  CO 

15l05 

4.e4 

6.15 

100.36 


Fond-m<!rl  from  Sussex  County. 


Lime 

Majrnesia 

Carlxinic  acM -• 

"Water  and  organic  acid.s 

Alumina  and  sesqni-oxide  of  iron 

Phosphate  of  lime- 

SiUca 

Organic  matter 

"Water 


5a  27 

50.33 

0.62 

aas 

3^57 

3S.90 

4.10 

4.34 

a45 

0.16 

0.30 

0.66 

a43 

0.37 

4.19 

154 

l.g7 

L29 

PE^■^•s\xTA2aA. 

la  Peniisvlvauia  tlie  limestones,  with  the  exceptions  hereafter  noticed, 
are  confined  to  a  well-marked  belt  ninning  enst-northea»t  and  west-south- 
west across  the  State,  bounded  en  the  northvrest  by  the  main  i-ange  ot 
tlie  >Jle.£rhanies  and  on  the  southeast  by  the  range  of  hills  knowTi  as 
South  Mountains.  In  this  belt  the  Upper  and  the  Lower  Silmian  lime- 
rocks  appear  in  innumerable  outcrops.    So  general  is  the  distribution  of 


MINERAL  FEETILIZEES  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 


383 


limestcne  Tritlii^i  tlie  district  described  that  it  -svonld  be  hard  to  name  a 
tov*nship,  save  in  the  anthracite  coal  basins,  ^vhich  does  not  possess  a 
convenient  source  of  lime  of  snflicieut  pui'ity  for  agricultural  use.  South 
of  South  Mountains  there  are  thi-ee  limestone  regions — that  known  as 
the  Limestone  Valley  of  York  and  Lancaster ;  the  marble  formation  of 
southern  Montgomery,  central  Chester,  and  southern  Lancaster;  and  a 
narrow  belt  entering  central  Bucks  Coimty  at  the  Delaware,  and  extend- 
ing nearly  across  the  county. 

Throughout  the  coal-fields  of  western  Pennsylvania  carboniferous 
limestone  is  found  outcropping  along  the  borders  of  streams  and  in  simi- 
lar locations,  in  quantity  very  variable,  but  gi-a dually  increasing  in  pro- 
portion to  the  other  carboniferous  rocks,  until  the  Ohio  line  is  reached. 
It  will  be  seen,  by  this  necessarily  meagTC  description  of  localities,  that, 
with  the  exception  of  five  or  six  couuties  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
State,  and  a  narrow  district  along  the  northern  boundary,  every  portion 
of  Pennsylvania  is  supphed,  to  a  gTeater  or  less  extent,  with  calcareous 
rock.  In  a  region  of  this  geological  character  the  formation  of  pond- 
marl  is  more  than  probable,  though  "we  can  find  no  mention  of  such 
deposits. 

DELAWARE. 

Altered  limestone,  similar  to  that  of  southeastern  Pennsylvania,  is 
found  in  northern  Delaware,  near  the  State  line. 

Greensand  marls  similar  to  those  of  Xew  Jersey  appear  in  northern 
Delaware.  The  beds  of  this  fertilizer  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Del- 
aware Eiver  Lie  altogether  in  the  .southern  half  of  Xew  Castle  County, 
between  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Canal  and  Appoquinimink  Creek, 
extending  from  the  river  to  the  Maryland  line.  The  shell  marls  of  the 
tertiary,  so  common  fi-om  Maryland  southward,  do  not  appear  in  Dela- 
ware, though  shell  beds  of  aboriginal  and  even  more  recent  formation 
are  not  rare,  and  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State  have  furnished  no 
inconsiderable  amount  of  lime.  They  are  found  on  the  bay  shore,  chiefly 
from  the  center  of  Kent  Countj'  to  lower  Sussex. 

Lhive-stone  from  Xeiccastle  County. 


Carbonato  of  lime 

Caibonato  of  majineaia-.- 
Aliunina  and  oxide  of  iron 
Talcose  residue 


Dark. 


MAKTLAXD. 


The  northern  counties  of  Maryland,  with  the  exception  of  Cecil,  are 
all  sui)plied  with  limestone,  corresponding  to  the  Pennsylvania  forma- 
tion, of  which  it  is  an  extension.  That  of  the  counties  of  Baltimore  and 
Harford  is  altered  and  crystalline,  furnishing  very  good  marble.  That 
of  Carroll,  Frederick,  Washington,  and  eastern  Alleghany  has  the  ordi- 
nary character  of  limestones  of  the  Trenton  group.  That  of  western 
Alleghany  county  is  carboniferous.  Beds  of  greensand,  continuous  with 
the  same  formation  in  Delaware,  occupy  lower  Cecil,  almost  all  of  Kent 
County,  and,  crossing  the  bay,  ai)pear  in  Anne  Arundel  and  Calvert, 


384 


AGRICULTUEAL    EEPOKT. 


and  to  some  extent  iu  Prince  George  and  Charles.  South  of  this  Ivolt 
of  the  cretaceous  formation,  the  shell  marls  of  the  tertiary  are  found  in 
grent  abundance,  although  on  the  Eastern  Shore  they  dip  soiithvoard, 
and  lie  too  lovr  for  jn-olitable  extraction  south  of  the  counties  of  Talbot 
and  Caroline.  In  the  peninsular  counties  the  shell  marls  are  easily 
reached  vrherever  ravines  and  gullies  have  been  formed  or  the  banks  of 
the  larger  bodies  of  -water  are  abrupt.  In  ^Maryland  the  line  between 
the  cretaceous  and  the  tertiary  formation  is  not  sharply  defined,  so  that 
the  characteristic  marls  of  the  two  epochs  are  found  commingled  in 
Prince  George  and  in  Charles. 

Liir.cntonc  from  Baltimore,  Frederick,  aid  JTdsliington. 


Carbonic  aciil.. 

Lime 

Macnesia 

Silica 

TJndeterraincd 
Oxide  of  iron  . . 


100  I    100  I     100  I  99. 1  I     100  I     100  I     100 


100 


iSheU  mar} from  Talbot  Countt/. 


Silica 

Alumina 

Carbonate  of  lime 
Oxide  of  iron 


56.00  00.00 

3. 50  10.  oO 

37. 00  54.  50 

2. 50  10.  (10 


Shell  marl  from  Queen  Anne  County. 


90. 00    I    95. 00 


5,1.00 

4iOO 

4.00 


99. 00 


Silica  . 
Alumina. 


Carbonat-e  of  Ume. 
Oxido  of  iron 


4.100 

5o!ob 


45.00 

5.  00 

50.00 

4.00 


104. 00 


ShcE  marl  from  Pi-ince  George  County,  (slight  admixture  of  grcensand.) 


Silica :  47.75 

Alumina !>.  75 

Carbonate  of  lime 20. 50 

Oxido  of  iron 7. 00 

Potash i  iOO 

•                                                                                                                                           I  IHJ.  00 


2i75 
5.00 
•VS.  e.-. 


Shell  7}mrlfrom  Caroline  County. 


Silica 

Alumina 

Carbonate  of  lime 
Oxide  of  iron 


37.00 

4.20 

47.05 

au5 


ih;.5o 


)i50 
t?7. 50 
5. 50 


Slidl  marl  from  Charles  County,  (some  greemand.) 


Silica I    r«i25  38.  OP 

Alumina !      8. 00  '         (i  ••!! 

Carbonate  of  lime 21.  !Hi  45.  <Ki 

Oxido  of  iron '      5.  f  0  4.  lo 

Potash 1-55  :         J.osi 

<.K>.  H)  I        IM.  :<i 


MINERAL    KIlRTILIZERS    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATE^^.  385 

The  fcrcgoing  analyses  of  marls,  extracted  from  the  Eeport  oa  the  Geo 
logical  Sur^.ey  of  ]MarYland,  by  Diicatel,  were  made  after  removing  the 
lar^rer  shells,  aiid  consequently  do  not  represent  the  fidl  value  of  the 
marls  iu  carbonate  of  hme.  They  are  almost  all,  however,  so  silicious  as 
to  forbid  transportation  beyond  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  their 
occurrence. 

\TiiaENriA. 

The  mineral  fertilizers  of  Virg-Luia  being  fully  treated  in  another  place, 
will  not  be  noticed  here. 

NOKXn  CAROLLXA. 

The  localities  of  older  limestones  iu  North  Carolina  are  fcvr  and  widely 
separated.  Those  i'eT^>orted,  with  one  exception,  are  iu  or  near  the  moun- 
tain district.  In  the  counties  of  Cherokee  and  Macon,  valuable  lime- 
stone and  marble  outcrop  in  large  quantity  on  the  blulfs  and  banks  of 
streams.  In  3Iadison  and  iu  Buncombe  a  crystalline  magnesiau  lime- 
stone is  found,  and  has  been  worked  to  some  extent.  A  belt  of  calcare- 
ous rock  crosses  the  State  from  Stokes  county  through  Catawba,  Lin- 
coln, and  Gaston,  to  King's  Mountain,  in  South  Carolina,  which  has 
been  extensively  quarried.  Such  being  the  location  of  the  older  lime- 
rocks  of  Xorth  Carolina,  and  the  facilities  for  transportation  being  verv^ 
limited,  the  giTater  portion  of  the  State  is  necessarily  dependent  for 
lime  upon  importation,  or  on  the  marls  and  limestones  of  the  tertiary 
formation,  of  which  many  are  so  consolidate<l  as  to  be  available  for 
architectural  piu'poses,  as  vrell  as  the  manirfacture  of  lime.  A  bed  of 
••  marly  limestone."  probably  of  this  character,  is  reported  iu  the  north- 
ern part  of  Wake  County.  Such  consolidated  beds  are  found  in  Wayne 
County,  along  the  Xeuse  Eiver,  together  with  more  friable  marls.  Large 
deposits  of  shell  marl  exist  in  Bladen  County  containing  many  copro- 
lites.  ]Srear  Xewbern  vast  beds  have  been  opened,  and  marl  of  varying 
consistence  and  quality  is  found  along  the  course  of  the  Tar  lliver,  from 
Nash  County  to  southern  Edgecombe,  as  well  as  on  the  Lower  Eoanoke 
and  the  Xeuse.  On  the  last  named  river,  and  on  the  Lower  Cape  Fear, 
the  greensand  outcrops  through  the  Tertiary,  but  does  not  compare  in 
agricidtural  value  with  that  of  ^STew  Jersey,  Delaware,  or  Maryland. 
Like  the  similar  deposits  of  Maryland,  the  shell  marls  of  North  Caro- 
lina are  too  silicious  to  admit  of  distant  carriage.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  a  cheap  process  of  separation  of  the  silex,  by  washing,  may  be 
found  practicable,  but  the  experiment  has  not  yet  been  tried  on  any 
extended  scale. 

SJwU  marls  from  Wat/ne  County. 

^'dc^ -IC.CO 

Phosphate  of  liruc  !_  ,  ., 

Osiilc  cf  iroa  and  aluEiina  i  '^^  "-^ 

Carbonate  of  linio J  4. 15 

Organic  matter  aud  water 1.  00 

i  90.  fiO 


Shell  marl  from  Edgecombe  County. 

Siles 

56  n- 

Phosphate  of  lime                  }                                                                                 ^ 

7.50 

Oxide  of  iron  nnd  alumina    y 

Carbonate  of  lime 

34. 15 

Organic  matter  and  water 

12.10 

i 

100.  w> 

25 


386 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Shell  marl  from  Noah  County. 


Silex 

rUosphato  of  linio 

Oxi(li>  of  iron  ami  alummn 

Carbonate  of  linie 

Orjniuic  matter  and  water . 


16.25 

10.00 

71.75 
2.15 


SheU  marl  from,  Craven  County. 


Sand 

"Water 

Mainiesia 

Carbonate  of  liine 


26.  CO 
1.70 
0.10 

71.  22 


99.02 


Shell  marl  from  Jones  County. 


Silex 

rhoHpbate  of  peroxidoof  iron  and  alumina 

Cfirlioisato  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Potash , 


13.  CO 
1.10 

85.20 
1.02 
0.02 


lO'J.  34 


Massy  shall  marl  from  Bladen  County. 


CoproUtcs  from  Bladen  County. 


Silex 

Alumina,  phosphate  of  lime,  and  oxide  of  iron 

Carlwnate  of  lime 

Ua^esia 

Potash  and  eoda 


52.  ."JO 

7.15 

40.50 

.75 

Trace. 


100.  00 


Silex 

Phosphate  of  Iwie 

Carlionato  of  lime 

ila-niesia 

Pota.sh 

Orjiauic  matter  and  water 


9.68 

71.59 

11.28 

.50 

Trace. 

4.40 


97.  45 


Shell  marl  from  Pitt  County. 

/ 

Silex 

Carbonate  of  lime.  ^ .- 

PhoKphatc  of  lime  and  oxide  of  iron 

AVater 

Majjuesia 

Potash 

Or-jauic  matter 


.31.  40 

54.60 

3.20 

3.38 

.  22 

Trace. 

5.i?8 


uac8 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


South  Carolina  possesses  but  little  limestone.  Tbe  formation  men- 
tioned as  crossing  North  Carolina  outcro])S  in  York  Comity,  near  Kiug'a 
Moimtain,  and  also  in  Spartanburg.  In  the  Avcstern  edge  of  Pickens 
County,  the  limestone  of  the  Blue  Ridge  appears,  as  in  Y\-esteru  Nort'j 
Carolina,  u])Oii  the  banks  of  streams.    The  Tertiary  marls  are  distributed 


MINERAL  FERTILIZERS  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 


387 


through  the  eastern  half  of  the  State  as  in  ^STorth  Caroliua,  but  differ  in 
character  from  those  of  that  State  in  containing  much  less  silicions  mat- 
ter, and  a  considerable  amount  of  phosphoric  acid. 

Of  the  importance  that  attaches  to  the  recently  opened  beds  of  phos- 
]ihatic  fertilizer,  located  above  the  tertiary  on  the  rivers  Ashley  and 
Cooper,  treated  in  the  report  of  the  chemist  of  this  Department,  some 
idea  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  seven  or  eight  companies  are 
actively  engaged  in  its  extraction  in  the  vicinity  of  Charleston.  Three 
extensive  manufactories  in  that  city  are  devoted  to  the  conversion  of  the 
raw  material  into  commercial  superphosphates,  and  several  others  are 
in  process  of  erection,  both  there  and  at  Savannah.  The  demand  for 
sulplnmc  acid,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  superphosphates,  has 
caused  the  establishment  of  extensive  works  for  its  production  on  the 
spot.  The  total  amount  of  the  phosphates  extracted  up  to  May  1,  1869, 
is  estimated  by  competent  parties  to  be  not  less  than  fifty  thousand  tons. 
Of  this  amount  the  mills  at  Charleston  consumed  from  six  to  eight  thou- 
sand tons,  about  two  thousand  tons  were  sent  to  Europe,  and  the 
remainder  was  shipped  to  northern  ports,  including  Baltimore.  The 
cost  of  extraction  and  preparation  for  shipment  is  estimated  at  about 
six  dollars  per  ton,  exclusive  of  interest  on  capital,  rent,  or  cost  of  land 
and  the  expensive  Avashing  machinery,  tram-ways  and  wharves,  required 
for  operations  on  a  large  scale.  The  separation  of  the  phospliatic  nod- 
ules from  the  almost  inert  clays  vdth  which  they  are  mingled,  and  which 
fill  all  cavities  aud  depressions  in  the  phosphatic  masses,  constitutes  an 
important  item  of  the  cost  of  preparation  for  market. 

The  South  Carolina  phosphates  are  stated  to  be  readily  soluble,  even 
in  dilute  acids ;  and,  in  the  manufacture  of  the  superphosphates,  to  be 
ready  for  bagging  in  forty-eight  hours  after  mixtiu'e  with  the  acid. 

It  is  believed  that  other  deposits,  of  character  similar  to  those  at 
Charleston,  exist  on  the  southeastern  coast  of  the  Uuited  States,  and 
that  the  sui^ply  will  be  found  to  be  practically  inexhaustible. 

Limestone  from  York  County. 


85.  CO 
10.00 
4.50 
0.50 

To  00 

10.00 

9  00 

100. 00 

100.  00 

Limestone  from  Pidcens  County. 

Carboufito  of  lime 

70.00 

Silica 

25  CO 

Aluiuina  .iiiil  oxiilc  of  iron - 

5  00 

100.  CO 

Limestone  from  Sjmrtanlurg  County. 

C.nrbonate  of  lime 

00.56 

6  40 

3.14 

100. 10 

Limestone  from  Laurens  County. 

Carlionate  of  lime 

92.00 

Silica,  alumina,  and  oxido  of 

7.00 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

1.00 

100.00 

38  S 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

likcll  v'url  from  Sumiffr  Coiin'y. 


Carbonate  of  lime 

Silica 

Alnmina.  oxiile  of  iron,  anfl  loss 
Phosphato  of  lime 


70.  CO 

CO.  on 
r».  .'■« 

.50 


100.00 


:<hrJ1  marl  from  Darlington  County. 


Carbonate  of  lime. 
Silica . 


Alumina  ami  oxide  of  iron 


Shell  marl  from  Cooper  County. 


100.00 


w.oo 

2.5.00 


100.00 


Carbonalo  of  Liaae l  f7.  ."iO  90.00 

Silica , i  0.  no  4.00 

Alumina  anil  oxiile  of  iron 5.00  5.50 

Pliospliate  of  limr- 1.50  .50 


100. 00 


GEORGLi. 

In  Georgia  the  older  limestones  are  confined  to  tlie  nortliern  portion 
of  the  State,  through  Avhich  they  are  somewhat  liberally  distributed. 
They  occur  as  marble  of  good  quality  in  the  counties  of  Gilmer,  White, 
Cherokee,  Hall,  and  Ilabersham,  and  in  vaiying  form  in  the  more  west- 
em  comities.  Tlie  most  eastern  develo]iment  of  the  gTeat  Cretaceous  bed 
of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  is  found  in  the  counties  of  Muscogee, 
Marion',  and  Stewart,  manifesting  itself  as  the  well  known  rotten  lime- 
stone. Immense  beds  of  almost  unaltered  shells  are  found  in  central 
Georgia,  Avithm  twenty  or  twenty-five  miles  of  the  gneiss  and  sandstone 
belt.  The  marl  l>eds  of  the  Tertiary  in  Georgia,  with  the  foregoing 
exception,  are  similar,  so  far  as  known,  to  those  of  South  Carolina,  both 
in  location  and  cliaracrer. 


FLORIDA. 

The  peninsula  of  Florida  is  almost  everywhere  underlaid  As-ith  coral 
and  shell  marls  of  the  Tertiary  peiiod,  and  generally  consolidated. 
From  this  material  a  quarry  on  Ana.stasia  Lsland,  ofi"  tlie  mouth  of  the 
St.  John's  River,  furnishes  a  large  supply  of  good  liuilding  stone.  Im- 
mense coast  aecimiiilations  of  recent  shells  and  lime  sand,  formetl  by 
attrition  of  cjoral,  also  exist.  Greensand  marl  has  ]>een  recently  reported 
as  found  in  large  quantity  in  Leon  County,  but  no  analysis  lir.s  yet  been 
obtained. 


THE  MARL  REGION  OF  VIRGINIA. 


From  the  falls  of  the  rivers,  aud  throughout  the  tide-water  ilistrict, 
the  whole  «ountry  is  believed  to  be  underlaid  by  deposits  of  fossil  shells, 
mostly  near  the  sui'face,  but  olten  at  considerable  depths.  It  is  these 
fossilbeds  which  are  eommouly  designated  iii  Virginia  by  the  general 
term  of  '}narL  They  appear  to  have  been  formed  at  an  era  when  the 
waters  in  which  the  animals  lived  were  in  a  tranquil  state:  and  the  time 
they  were  undergoing  the  process  of  accretion  must  have  been  of  incal- 
culable duration.  The  tranquillity  of  the  waters  is  mdicated  by  the  fact 
that  the  inclination  of  the  beds  toward  the  ocean  is  very  gradual ;  that 
gregarious  assemblages  of  the  same  species  are  tVequeutlj'  found  im- 
bedded together ;  and,  above  all,  that  many  of  the  shells  remain  ^rith.  the 
valves  closed,  and  every  pail  entire,  as  if  death  had  oiisued  in  a  natural 
way;  and  even  T,iien  separated  the  valves  of  the  same  shell  are  in  close 
])roximity. 

Professor  Vrilliam  B.  Eogers  made  two  divisions  of  this  portion 
of  the  State.  These  divisions  he  indicated  by  the  terms  mlocene  and 
eocene^  which  are  familiar  to  geologists  as  being  applicable  to  differ- 
ent parts  of  tlie  tertiary  series.  Under  the  designation  of  miocene  are 
included  the  strata  which  occur  in  the  eastern  and  much  the  larger  por- 
tion of  this  region,  in  v.iiich  several  varieties  of  shell  marl  are  procured 
in  abundance;  while  the  name  of  eocene  is  given  to  deposits  of  okk?r 
date,  existing  beneath,  and  cropping  out  west  of  the  preceding,  and  con- 
taining fossil  tihells  of  a  diflerent  character. 

According  to  Professor  Eogers,  the  miocene  marl  district  compre- 
hends the  area  between  the  seaboard  and  a  line  conceived  to  be  drawn 
through  Xorthbury  on  the  Pamunkey,  and  Coggin's  Point  on  James  Eiver, 
(some  six  or  eight  miles  below  City  Point,)  in  a  direction  neaily  merid- 
ional. The  eocene  uiarl  district  is  comprehendeU  between  the  uuaginary 
line  thus  described,  and  another  line  passing  from  the  mouth  of  Aquia 
Creek,  through  Wales  at  the  junction  of  the  North  and  South  Anna 
rivers^  and  thence  through  City  Point.  Its  existence  extensively  beneath 
the  miocene  district  was  regarded  by  Professor  liogers  as  higlii}^  prob- 
able, and  may  now  be  considered  certain,  as  a  very  thick  dei>osit  has 
been  discovered  by  boring  far  do\Mi  below  the  bed  of  Janies  lii'wr,  at 
City  Point,  and  another  at  Norfolk,  of  great  depth,  in  sinking  an  arte- 
sian well.  West  of  City  Point,  however,  and  up  to  the  line  of  granite 
at  the  falls  of  the  river,  a  very  good  agricultural  marl  is  found.  It  seems 
to  have  been  deposited  in  estuaries  of  a  former  sea,  and  may  be  traced, 
at  uitervals,  along  the  Petersburg  and  Weldon  railroad,  the  Eichmond 
and  Petersijurg  i-oad,  and  north  of  Eichmond,  m  the  same  general  di- 
rection, hi  the  counties  of  Hanover,  Caroline,  and  soon.  In  such  places 
the  beds  lie  near  the  surface,  and  are  verj- -accessible  to  farmers  livmg 
along  this  bouudaiy. 

Put  it  is  the  miocene  district  that  is  most  signally  favored  by  the  rich- 
ness and  abundance  of  the  marl  deposits,  and'their  genoi-al  accessibility. 
In  the  upper  or  western  ])ortion  the  country  is  far  from  being  regular. 


390  AGRICULTUEAL   REPOET. 

It  has  rather  an  imdiilating  surface,  -vrith  an  elevation  above  tide  of  from 

twenty  to  eighty  feet ;  and,  being'  penetrated  by  several  large  sti"eams, 
the  bluffs  on  tbeh-  margins  are  cut  up  into  numerous  channels.  It  is 
ilong  these  channels,  high  above  the  water-line,  and  along  the  creeks 
and  inlets  subordinate  to  the  great  rivers,  and  back  into  the  interior  on 
the  same  level,  that  marl  shows  itself,  of  the  finest  quality  and  inexhaust- 
ible in  quantity.  It  may  not,  indeed,  be  obtained  on  every  farm  suf- 
ficiently near  the  surface,  but  few  neighborhoods  are  without  it*  Such, 
at  least,  is  the  case  far  down  the  rivers,  until,  approaching  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  peninsulas,  the  country  subsides  into  a  vast  plain,  with  a 
comparatively  slight  elevation  above  the  water.  Here  the  mioceue  marl 
disappears,  which  leads  to  the  belief  that  it  was  washed  away  by  the 
cun-ents  of  a  former  sea.  But  the  eocene  strata,  over  which  the  mioceue 
lay  superimposed,  still  continue,  though  at  gi*eat  depths.  In  boring  for 
water  at  Norfolk,  thirty  years  ago,  as  previously  referred  to,  shell  marl 
was  fii'st  struck  at  a  depth  of  seventy  feet,  and  there  was  no  change 
in  the  stratum  for  seventy  feet  more,  when  the  auger  broke  and  the 
boring  was  discontinued. 

On  the  eastern  shore  of  Virginia  no  discovery  of  marl,  as  far  as  we 
have  heard,  has  been  made.  But  there  are  numerous  banks  of  oyster 
shells — Indian  banks,  as  they  are  called — ou  the  margins  of  the  creeks 
and  inlets,  supposed  to  have  been  accumulated  by  the  aborigines  belore 
the  discovery  of  the  country.  The  shells  are  in  a  half  decomposed  state, 
and,  as  they  readily  disintegxate  under  the  action  of  the  plow,  they  are 
extensively  used  for  agiicidtm-al  pui-poses.  In  a  disti-ict  of  such  extent 
there  are,  as  may  well  be  supposed,  several  distinct  varieties  of  marl, 
the  most  prominent  of  which  may  be  described  imder  the  following 
classiificatiou : 

1.  Blue  marl. — This  is  the  kind  that  most  abounds  in  the  upper  or 
western  part  of  the  distiict.  It  derives  its  ap]>ellation  from  the  compact 
blue  clay  in  which  the  shells  are  deposited,  and  by  a  stir.timi  of  which — 
usually  four  or  five  feet  in  thickness,  but  destimtc  of  fossil  remains,  con- 
taining only  '•  casts  *'' — the  beds  are  covered.  This  covering  has  to  be 
removed  before  the  marl  can  be  rendered  accessible.  In  favorable  lo- 
caUties,  for  the  beds  are  high  above  the  water,  a  natural  drainage  of  the 
pits  may  be  readily  effected;  but,  where  the  ground  does  not  admit  of 
this,  the  water  must  be  kept  down  by  pumping.  The  accmnidation  is 
seldom  so  great,  however,  as  to  render  tiiis  a  laborious  ojieration,  or  to 
interfere  materially  with  the  working  of  the  pits.  The  marl  is  raised  by 
a  sweep  or  other  simi:)le  machinery,  or,  in  places  where  the  deposits  are 
shallow,  it  may  be  cast  out  on  the  banks  by  hand.  When  first  excavated 
it  is  very  heaws,  and  the  hauling  to  the  fields  is  quite  laborious;  but 
planters  who  are  prosperous  collect  a  large  supply  on  the  banks  of  the 
pits,  enough  to  suffice  for  the  operations  of  a  whole  season.  ^In  the 
course  of  a  few  months  the  moisture  is  drained  off'  from  the  mass,  and 
the  clay  also  loses  much  of  its  adhesion.  It  is,  therefore,  in  a  bi-tter 
conditiou  to  be  haided  ou  the  land,  while  the  burden  of  hauling  is  ma- 
terially lightened.  This  variety  of  marl  is  not  so  rich  in  calcareous 
matter  as  some  others,  containing,  perhaps,  on  an  average,  not  more 
than  fifty  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime :  but  the  clay  which  accom])a- 
nies  it  renders  it  highly  useful  in  its  application  to  arenaceous  soils.  The 
coloring  matter  of  the  clay  is  believed  to  be  derived  from  the  presence 
of  minute  particles  of  greensand,  which,  of  itself,  is  a  valuable  ingredi- 
ent in  calcai^eous  manures.  The  blue  marl  also  contains  crystals  ot 
gyi")sum,  sometimes  very  numerous. 

And  here,  though  perhaps  not  strictly  lq  place,  it  may  be  well  to 


MAEL   EEGION   OP   TTRGrS'IA.  391 

describe  the  mode  of  transpoitation  to  the  fields,  and  the  iisnal  qnautity 
applied  to  the  laud,  which  is  equally  applicable  to  eveiy  variety  of  marl. 
Assumiug:  an  acre  to  contain,  in  round  numbers,  five  thousand  square 
yards,  the  field  is  marked  ofi'  with  a  plow  into  spaces  of  ten  yards  each 
way.  thus  making  fifty  spaces  to  the  acre.  In  the  midtUe  of  each  space  five 
bushels  are  dropped.  The  boundaries  being  defined,  it  is  easy  to  dis- 
ti-ibute  with  unifonnity,  and  at  any  desired  rate.  Carts  made  expressly 
for  the  puri)oso,  and  of  a  capacity  of  five  bushels,  drawn  by  a  single  horse 
or  mule,  being  provided,  the  work  of  removal  goes  bravely  and  systemati- 
cally on :  and  with  good,  active  drivers  and  sufficient  teams,  a  large 
sui-face  may  be  marled  during  periods  of  leisiu^e. 

This  is  m'ariing  at  the  rate  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre,^ 
which  is  considered  an  ample  di^essing  for  any  laud  not  in  a  coui-se  of 
amelioration.  On  sterile  lands,  where  there  is  little  or  no  vegetation,  it 
maybe  too  much;  and  the  efiect  would  be  to  -marl-bm-n"  the  soil. 
But  any  land,  however  exhausted,  may  be  improved  by  the  addition  of 
vegetable  matter,  such  as  woods  litter,  pine  beards,  &c.  In  i daces 
where  the  land  has  been  thrown  out  of  cultivation,  and  the  old  field 
pine  taken  possession,  a  large  quantity  of  suitable  material  is  cheaply 
and  conveniently  supphed  by  felling  the  gTOwth,  then  lopping  oil'  the 
branches,  and  leaving  the  whole  for  a  couple  of  years  to  decay.  The 
marl  should  be  previously  spread  over  the  surlace  that  it  may  have 
the  benefit  of  a  more  perfect  disintegration  by  exiiosm-e  to  the  air, 
though  it  may  be  done  with  nearly  as  good  efl:ect  afterwards.  In  pre- 
paring for  a  crop,  as  much  of  the  decayed  vegetation  should  be  turned 
in  as  the  plow  will  cover.  A  gi-eat  deal  of  land  has,  in  this  way,  been 
restored  tiom  poverty  to  fertility. 

When  the  shells  are  first  taken  from  their  beds  they  are  in  their  natural 
shape,  and  possess  a  gi-eater  or  less  degree  of  solidity.  But  being  mixed 
up  with  the  soil  by  cultivation,  and  acted  on  either  by  the  acids  of  the 
soil  or  the  gases  of  the  atmosphere,  or  both,  they  soon  become  thoroughly 
decomposed,  and  all  visible  trace  of  them  is  lost  after  a  few  years. 

2.  White  marl — In  the  peninsula  formed  by  the  James  and  the 
York  Eiver,  and  in  several  of  the  counties  north  of  the  York,  are  exten- 
sive beds  of  white,  or  pulveralent  marl,  very  lich  in  calcai-eous  matter; 
some  specimens  containing  as  much  as  ninety-five  per  cent.,  and  gener- 
ally not  less  than  seventy-five  or  eighty  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
lu'these  beds  the  sheUs  are  rarely  found  entii-e.  and  the  condition  of  the 
fragments  is  such  as  to  render  it  difiicult  to  recognize  the  species  of  fos- 
sil to  which  they  belonged.  The  mail  presents  an  appearance  not  mdike 
an  impm-e  chalk.  In  places,  however,  it  is  mixed  with  a  large  propor- 
tion of  white  clay  and  sand,  so  nearly  the  same  color  as  to  make  it  diffi- 
cult to  distingtiish  between  them  without  the  application  of  chemical 
tests. 

3.  Greensand  marl — This  abounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Panmnkey 
Eiver.  in  ihv  counties  of  Hanover  and  Xew  Kent,  and  is  perhaps  the 
most  beneficial  in  its  action  on  the  soil  of  all  the  varieties  of  fossil 
deposits.  Besitles  carbonate  of  lime  it  contains  potash,  ])hosphorus, 
and  not  nnfreqnently  ammonia,  TMien  the  agriculture  of  Yii-ginia  was 
in  a  flourishing  condition,  the  evidences  of  improvement  were  paiticu- 
larly  conspicuous  in  that  part  of  the  State  where  this  kind  of  marl  is 
found. 

•4.  Ferniffhious  marl. — In  some  localities  the  shells  are  deposited  in  a 
yellow  or  ochi'eous  clay,  which,  doubtless,  derives  its  color  from  the  prox- 
imity of  femiginons  matter.  The  beds  in  some  cases  are  not  more  diffi- 
cult of  excavation  than  those  of  the  blue  marl,  and  the  efiect  on  the  land 


ob2  AGSICLLTLRAL    EEPOET. 

is  very  mucli  tiie  same.  But  iu  other  localities  they  have  become  iiida- 
rated  and  ;av  brokeu  up,  not  ^\*ithout  considei-able  Uibor.  Iu  its  texture 
this  mail  .vomttinies  bears  a  i^esemblance  to  a  secondary  limestone,  but, 
iu  the  oi)ij!ion  of  Professor  Kogers,  it  is  properly  a  tertiary  limestone. 
It  is  found  in  fi-agmentary  masses  along  the  cliffs  of  York  Eiver  on  the 
southern  bank,  and  particularly  abounds  in  the  neighborhood  of  York- 
to\ui.  It  shows  it.-^lf  above  the  water-mark,  and  in  precipitous  places 
the  suriace  has  been  scooped  out  by  the  action  of  the  weather,  assisted 
perhaps  by  aitilicial  agencies.  At  Yorktown.  for  instance,  there  is  an 
excavation,  known  by  the  name  of  Cornwallis's  Cave,  which  tradition 
represents  as  having  afforded  a  refuge  to  the  commander  of  the  British 
foi-ces.  at  the  time  of  the  memorable  siege  of  that  place.  This  rock  was 
ased  to  some  extent  iu  colonial  times  as  a  building  material,  but  it  has 
not  been  found  to  possess  the  requisite  solidity.  It  contains  a  large 
percentage  ot  cirbouate  of  lime,  and  might,  therefore,  be  converted,  by 
burning,  into  a  valuable  agiicultm^al  lime.  A  specimen  of  the  cliff  at 
York,  according  to  iui  analysis  by  Professor  llogers,  yielded  87  per 
cent,  of  calcareous  carbonate ;  and,  computing  the  quantity  of  caustic 
lime  corresponding  to  this,  he  estimated  that  a  hundred  pounds  of 
the  shell  rock  v.ouJd  yield  J.S.7  pounds  of  strong  lime.  We  have  no 
knowledge  of  its  ha'i'ing  been  burned,  but  from  the  abundance  of  fuel 
in  the  %icinit\"  it  might,  without  doubt,  be  converted  into  a  lime  useful 
both  for  agricultural  and  building  puiposes.  The  use  of  marl  was  seri- 
ously inten-nptcd,  not  to  say  suspended,  by  the  war,  nor  has  it  since 
been  resumed  to  any  gieat  extent.  But  it  is  beginning  now  to  come  in 
request  again,  ovdng  more  perhaps  to  the  increasing  cultivation  of  pea- 
nuts than  to  a:;y  other  cause.  This  crop  will  only  come  to  perfection 
on  liighly  calcareous  soils,  as  otherwise  the  pods,  however  luxmiant 
may  be  the  giov,  th  of  vines,  do  not  lili.  According  to  i)resent  indication 
the  peanut  will  soon  become  the  leading  crop  in  Eastern  Yu-giiiia. 
From  the  gi'eat  number  of  persons  intending  to  engage  iu  its  cidture 
duiing  the  coming  season,  the  presumption  is  reasonable  that  the  use 
of  mail  wdi  receive  a  fresh  stimidus,  such  as  has  not  been  witnessed 
for  the  last  ten  years. 

Owing  to  its  gieat  weight,  it  has  not  been  found  profitable  to  transport 
mnrl  beyond  short  distances.  The  white  variety,  being  the  richest  and  less 
encumbered  with  clay,  has  been  lightered  from  one  locality'  and  even 
from  one  county  to  another.  This  wa,s  when  its  use  lirst  excited  a 
general  interest.  Subsequently,  however,  it  was  found  more  economical 
to  those  who  had  no  marl  deposits  on  their  estates  to  purchase  what 
was  generally  kiiown  as  agiicultiu'al  lime,  vast  quantities  of  which  came 
in  the  course  of  time  to  be  taken  by  farmers  living  on  the  margins  of  the 
navigable  streams,  at  whose  landings  it  was  delivered  in  bulk.  A 
regidjir  trade  wa.s  kept  uj),  for  instance,  between  the  James  Piivcr  and 
the  Iludson,  farmers  usually  jiaj.'ing  by  the  cargo  from  seven  to  eight 
cents  a  bushel  in  its  powdered  slate.  Since  the  war,  very  little  of  this 
traffic  has  been  going  on,  for  which  two  reasons  may  be  assigned  :  first, 
that  tanners  aix*  not  yet  in  a  situation  to  make  large  investments  for  the 
progressive  improvement  of  their  estates,  and  second,  shell  lime  is  fur- 
nished in  sirfiicient  quantity  to  meet  the  present  demand.  This  is  sup- 
plied chiefly  from  Norfolk,  where  oyster  shells  accumulate  in  immense 
quantities,  and  is  thence  distributed  to  the  inland  towns,  and  to  such 
interior  portions  of  the  country  as  are  rendered  accessible  by  lines  of 
railway.  This  also  goes  under  the  general  name  of  agricultunil  lime. 
It  is  the  pni'est  fomi  in  which  lime  can  be  obtiiined,  and  is  sold  at  the 
kiins  either  bv  measure  or  weight,  sav  twelve  and  a  half  cents  a  bushel 


MARL    REGION    OP    VIRGINIA.  39ri 

or  five  dollars  a  ton.  Tlii.s  would  make  the  first  cost  reasonable  enough, 
but  it  caimot  be  less  than  doubled  ai"ter  addiug  the  expenses  of  trans- 
portation to  a  distance.  But  though  possessing  a  larger  percentage  oi" 
calcareous  matter  than  stone  lime,  yet  nothing  of  the  kind  ever  acted 
better  on  oiu?  soils  than  what  was  formerly  brought  from  the  North 
River,  being,  with  the  exception  of  sand,  free  from  all  extraneous  ingre- 
dients, such  as  magnesia,  which  is  foimd  in  so  large  proportion  in  the 
Washington  lime,  rendering  it  oftentimes  hiutful  instead  of  beneficial 
to  the  land.  Whenever  the  lands  on  our  river  borders  shall  be  brought 
again  into  extensive  cultivation,  the  North  Eiver  lime  will  doubtless 
come  into  as  great  request  as  formerly. 

It  would  be  doing  injustice  to  the  name  of  a  distiuguished  agriculturist 
and  a  man  of  genius  to  withhold  in  this  connection  a  reference  to  the  labors 
and  experiments  of  the  late  Edmund  Ruffin. .  His  fame  is,  in  fact,  iudis- 
solubly  associated  with  this  subject,  for  he  was  the  pioneer  in  the  work, 
devoting  for  years  a  mind  of  extraordinary  activity  to  elibrts,  both  by 
example  and  precept,  directing  public  interest  in  this  channel  of  improve- 
ment. A  small  number  of  experiments  had  been  made  in  marling  in 
James  City  County,  as  early  as  181G,  or  perhaps  earlier,  but  without 
being  conducted  with  any  intelligent  purpose.  In  ignorance  of  these, 
however,  Mr.  Ruffin  made  his  first  exj^eriment  in  1818,  to  the  trial  of 
which  he  was  led  altogether  by  theoretical  views  and  by  reasoning  on  the 
suj^posed  constitution  of  the  soil,  as  well  as  the  known  constitution  ^f 
the  manure.  This  was  on  his  farm  at  Coggin's  Point,  on  James  Riv>  r, 
in  the  county  of  Prince  George.  It  extended  over  an  area  of  about  fif- 
teen acres,  but  by  1821  the  area  vras  increased  to  eighty  acres,  and  was 
subsequently  contiiuied,  until  within  a  fevv'  years  all  the  arable  laud  on 
the  farm,  say  six  hundred  acres,  was  thoroughly  mtiried.  The  result 
was  marvelous,  and  soon  had  the  etfect  of  stimidating  others  to  engage 
in  the  work,  until  the  ]nactice  of  marling  became  general  among  intelli- 
gent farmers  throughout  tide- water  Virginia.  In  all  cases  wherein  any 
thing  like  an  ameliorating  rotation  was  followed,  the  crops  were  quad- 
rupled and  the  land  put  into  a  course  of  permanent  improvement.  Pro- 
verbially slow  as  agricultiuTil  progress  has  ever  been,  yet  in  the  course 
of  forty  years,  from  a  very  small  beginning,  a  vast  revolution  was  effected, 
and  all  through  the  agency  of  one  man  of  comprehensive  views  and  un- 
tiling energy,  v.iiose  services  in  a  noble  piu'suit  entitle  him  to  rank 
as  a  i)ublic  benefactor. 

Ivlr.  Rufiin's  writings  on  the  subject  of  marl  were  quite  voluminous. 
For  ten  years  he  conducted  the  Farmers^  Register^  an  agricultm^al  journal, 
issued  monthly  at  Peteisburg  from  1833  to  1843,  in  v,hich  the  subject  of 
marl  occupied  a  prominent  place.  But  his  fame  as  a  writer  is  chieiiy 
built  on  his  Uti.iaf/  on  Caleareous  2Ianurcs,  an  octavo  volume  of  three 
hundred  i)ages,  which  took  position  as  a  standard  vrork  immediately  on 
its  publication. 

THE   LIZ^IESTONE   r.ECTlO:N-. 

Limestones  occupy  the  valley  of  Virginia  throughout  its  length  and 
breadth.  Some  of  them  are  of  gTcat  purity  and  yield  iimes  ecjual  to 
any  from  the  north.  Some,  too,  v>hen  burned  and  ground,  yield  tidmri-able 
hydraulic  cements.  These  last,  however,  would  not  make  limes  suited 
to  agricultural  jmrposes.  Limestones  also  occur  in  several  places  west 
of  the  groat  valley.  The  Warm  Spring  Valley  is  a  limestone  formation, 
and  large  areas  in  Highland  County  are  covered  vdthit;  while  still  fur- 
ther v.est,  hi  what  arc*  nov/  the  border  coimties  of  West  Virginia,  lime- 


394  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

stones,  the  same  that  make  Kentucky  so  m^eat  a  grazing  country,  abound 
almost  everywhere,  and  impart  to  this  whole  section  its  distinctive  fea- 
ture as  one  of  the  Jinest  grazing  counti'ies  in  the  world. 

It  would  seem,  from  all  we  can  gather,  that  very  little  lime  has  been 
used  in  the  valley  as  a  fertilizer.  Jiut  it  does  not  follow  from  this  that 
applications  of  lime  to  Umestone  lands  are  not  benehcial.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  almost  universal  use  of  lime  in  Lancaster  and  other  limestone 
counties  in  Pennsylvania,  where  high  farming  is  the  rule  rather  tlian 
the  exception,  demonstrates  its  gTcat  value  in  promoting  the  fertility  of 
the  soil.  The  experience,  indeed,  of  some  of  our  own  valley  farmers, 
who  have  used  lime,  goes  to  prove  the  same  thing.  East  of  the  Blue 
Eidge,  in  what  is  termed  the  Piedmont  division  of  the  State,  a  belt  of 
talcose  and  mica  slate,  of  varying  width,  traverses  the  counties  of  h'au- 
quier,  of  Culpeper,  Orange,  Louisa,  Albemarle,  Buckingham,  Nelson, 
Amherst,  Campbell,  Pittsylvania,  and  Franklin,  followiug  a  direction 
mainly  parallel  to  the  mountain  crests,  and  consequently  running  north- 
east and  southwest.  A  line  traced  on  the  State  map  from  the  mouth 
of  Summerduck  Run,  on  the  Rappahanock,  through  Orange  Court  House, 
Gordonsville,  Warminster,  on  the  James,  to  the  mouth  of  Archer's 
Creek,  and  i)rolonged  to  the  southwest  into  Franklin  County,  would  in- 
dicate approximately  the  position  and  direction  of  this  belt  of  talcose 
rocks,  which  accompanies  the  limestone.  The  limestones  occur  some- 
what in'egularly  along  this  line,  interrupted  or  in  layers ;  not  contin- 
uous, but  outcropping  at  various  places  v.here  they  have  been  quarried 
either  for  building  or  burning  to  lime.  From  a  short  distance  above 
Scottsville  up  nearly  to  Lynchburg  the  James  River  meanders  through 
this  belt,  and  consequently  we  find  the  limestone  expo"Sed  at  numerous 
points  along  the  river,  and  favorably  located  for  quarrying  and  Avater 
transportation.  If  lime  suitable  for  agricultural  i)urposes  can  be  obtained 
from  it,  this  calciferous  belt,  running  through  a  section  the  soils  of  which 
are  as  a  rule  dehcient  in  Ume,  must  prove  an  incalculable  blessing  to 
farmers.  Various  analyses  of  these  limestones,  made  by  Professor 
Rogers  while  State  geologist,  demonstrate  their  A'alue  for  all  the  purposes 
to  which  lime  may  be  applied.  Considerable  variation  in  the  constit- 
uents are  reported  in  specimens  from  difterent  localities,  some  yielding 
a  lune  of  excellent  quality,  some  being  true  hydraulic  limes,  while  others 
contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  magnesia.  How^  far  the  presence 
of  this  mineral  may  affect  its  value  for  agricultm^al  purposes  the  writer 
is  not  prepared  to  say.  A  belt  similar  to  the  one  described  traverses 
the  northwest  side  of  Fauquier  and  Loudon,  lying  along  the  west  side 
of  Bull-Run  Mountain.  At  several  localities  in  this  belt  the  limestone 
has  been  burned,  and  is  said  to  have  yielded  lime  of  good  quality  for 
building  purposes,  but  we  have  no  information  that  it  has  jjeen  used  as 
a  fertilizer. 

It  is  within  the  recollection  of  the  writer  that  the  o'uniers  of  limekilns 
along  Jauies  River,  at  its  intersection  with  the  belt  above  described, 
were  at  one  time  ready  to  make  contracts  with  the  farmers  living  below 
for  the  delivery  of  agricultural  lime  at  their  landings  on  the  canal.  Only 
a  small  quantity,  however,  was  taken,  and  no  valuable  result  was  ever 
reported.  It  W'as  believed  that  the  soils  near  the  river  did  not  require 
it,  and  thus  the  use  of  lime  throughout  the  district,  from  the  Blue  Ridge 
to  tide-water,  seems  to  hnve  made  no  jn-ogress  whatever.  At  the  same 
time  the  soils  are  believed  to  be  destitute  of  any  calcareous  ingredient, 
while  a  portion  of  them  evidently  comes  under  the  head  of  'acid  "  soils, 
according  to  the  nomenclature  of  Mr.  Ruffin,  as  is  indicated  by  the 
growth  of  son-el,  broomsedge,  huckleberry  bushes,  old-held  pine,  and 


\ 

MARL   REGION   OF  VIRGINIA.  395 

otlicr  sour  plants.  But  g:eiierally  tlie  soils  of  all  tbis  region  are  liigbly 
improvable,  restiu.ii-  for  tbeinost  part  ou  a  basis  of  red  or  yellow  clay. 
Tlie  red  soils  of  Albemarle  and  Goocbland  are  proverbial  for  tbeir  fer- 
tility. Clover  fiTOws  well  wberever  the  land  bas  not  been  exbaiisted, 
and  plaster  bas  a  line  elTect.  Sbould  lime  ever  become  accessible  at  a 
moderate  cost,  tbis  may  be  made  one  of  tbe  fmest,  as  it  is  one  of  tbe 
most  sahibrions,  districts  in  tbe  State. 

According-  to  all  analogy  we  sbonld  expect  to  find  limestone  accompa- 
nying tbe  coal  measiues  of  Cbestcrfield,  Henrico,  and  Goochland.  Bnt 
not  a  trace  exists,  witb  tbe  exception  of  a  tbin  crystalline  deposit  of 
pme  carbonate  of  lime,  resting  immediately  on  tbe  granite  wbicb  forms 
tbe  bed  of  tlie  coal  basin.  Tbis  extensive  coal-field  is  tliongbt  by  geolo- 
gists to  bave  been  deposited  long  subsequent  to  those  of  otlier  coal 
districts,  and  tberefore  not  properly  belonging  to  tbe  carboniferous  era. 
It  affords  tbe  only  instance,  it  is  bebeved,  in  wbicb  tbe  coal  is  superim- 
posed immediately  above  tbe  granite.  Tbis  is  not  uniformly  tbe  case, 
bowever,  on  account  of  tbe  fi'equent  and  violent  dislocations  tbat  are 
found  to  occur  in  every  part  of  tbe  basin  yet  explored,  and  wbicb  in 
tbe  sinking  of  a  sbaft  render  tbe  striking  of  a  seam  as  much  a  matter 
of  cbance  as  of  science.  Thus  far,  coal  bas  been  raised  only  on  tbe 
eastern  and  tbe  western  boundary  of  tba  basin,  wbicb  is  from"^  eight  to 
tfen  miles  in  widtb;  and,  from  tbe  gTeat  dip  of  tbe  strata,  it  is  bardly 
possible  it  will  ever  be  raised  from  tbe  middle,  not  even  by  means  of 
drifts,  Abeady  tbere  are  numerous  pits  from  seven  buudred  to  eigbt 
bundred  feet  dee])  ^  itbiu  a  mile  of  tbe  outcropping. 

Tbe  fine  coal  wbicb  accumulates  at  tbe  moutbs  of  tbe  shafts  bas  been 
used  for  agTicultm-al  purposes,  and  not  witbout  benefit  But  tbe  effect 
is  perhaps  only  mecbanical,  by  improving  tbe  texture  of  beavy  soils,  or 
contributbig  to  tbe  warmth  of  those  which  are  cold  by  a  freer  admission 
of  the  sun's  rays. 

PLASTER. 

The  only  extensive  deposit  of  gy-psum  in  tbe  State,  as  far  as  we 
have  any  knowledge,  is  situated  in  the  extreme  sonthwestern  por- 
tion, in  the  counties  of  Smyth  and  Washington.  It  is  found  in  the  val- 
leys of  the  Xorth  Holston  Eiver  and  of  Walker's  Creek,  between  Walk- 
ers Mountain  and  Clinch  Mountain,  and  sti'etcbes  along  these  valleys 
for  foit>-  miles  in  a  nearly  east  and  west  direction.  Tbe"  plaster  occurs 
as  boulders,  some  of  which  are  of  immense  size,  imbedded  in  clay.  The 
dei>osit  is  believed  to  have  great  depth,  and  practically  it  may  be 
regarded  as  inexhaustible.  Tbe  beds  have  not  been  worked  to  any 
great  extent,  though  enough  has  been  taken  out  to  supply  the  wants  of 
the  surjounding  country.  It  has  found  its  way  also  along  the  Virginia 
an<l  Tennessee  raikoad  as  far  as  Liberty,  in  Bedford  County,  and  from 
tbis  and  other  points  on  tbe  road  over  the  mountain  into'  Botetourt, 
and  some  is  sent  hi  boats  down  the  Holston  Eiver.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  tbat  witb  convenient  access  to  a  market  by  railroad  or  water, 
with  transportation  at  reasonable  rates,  the  whole  State,  above  tide 
water  at  least,  could  be  supplied  Avith  plaster  at  prices  considerably  less 
than  for  Nova  Scotia  i)laster.  The  beds  are  several  miles  from  the  rail- 
road, so  tbat  at  inesent  the  plaster  has  to  undergo  the  expensive  process 
of  haubng  in  wagons;  but  it  is  understood  that  eftbrts  are  being  made 
to  get  a  branch  road,  or  tram-way,  to  the  banlcs.  An  analysis  by  Pro- 
fessor Gilham  makes  this  plaster  equal  in  all  respects  to  the  Nova 
Scotia. 


CONCENTRATED    FERTILIZERS    IN    THE    SOUTH- 
ERN STATES. 


THE   PECULTAR   ^VA^"TS   OF   SOrTKEEN   AGEICIXTURE. 

Cotton  i)lautiu<,%  the  product  of  which  is  largely  exported  and  which 
demands  constant  tillage,  and  the  occasional  hea^*>-  rains  falling  on  light 
jilowed  ground  easily  washed,  tends  powerfully  to  denude  and  imporerish 
the  soil.  As  no  cotton,  grain,  or  tobacco  can  be  raised  without  cultiva- 
tion, and  frequent  heavy  itiins  are  as  distinctive  in  their  character  as 
any  other  feature  of  our  climate,  fertility  can  be  maintained  in  long-cul- 
tivated fields  only  by  restoring  to  the  soil  in  some  way  tbe  elements  of 
crops  removed  ])artly  by  washing  rains  and  partly  by  fertilizing 
atoms  consumed  in  the  groAvth  of  cultivated  jilants.  Hence,  planting 
industry  in  a  serai-tropical  climate  requires  for  its  highest  usefulness 
and  suc«cess  far  more  manure  derived  from  sources  outside  of  the  plan- 
tation than  ordir.ary  farming,  or  mingled  gi^ss  and  grain  culture  with 
stock  husbandry.  Under  the  latter  system  the  farmer  has  su^icrior 
advantages  for  tlie  home  x>roduction  of  fertilizers  from  live  stock,  that 
give  a  profit  indei»endent  of  their  manure.  Fields  seeded  to  permanent 
grass  or  in  clover  are  generally  exempt  from  injurious  surface  washing, 
while  all  the  fertilizing  substances  contained  in  a  rich  tiu'f,  and  in  the 
valuable  roots,  stems,  and  leaves  of  clover,  are  draAvn,  in  part  at  least, 
from  the  atmosphere  and  the  deep  subsoil.  To  exclude  Irom  cotton 
plantations  all  clover,  gi'ass,  culture  and  stock  growing  is  not  v.ise. 
unless  one  may  command  at  a  low  jmce  concentrated  commercial 
manures  that  will  at  once  maintain  the  fruitfulness  of  every  field  and 
return  a  satisfactoiy  proiit.  Commendtible  efforts  have  been  made,  and 
are  still  in  progress  and  increasing,  to  suii])ly  manures  of  this  character. 
They  are  essentially  such  elements  of  fertility  as  disintegrated  rocks 
yield  to  the  best  clay,  sand,  and  soils.  Such  -jdant-food  as  rain  water 
and  the  atmosphere  su])ply  over  every  poor  field  as  generously  as  over 
those  most  ])roductive,  are  to  a  large  extent  left  out.  Concentration 
means  the  exclusion  of  all  atoms  in  manure  that  experience  proves  to 
l>e  of  less  value  than  those  retained.  A  fertilizer  that  has  no  gi^eater 
value,  pound  for  pound,  than  common  yard  and  stable  manure,  vrill  not 
bear  long  and  expensive  transimrtation,  if  the  ]»lanter  obtained  it  in  the 
first  instance  for  nothing.  Concx^ntration,  therefore,  is  a  matter  of  the 
gi-eatest  practiced  importance  where  land  by  the  hundred  million  acres, 
remote  from  commercial  centers,  is  to  be  fertilized  by  commercial 
manures.  As  far  as  the  planter,  farmer,  or  stock  raiser  sends  a  bale  of 
cotton,  barrel  of  Hour,  or  fat  steer  to  market,  which  takes  from  the  soil 
a  i)art  of  its  indispensable  ]»hosphates,  sidphates,  potash,  and  other 
bases,  the  luinciple  of  restitution  should  be  applied  and  compensation 
made,  if  need  l>e,  by  the  return  of  the  fertilizing  substances  named.  A 
nation  of  farmers  and  planters  who  cultivate  poor  land  without  manure 
must,  from  the  necessities  of  the  case,  support  half  of  its  entli^e  popula- 
tion in  poverty,  ignorance?,  and  a  low  standard  of  material  and  moral 
comfort.  Unproductive  labor  enriches  no  one,  while  it  denies  that 
.  "hope  of  reward ""  which  is  the  very  life  and  inspiration  of  happ}"  indus- 


roNrj:NTRA'ri:D  fertilizers  in  the  southern  states,     r.97 

try.  A  nation  heavily  in  debt  can  ill  afford  to  eultivatc  land  too  ]-)oor 
ro  return  more  than  a  bare  subsistence  to  the  millions  that  live  upon  ii : 
and  it  is  still  worse  economy  to  impoveiish,  l>om  the  lack  of  manure, 
tlic  Imitful  lands  that  remain  to  ns  of  our  noble  inheritance,  ]!^ot  onl\ 
our  cotton  growing  interest  in  the  South,  but  our  Avheat  and  corn  grow- 
ing interests  everywhere,  demand  the  raw  material  for  making  crops  at 
the  cheapest  rate  it  can  be  furnished  by  the  best  talent,  science,  and  art 
in  the  country.  Let  us  examine  some  of  our  resources  in  the  planting 
States  to  supply  the  essential  food  of  plants. 

SALTPETER  CAVES  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

It  is  a  historical  fact  of  no  inconsiderable  agricultural  importance  that, 
during  the  last  war  with  Great  Britain,  when  our  coasts  were  blockaded, 
saltjieter  was  made  for  gunpowder  from  the  nitrate  of  lime  taken  from 
the  Mammoth  Cave  in  Kentucky.  Similar  caves,  l)ut  less  in  extent,  in 
North  Alabama,  IMiddle  and  East  Tennessee,  and  Virginia,  fiu-nished  a 
large  but  unknown  quantity  of  this  nitrate  during  the  recent  cIatI  war. 
One  of  these  niter-i)roducing  caves  exists  on  the  farm  of  Dr.  Lee, 
about  twenty-five  miles  below  Kuoxville,  and  another  on  the  farm  where 
he  resides,  near  the  French  Broad  Eiver,  in  Knox  County.  The  suc- 
cessful use  of  nitric  acid,  in  combination  with  ])otash,  soda,  lime,  and 
magnesia,  as  a  fertilizer,  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  a  pound  of 
nitrogen  in  this  form  is  not  less  valuable  as  plant-food  than  an  equal 
weight  in  the  form  of  ammonia.  Therefore,  whoever  can  produce  the 
nitrate  of  lime,  in  a  cave  or  elsewhere,  may  produce  the  most  valuable 
constituent  in  Peruvian  guano,  an  imported  manure  w^orth  eighty  dol- 
lars a  ton  in  Baltimore,  and  ninety-live  dollars  a  ton  in  several  southern 
cities.  Deprive  this  expensive  manure  of  its  nitrogen,  and  its  market 
value  mil  fall  at  once  to  less  than  half  of  its  present  price,  although  the 
average  c[uantity  of  nitrogen  contained  in  it  does  not  exceed  twelve  per 
cent. 

As  a  source  of  assimilable  nitrogen,  nitrilication  is  a  matter  that  well 
deserves  the  study  of  every  planter  and  tarmer.  It  is  not  more  certain 
that  common  mold  and  toad-stools  grow  on  a  dung  heap  than  that 
saltpeter  will  grow  at  the  expense  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  and  oxygen, 
under  favoring  conditions.  Kitric  acid  probably  exists  more  abundantly 
in  Chili  and  Peru,  in  combination  with  soda  as  cubic-niter,  than  in  aijy 
other  countries  ;  and  it  is  found  under  conditions  that  forbid  the  idea 
that  the  acid  has  a  vegetable  or  animal  origin.  Nitrilication  appears  to 
resemble  combustion,  with  this  ditrerence :  carbon,  hydrogen,  sulphur, 
and  phosphorus,  burn  and  form  acids  without  the  aid  and  presence  of 
any  base  to  unite  with  the  acid  generated ;  while  the  combustion  of 
nitrogen  with  oxygen  requu^es  the  aid  of  a  present  alkali  or  alkaline 
base  to  combine  with  and  take  up  nitric  acid  as  fast  as  it  is  formed. 
Decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter  liberating  nascent  nitrogen  iu  the 
presence  of  lime  iu  our  caves,  of  soda  iu  Chili,  and  i)otash  in  many 
places,  may  be,  and  probably  is,  necessary  to  start  the  formation  ol' 
nitric  acid ;  but  nitrification  once  going  on,  with  an  abundant  supj)ly  of 
oxygen  and  nitrogen  present,  and  lime  greedy  to  consume  the  acid  as 
soon  as  formed,  much  more  niter  appears  in  the  result  than  the  organic 
inatter  will  account  for  by  the  nitrogen  sui)plied.  Precisely  what  vary- 
ing conditions  extinguish  the  chemical  action  called  nitrification  are  not 
known.  The  subject  loses  some  of  its  practical  importance  on  lime- 
stone laud,  from  the  fact  that  with  clover  and  a  little  plaster  we  can 
draw  assimilable   nitrogen  directly  from   the  atmosphere  cheaper  in 


398  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

all  oiir  fields  than  we  can  produce  it  in  caves  or  elsewhere,  to  be 
used  as  a  manure.  The  consumers  of  Peruvian  griiano  i»ay  more  for 
assimilable  nitrogen  than  it  is  fairly  worth.  Biinpng  nitrogen  from 
Peru  to  this  country  and  Europe  for  manure  is  about  as  wise  as  the 
transportation  of  brick  from  Holland  to  build  houses  on  the  clay  l>anks 
of  Albany,  New  York,  and  from  England  for  a  similar  pur]X)S€  in 
the  colonies  of  Virginia  and  Maryland.  On  non-calcareous  soils  the 
nitrate  of  Lime  may  be  used  at  a  large  profit.  It  is  worthy  of  remark 
that,  in  the  absence  of  an  alkaline  base,  nitrogen  liberated  fi'om  decay- 
ing substances  unites  with  hydrogen  to  form  one  (aumionia)  in  prefer- 
ence to  combining  with  oxygen  to  form  an  acid.  The  chemistry  of  the 
dung-heap  and  of  all  agTicultiu\al  salts  is  alike  inviting  and  instractive, 
and  it  is  strange,  or  at  least  unfortunate,  that  jilanters  and  farmers 
who  invest  thousands  in  acids  and  olkalies  for  maniu'e  every  year,  are  so 
unwilling  to  study  their  mutual  affinities,  origin,  and  agi-ieultural  force. 
The  action  of  lime  in  saltpeter  caves  suggests  it«  use  in  composts,  on  the 
fai'm.  and  as  a  fertilizer  in  the  soil  everywhere.  If  lime  in  rocks  and 
soils  does  not  augment  fruitfiilness,  why  are  the  limestone  districts  in 
Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama  (not  to  name  those  in  Xew 
Tork,  Pennsylvania,  antl  Ohio)  so  remarkable  for  theu'  fertility  ?  Lime 
as  the  base  of  an  acid  will  convey  into  the  circulation  of  agricidtm-al 
plants  carbon,  nitrogen,  chlorine,  sulphiu-.  and  phosphorus:  but  all  these 
elements  of  crops  must  be  in  the  soil,  within  its  reach  and  in  an  availa- 
ble form. 

Having  briefly  noticed  niti'ogen  in  connection  ^vith  lime  as  a  fertilizer, 
phosphorus  will  next  be  considered  as  it  is  found  in — 

THE  BOXE  PHOSPHATES  OF  SOUTH  CAUOLTN'A. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  richest  deposit  of  bone  phosphates 
on  the  continent,  and,  as  far  as  known,  in  the  world,  exists  in  South 
Carolina,  not  far  fi'om  Charleston.  Dr.  Pratt,  of  that  city,  whose  ana- 
Ij-tical  researches  develcpetl  the  fidl  value  and  significance  of  this  won- 
derfid  mine  of  phosphoric  acid,  says : 

"  This  bed  has  long  been  known  in  the  history  of  the  geology  of  South 
Carolina  as  the  •  Fish-bed  of  the  Charleston  basin,'  on  account  of  the 
abundant  remains  of  marine  animals  found  in  it :  Professor  Holmes,  of 
Charleston  College,  having  not  less  than  00,000  sharks'  teeth  alone,  some 
of  them  of  enormous  size,  weighing  fiom  two  to  two  and  a  half  pounds 
each.  The  bed  outcrops  on  the  banks  of  the  Ashley,  Cooper,  Stono, 
Edisto,  Ashepoo,  and  Combahee  Kivers ;  but  is  develoi>ed  most  heavily 
and  richly  on  the  fonner,  and  has  been  found  as  far  inland  as  forty  or 
fifty  milek  Near  the  Ashley  Eiver  it  paves  the  public  highways  for 
miles;  it  seriously  impedes  and  obstracts  the  cultivation  of  the  land, 
affording  scarcely  soil  enough  to  hill  up  the  cotton-rows:  and  the  phos- 
phates have  for  years  past  been  thrown  into  piles  on  the  lawns  and  into 
causeways  over  lavines.  to  get  them  out  of  the  reach  of  the  plows.  It 
underlies  many  square  miles  of  siu'face  continuously  at  a  depth  ranging 
from  six  inches  to  twelve  or  more  feet :  and  it  exists  in  such  quan- 
tities that  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand  tons  underlie  each  acre. 
In  fact,  it  seems  there  are  no  rocks  in  this  section  which  are  not  phos- 
phates." 

From  these  fossil  bones  and  teeth  the  Wando  Alining  and  ^lannfac- 

turing  Company  of  Charleston  have  made,  with  other  ingredients,  a 

fertilizer,  which  is  sold  at  sixty  dollars  a  ton,  which  proves,  in  many 

*  instances,  equal  in  value  as  a  manuie  to  Peruvian  guano  that  costs 


CONCENTKATED  FERTILIZERS  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES.      399 

eighty  dollars  a  ton.  Others  are  successfully  manufacturing  soluble 
phosphates  trom  these  organic  remains.  Bones  of  fresh -water  animals, 
and  still  more,  perhaps,  of  land  animals,  are  found  with  those  grown 
in  salt  water.  Indeed,  there  is  no  reason  why  this  gieat  "  Fish-bed 
of  the  Charleston  basin,"  as  Professor  Agassiz  named  it  more  than 
twenty  years  ago,  should  not  supply  soluble  phosphoric  acid  in  its  most 
available  form  ;  for  the  bones  of  the  mastodon  still  retain  some  two  and 
a  halt'  per  cent,  of  their  organic  matter,  and  yield  on  analysis  eighty- 
five  per  cent,  of  bone  phosphates.  Restore  the  fat,  gelatine,  water,  and 
carbonate  of  lime  that  existed  in  these  organic  bodies  when  the  animals 
died,  and  the  phosphates  will  be  reduced  from  eighty-five  per  cent,  to 
about  fifty-five  per  cent.  Time  has  eliminated  elements  of  little  value 
as  plant-lbod  (except  nitrogen)  in  fresh  bones,  and  thereby  conc^^ntrated 
phosphonis  into  a  smaller  volume  for  distant  transportation  and  use  as 
a  manure. 

After  citing  the  results  of  thirty  analyses  of  as  many  samples  of  these 
extensive  deposits,  some  nodular,  hard  conglomerates,  once  thought  to 
be  silicious  fossils,  and  some  the  soft  debris  of  bones,  with  a  part  of  the 
organic  matter  still  remaining.  Dr.  Pratt  sums  up  their  advantages  in 
these  words : 

"  1st.  The  percentage  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  is  high.  2d.  The  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  phosphate  of  iron  and  alumina  are  unusually  low. 
3d.  Its  composition  is  more  uniform  and  regular  than  that  of  any  other 
known  stratum  of  a  similar  nature.  Ith.  Its  mechanical  or  physical 
qualities  are  such  that  it  is  easily  ground.  5th.  It  contains  no  mineral 
phosphate,  but  is  without  doubt  pm-ely  animal  in  its  origin. 

''With  these  immense  advantages  in  its  favor,  we  may  fearlessly 
throw  it  on  the  market,  and  feel  that  in  one  other  product,  besides  cotton, 
rice,  and  lumber,  we  are  independent  of  the  wor\l." 

A  citation  indicative  of  the  extent  of  this  available  mass  of  bone 
earth,  in  addition  to  those  above  given,  may  satisfy  cautious  readers. 
The  same  author  states  in  another  place,  that  "the  area  of  this  bed  con- 
taining i)hosphates  of  good  quality,  and  in  workable  quantity,  so  far  as 
known  and  examined  by  the  writer  in  person,  is  not  less  than  forty  or 
afty  square  miles;  though  from  samples  I  have  examined  from  beyond 
these  Hunts,  I  am  led  to  beheve  that  the  rock  will  be  found  of  good  or 
indiflereut  quality,  and  in  gTeater  or  less  quantity,  over  an  area  of 
several  hundred  square  miles." 

So  large  a  supply  of  j^hosphorus  of  animal  origin  in  or  near  the  center 
of  the  best  cotton-growing  country  in  the  world,  whether  long  staple  or 
short,  is  a  fact  hardly  less  important  in  its  financial,  commercial,  and 
mauufactimug  aspects  than  in  its  agricultural  significance.  Nothing 
will  contribute  so  much  to  keep  the  nation's  large  aud  growing  foreign 
trade  in  a  safe  and  jn-ofitable  condition,  yielding  an  immense  revenue  by 
import  duties,  as  the  cheap  production  of  cotton  under  a  system  of  til- 
lage and  i)lantatiou  economy  that  will  impart  a  high  degTce  of  fruitfid- 
ness,  in  perpetuity,  to  aU  our  planting  lands ;  as  naked,  gullied,  aban- 
doned old  fields,  tbey  are  valueless ;  but  with  good  concentrated  manure, 
easily  drilled  in  with  cotton-seed,  they  often  return  an  annual  profit 
of  jrom  SIO  to  $100  x^er  acre;  crops  ranging  from  five  huudred  to  a 
thousand  pounds  of  good  merchantable  cotton  are  raised  by  the  aid 
of  commercial  fertilizers.  At  twenty  cents  a  pound,  the  profits  are 
most  satisfactory  to  the  planter  and  manufactm^er  of  superphos- 
phates. 

Dr.  Pratt's  "Chemical  History"  of  South  Carolina  phosphates  has  the 
foUov.ing  tables,  on  pages  20  and  21: 


400 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


Tabulated  jtsv/Zs  nf  (mchj^r:^  made  in  the  montha  of  August  uud  September,  1S67,  together  rclth 
'I  few  aiiabjscs  of  oiha-  chemists,  for  comjyarison. 


3 


6 


10 


Phosphate  of  lirjt ! 

I'hos^phate  of  iron  ao'i   alu-  | 

miaa 1.  CO 

Carbouate  of  lime  auU  mag-  •  i 

n^  sia : 1 0. 33 

Org-.inic  matter G.  .50 

Saud I  29.32     10.31 


3!.  40  '  53. 5D     63. 30  I  68. 03  ■  6C.  36 

'III 

1.32       5.02  '    3.01 

I 

8.20       a03    

7.50  ! 

9.01       9.91  !  11.70 


61.93 

1.04 

11.21 


C4.07  I  09.00 
0.84    


11.00 


59.07 

.65 

5.68 


49. 35 

1.84 

25.70 


Alkalies,  magncgla,  sulphates,  chloridcii,  fiuoridea,  water,  &c,  not  estimated. 


11 

13 

13 

14 

15 

IG 

17 

18 

19 

20 

Fhosqihate  of  lime 

Photiphato  of  iron  and  alu- 

49.87 
•  0.86 

r>o.  07 

0.09 
10.14 

61.24 

85.65 

46.00 

40.  C8 

70.90 

a  50 

10.28 
4.00 
5.79 

60.80 

4.10 

23.70 
6.10 
1.60 

15.86 

13.91 

39.50 
11.60 
10.60 

44.70 

Carbonate  of  lime  and  mag- 

4.73 



aeo 

30.16 

5.04 
2.16 

4.  CO 
4a  00 

5.32 

40.  64 
13.76 

11.36 

Organic  matter  and  water 

iCO 
27.90 

i              1              1 

21 

22 

23 

-1 

23 

26 

27 

28 

2a 

40.34 

49.12 
12.00 

62. 26 


43.90 
12.  33  ! 

53.20 
9.23 

J«.e.| 

51. 50 

44.00 

Phosphate  of  iron  and 

alu- 

31.00 

Carbonate  of  line  and 

mag- 

14.84 

2.13 

25.44 

Org,.nic  matter 



17.31  ! 

22.81  j 
15. 40 

ia24 

4.08 

il.:j6 
ia95 

21.51 

12.07 

lasii 

35.60 

]a6o 

43.17 

1 

now  TO  UTILIZE  BONE  PHOSPHATES. 


\ 


Wlien  sepnrated  from  all  impurities,  by  Avasliiug  or  otherAvise,  as  far 
as  practicable,  phosphates  should  be  broken  fine  enough  to  gi-ind  be- 
tween heavy  millstones,  which  should  be  dressed  to  do  as  perfect  work 
as  possible.  The  finer  the  flour  is  ground  the  easier  its  particles  dis- 
solve in  any  acidulated  water.  Thorough  drying  before  gTinding  favors 
extreme  comminution  when  reducing  the  rock  to  pov,der.  11  ow  far 
heat  may  be  profitably  carried  to  aid  in  the  complete  disintegration  ot 
bones  or  bone  phosphates,  experiments  will  determine.  When  proj>eiiy 
ground  the  fertilizers  may  be  handed  over  to  farriers  and  planters  for 
solution  in  that  admirable  crucible  known  as  a  hot,  fermenting  dung- 
heap. 

It  is  true  that  the  sulphate  of  lime  obtained  by  treating  ground  bones 
or  giiano  with  oil  of  Aitriol  is  valuable  as  a  manure;  but  gypsum  will 
supply  the  same  fertilizer  at  less  than  half  the  cost  of  the  vitriol. 
Economy  demands  that  cultivators  of  the  soil  purchase  sulphuric  acid 
in  the  shape  of  land  plaster,  not  in  the  form  of  a  separate  acid,  as 
applied  to  bone  phosphates.  But  as  some  families  buy  wheat  flour  after 
it  is  baked  into  bread,  so  many  farmers  may  prefer  to  imrchase  plant- 
food  ready  cooked  for  use. 

A  late  number  of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of 
England  contains  an  elaborate  paper  "On  the  soluliility  of  pho.sphatic 
materials  with  reference  to  the  practical  efScaey  of  the  various  forms  in 
which  bones  an*  used  in  agriculture,"  by  Dr.  Voelcker,  chemist  to  the 
.society,  llis  researches  have  been  thorough,  and  are  reliable.  He  says: 
"  High-pressure  steam  renders  bones  so  brittle  that  they  can  be  easily 
ground  into  fine  powder,  which  is  readily  assimilable  by  plants." 


CONCENTRATED  FERTILIZERS  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES.       401 

This  is  all  that  any  plants  need  in  a  manure.  He  continues : 
"Bone-meal  prepared  by  high-pressure  steasn  contains  not  much  less 
nitrogen  than  ordinary  hone  dust,  and  as  a  maniu'e  is  far  more  efficacious 
and  valuable  than  the  latter.  Placed  in  a  heap  with  ashes  or  s*iud,  and 
occasionally  moistened  with  liquid  manure  or  water,  bone  enters  into 
jnitrefaction,  and  becomes  a  more  soluble  and  energetic  manure  than 
ordinary  bone  dust.  An  excellent  way  of  making  bone  dust  soluble,  it 
may  also  be  mentioned,  is  the  Norfolk  plan  of  putting  it  into  alternate 
layers  between  fresh  farm-yard  manure,  and  letting  both  ferment  together 
in  a  conical  heap,  covered  up  with  earth,  to  prevent  the  loss  of  any  fer- 
tilizing matter,  and  seciu-e  it  from  penetration  by  heav-^^  rains." 

Norfolk  larmers  have  long  been  distinguished  as  the  best  in  England, 
which  is  equivalent  to  saying  they  are  the  best  in  Europe,  and  in  the 
world.  While  many  thousands  in  Great  Britain,  on  the  Continent,  and 
in  America,  use  expensive  suljihuric  acid  to  dissolve  bono  phosphates, 
Norfolk  ttirmers  accomplish  the  same  result  by  warm  carbonic  acid, 
water,  and  nitrogenous  substances  in  fennenting  manure.  At  the  market 
price  of  sulphuric  acid  in  the  South,  planters  uow^  pay  as  much  for  one 
]iound  in  superphosphates  as  ten  i)oimds  of  the  South  Carolina  bone 
Hour  ought  to  cost  at  the  mills  where  it  is  ground.  The  chemistry'  of 
plant  and  animal  food  and  nutrition  will  never  do  much  for  agriculture 
before  the  true  economy  and  principles  of  this  science  are  carried  home 
to  the  tireside  and  miderstanding  of  the  men  who  own  and  cultivate 
the  soil.  Farmers,  who  are  large  consumers  of  acids,  alkalies,  and  alka- 
line earths,  ought  to  study  all  their  chemical  relations  in  compost  heaps; 
soils,  plants,  and  animals.  Every  farmer  and  planter  should  be  able  to 
inquire  understandingly  in  what  way  natiu"e  dissolves  the  ai>parently 
insoluble  carbonate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  lime,  and  silicate  of  potash  in 
soils,  to  promote  the  growth  of  plants.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  sul])lmric  acid  is  in  any  way  applied  to  that  object.  Carbonic  acid, 
and  others  of  vegetable  origin,  are  sutiicient  for  the  purpose.  Water 
charged  v/ith  carbonic^  acid  (the  cheapest  acid  knov\'u)  dissolves  the 
carbonate  of  lime  freely,  acts  sensibly  on  the  silicates  of  lime,  potash, 
and  soda,  and  on  bone  phosphate  reduced  to  a  fine  powder.  Strong- 
vinegar  can  be  made  from  sorghum  sirup,  and  used  as  a  solvent  on  the 
farm  cheaper  than  sal})huric  acid  can  be  bought  and  used  for  agri- 
cultural purposes.  In  a  word,  the  same  organic  acids  formed  in  decay- 
ing dung-heaps  and  in  good  soils,  that  render  the  mineral  elements  of 
crops  available,  as  obtained  from  particles  of  feldspar,  mica,  hornblende, 
and  other  compound  minerals  as  they  exist  in  clay  and  sand,  are  at  tiie 
service  of  the  farmer  to  bring  South  Carolina  bone  phosphates  into 
solutiou.  Give  us  the  osseous  remains  of  extinct  vertebrated  animals 
as  pure,  as  linely  ground,  and  as  cheap  as  possible,  and  southern  plant- 
ers and  farmers  will  do  all  else  that  is  needful  to  reorganize  them  as 
parts  of  living  beings. 

THE   SOURCES   OF  PIIOSPIIOKUS  AND   SULPHUR  IN   SOILS. 

While  commercial  enterprise  explores  every  sea  to  lind  islands  and 
rocks  covered  with  the  excrements  of  birds  to  be  imported  and  used  as 
manure;  and  while  geologists  and  chemists  search  earnestly  in  the  beds 
of, post-pliocene  rivers,  lakes,  bays,  and  estuaries  for  the  bones  of  land  and 
sea  monsters  developed  in  an  age  when  oysters  in  Georgia  built  up  banks 
of  their  shells  two  hundred  feet  in  thickness,  with  specimens  still  found 
one  hundred  miles  from  the  Atlantic,  that  measure  from  eighteen  to 
twenty  inches  m  length,  and  elephants,  mastodons,  crocodiles,  and. 
26 


402  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

sharks  attained  a  gro'^li  still  more  incredible,  farmers  should  have 
siiflicient  ambition  and  professional  pride  to  look  into  their  own  soils, 
subsoils,  and  rocks  for  a  home  supply  of  phosphorus,  sulphur,  potash, 
and  other  substances,  -without  which  no  crop  can  grow.  In  the  Patent 
Office  Eeport  for  1850  may  be  found  an  essay  of  nearly  a  hundi-ed  pages 
on  the  "  Study  of  Soils,"  in  which  all  the  elements  of  cidtivated  i)lauts 
are  traced  to  their  soui'ce. 

Phosphorus  and  sulphur  in  combination  with  iron,  as  a  phosphoret 
and  sulphuret  of  this  metal,  often  abound  in  soils — a  condition  in  which 
they,  do  no  good  as  plant  food.  The  earthy  pail  of  every  seed  of  wheat 
has  "fi'om  seventy-live  to  eighty  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash as  necessarj'  constituents ;  and  while  the  soil  has  a  plenty  of  phos- 
phoret of  iron  and  insoluble  silicate  of  potash,  the  lack  of  available 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  often  reduces  the  yield  more  than  one-half". 
Crops  of  corn  and  cotton  are  also  diminished  under  like  circumstances, 
when  their  elements,  although  present,  are  unavailable.  All  such  lands 
need  marl  or  lime,  by  which  the  phosphorets  and  sulphiirets  of  iron  are 
changed,  or  rather  made  to  produce  gyi^sum  and  bone  eaith.  The 
phosphate  of  alumina  is  decomposed  also  by  lime,  yielding  a  boue  phos- 
phate. Sulphur  in  combination  with  iron  is  converted  into  an  acid  by 
lime,  with  which  it  unites  to  form  the  sulphate  of  lime,  which  is  best 
known  as  gypsum  or  land  plaster.  The  power  of  lime  to  produce  both 
phosphoric  and  sulphuric  acids  in  soils  Avhere  neither  existed  before, 
gives  to  the  marl  beds  which  extend  from  the  Chesapeake  Bay  to  the 
Eio  Grande  gi'eat  agi'icultural  importance.  Lime  often  eliminates  pot- 
ash and  magnesia  from  their  insoluble  silicates  in  a  similar  manner. 
Clay  roasted  with  lime  gave  Dr.  Yoelcker  about  twice  as  much  potash 
to  rain-water  as  that  roasted  without  lime.  It  is  impossible  to  account 
for  the  gi'catly  increased  giowtli  of  walnut,  hickory,  and  poplar  forest 
trees  on  our  o^vu  limestone  lands,  which  contain  fourfold  more  potash 
and  magnesia  in  their  cells  and  tubes  than  smaller  trees  have  that  grow 
on  similar  clays  nearly  destitute  of  lime,  without  conceding  the  power 
of  this  alkaline  earth  to  decompose  the  silicates  of  potash  and  mag- 
nesia as  derived  from  their  parent  rocks,  and  thereby  su])ply  potash  and 
magnesia  as  well  as  lime  to  these  magnilicent  plants.  The  fertility  and 
general  durability  of  our  best  lime  soils  are  well  known ;  yet  lime  is  not 
potash,  nor  magnesia,  nor  chlorine,  nor  soda,  nor  sulphiuic,*nor  i)hos- 
phoric  acid — all  of  which  appear  in  our  annual  crops  of  grain,  grass,  and 
other  staples.  Lime  eliminates  these  from  insoluble  minerals  as  nat- 
urally as  it  Ibrms  the  stone-like  covering  of  all  shell-fish,  and  the  base 
of  all  internal  skeletons.  Its  relations  to  plant  life  and  animal  life  may 
be  obscure,  but  they  are  obviously  most  intimate  and  enduring,  com- 
mencing with  some  of  the  oldest  sedimentary  rocks,  which,  in  the  AUe- 
ghany  range  of  mountains.  Professor  Eogers  estimates  at  40,000  feet 
in  thickness.  During  all  the  unlaiown  and  apparently  almost  unlim- 
ited geological  ages  in  which  these  mountains  of  sea-born  rocks  have 
been  slowly  growing,  and  serving  as  the  cemetery  of  expiring  si)ecies 
and  genera  of  animals,  as  well  as  of  indiNiduals,  these  beings  have  used 
lime  to  cover  all  their  shells,  and  to  give  solidity  and  strength  to  every 
bone  in  their  bodies.  An  element  of  fertility  used  by  nature  so  largely 
and  enduringiy,  thinldng  farmers  will  not  long  neglect. 

CALCAREOUS  MAELS  AND  POTASH  GREENSANDS. 

iifo  owner  of  a  naturally  poor  clay  or  sandy  farm  on  the  Atlantic  slope 
of  the  United  States  can  visit  the  rich  calcareous  soils  to  be  found  in 


CONCENTRATED  FERTILIZERS  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES.      403 

many  of  the  western  and  southern  States  without  wishing-  to  try  the 
efiScacy  of  lime,  marl,  or  greensand  for  the  improvement  of  his  compar- 
atively sterile  land.  Governor  Hammond  has  applied  some  300,000 
hnshels  of  shell  marl  from  Shell  Bluff,  on  the  Savannah  Eiver,  in  Geor- 
gia, to  his  ])IaDtation  at  Silver  Blufi',  on  the  South  Carolina  side  of  the 
same  river,  with  entire  satisfaction.  Mr.  H.  Burgwyu,  of  Northampton 
County,  IS^orth  Carolina,  (a  large  and  successful  farmer,)  says  that  "no 
gold  mine  is  so  valuable  as  a  good  marl  pit."  The  late  Thomas  Affleck 
writes : 

''  Lime  is  an  absolutely  indispensable  ingredient  in  the  soil  in  which 
fruit-trees  of  any  kind  are  grown,  and  especially  the  apple  and  pear. 
Until  I  was  con\inced  of  this  fact,  I  found  great  difficidty  in  producing  a 
healthy  and  vigorous  growth  upon  many  varieties  of  the  apple.  By 
marJiny  I  removed  the  difficulty ;  the  wood  became  short,  jointed,  and 
healthy,  the  foliage  abundant  and  persisting  until  frost,  the  fruit  large, 
sound,  and  free  from  specks  and  blemishes,  such  as  before  distigui'ed 
some  kinds." 

Twenty-tAvo  years  ago  cotton  sold  in  Augusta,  Georgia,  at  five 
cents  a  ]iound,  and  fresh  land  in  the  southern  and  southwestern 
parts  of  the  State  could  be  bought  at  ten  cents  an  acre.  The  price 
paid  for  cotton  was  too  low  to  do  more  than  retm-n  small  wages  for 
the  labor  of  raising  it  on  rich  land,  icithout  restitution.  Hence  planting- 
lands,  whether  rich  or  poor,  sold  at  mere  nominal  prices.  Now  cotton 
is  worth  at  least  fifteen  cents  per  pound  in  gold,  and  the  raw  material 
for  making  it  more  than  five  times  its  value  in  18-17.  Whatever  concen- 
trated fertilizers  may  be  extracted  from  marl,  and  the  greensands  ot 
New  Jersey,  and  in  States  south  of  it,  have  an  excellent  home  market, 
which  time  is  more  likely  to  increase  than  diminish.  ' 

The  greensands  of  New  Jersey  are  so  extensive,  and  so  rich  in  potash, 
that  nothing  is  hazarded  in  saying  that  millions  of  tons  of  this  alkali 
exist  therein,  which  science  and  art  may  yet  extract,  perhaps  very  much  as 
common  wood-ashes  are  made  to  give  up  their  soluble  potash  for  domestic 
use  and  commercial  and  manufacturing  piu'poses.  It  is  more  than  prob- 
able that  many  unsuccessful-  attempts  were  made  to  extract  good  com- 
mercial pearlash  from  wood-ashes  before  any  one  coidd  claim  success; 
but  these  repeated  failures  did  not  prove  that  all  efforts  in  that  direc- 
tion must  end  in  fiiilure.  Southern  agriculture  wants  a  vast  amount  of 
potash,  which  greensand  contains  in  quantities  apparently  inexhaustible. 
As  farmers  and  planters  we  do  not  need,  nor  want,  the  silicious  sand, 
nor  the  alumina,  nor  the  iron,  nor  the  lime  that  may  be  found  in  the 
same  bed  with  potash.  Throw  out  these,  and  we  will  pay  a  fair  price 
in  cotton,  wheat,  corn,  meat,  and  tobacco  for  the  precious  alkali. 

Good  marls  so  abomid  in  the  States  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Caro- 
lina, South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
Texas,  and  Arkansas,  all  of  the  same  geological  age  and  formation,  (the 
pliocene  of  Lyell,)  that  their  presence  or  absence  on  the  ground  or  under 
its  surface  is  mainly  a  question  of  elevation  above  tide-water.  Within 
five  miles  of  Washington  City,  and  a  little  north  of  the  Marlboro'  road,  in 
a  gully,  may  be  seen  the  outcrop  of  a  stratum  of  oyster  and  other  shells 
of  unknown  extent  and  thickness.  These  marine"^  shells  are  estimated 
to  be  over  one  hundred  feet  above  the  water  in  the  Potomac.  The  hills 
of  giant  oyster  shells  that  extend  from  Shell  Bluff,  on  the  Savannah 
Eiver,  thirty  miles  below  Augusta,  westward  several  miles,  are  one  hun- 
(Ired  and  fifty  feet  above  the  Atlantic,  and  over  one  hundred  miles  from 
it.  Between  this  remarkable  mass  of  shells,  generally  quite  free  from 
sand  and  clay,  and  the  Keys  of  Florida,  a  distance  of  some  five  hundred 


404  AGRICULTUEAL    REPORT. 

nud  iil'ty  or  tsix  huiulred  miloy,  tlierc  maybe  many  "lisb  bayiiis"  tiUed 
v.-ith  pbospliates.  We  do  not  know  -what  organic  remains  there  may  bo 
in  such  hirii'c  and  true  l)asius  as  that  of  the  Okefouoke  swamp,  vrhich 
covers  an  area  of  500,000  acres,  and  in  other  swamps  in  southern  Geor- 
.uia  and  the  ])cninsnhi  of  Florida.  If  dried  peat,  or  any  species  of  aquatic 
moss,  is  vrorth  anything  for  fuel  when  pressed  and  dried,  the  great  swamps 
of  Georgia  can  supply  abnost  any  quantity.  It  is  fomid-on  analysis  that 
they  contain  from  live  to  ten  per  cent,  of  ash  and  earthy  matter.  Hang- 
ing moss  on  cypress  and  otlier  forest  trees  has  about  one  per  cent,  of 
ash,  half  of  Avhich  is  lime.  One  hundred  pounds  of  dry  Okefeuoke  muck 
Avill  take  up  without  drip])ing  nearly  four  hundi'ed  pounds  of  the  urine 
of  cattle  when  used  as  bedding.  By  drying  the  water  out  under  a  shed, 
and  again  saturating  the  muck  with  urine  from  a  tank,  repeatedly,  a  very 
(concentrated  mass  of  agTicultural  salts  may  be  cheaply  obtained.  On 
thousands  of  ])lantationsthe  leaves  of  forest  trees  groAving  in  loworounds . 
will  su])ply  salts  of  lime,  potash,  and  magnesia,  cheaper  than  they  can 
be  bought  in  any  market.  These  decaying  with  marl,  gypsum,  liueiy 
ground  phosphates,  and  a  sprinkling  of  common  salt,  give  a  valuable 
iertilizcr  at  a  moderate  cost.  Direct  research  shows  that  twelve  times  more 
of  the  mineral  food  of  plants  exists  in  one  hundred  pounds  of  the  leaves 
of  the  long-leaf  ])iue  than  in  a  like  weight  of  the  wood  of  this  abundant 
forest  tree.  There  is  not  a  tree,  nor  a  spring  of  water,  nor  a  swamp,  nor 
a  brook  on  any  farm  that  will  not  yield  cheap  manure.  The  water-shed 
of  the  Mississippi  River  drains  an  area  of  3,100,000  square  miles,  from 
which  a  vast  amount  of  agTicidtural  salts  is  annually  washed  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Judicious  irrigation  will  aaya  mucli  of  these  salts  for 
manure. 

SAL'L'  FRO^I  HEA-WATEll  AS  A  FEIITILIZEK. 

In  many  places  sea-water  is  so  easily  evaporated  by  the  sun,  as  at  the 
Keys  of  Florida,  and  along  oirr  southern  coavst,  at  Turk's  Island,  and 
elsewhere,  that  salts  of  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  and  perhaps  potash,  may 
be  had  for  manure  at  a  low  price  from  this  source.  What  but  a  lack  of 
enterprise,  or  a  want  of  knowledge  on  the  vsubject,  prevents  the  ocean 
from  giving  back  to  our  washed  and  impoverished  lields  even  more  fer- 
tilizing salts,  because  more  concentrated,  than  heavy  rains,  much  plow- 
ing u})  and  dov.'u  hills,  and  other  follies,  ever  washed  into  the  sea?  The 
sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  the  chlorides  of  calcium  and  other 
bases,  which  are  much  in  the  way  in  the  manufacture  of  i)ure  salt,  will 
add  materially  to  its  value  as  a  manure.  If  good  Tiuk's  Island  salt  can 
1)0  made  at  from  six  to  eight  cents  per  bushel,  as  is  stated,  salt 
for  fertilizing  the  soil,  or  for  the  "dung  hea}),''  can  be  produced  at  live 
cents  per  bushel.  A  demand  lor  salts  of  this  character  will  soon  lead 
to  an  adetiuatc  supply,  for  the  ocean  is  inexhaustible.  It  teems  with 
animals  and  vegetables,  and  its  waters  abound  in  their  food.  The  same 
<?lements  that  make  the  bones,  liesh,  blood,  and  milk  of  whales  will  do 
as  much  for  our  cattle  and  ourselves.  The  lime  that  protects  bi\'alves 
from,  injury,  and  the  sulphates,  phosphates,  and  chlorides  organized  in 
marine  animals  and  ])lants,  are  Just  as  useful  to  our  farms  belore  as  after 
this  service  in  salt  water.  This  water  is  really  very  rich  in  soluble 
manure.  Why  not  evai)orate  the  water  and  ap]»ly  the  nianure  to  all  our 
needy  lields  If  Salt  for  the  land  and  the  dung  heap  is  what  farmers  need ; 
ttuit  is,  salts  of  lime,  such  as  form  shells  and  lish-boues,  the  sulphur, 
phos7)horus,  and  nitrogen  in  the  flesh  and  nerA'es  of  tliesc^  aiiimals,  and 
ether  elements  of  concentrated  lish  guano. 


EXFERiMEXTS  WITH  FIELD  SEEDS. 


All  seeds  sent  fortli  by  tlie  Department  for  test  and  experiment  ai-e 
aocoiiipanied  "u-ith  a  request  to  report  results  in  all  essential  details.  A 
digest  of  the  more  important  of  these  reports  ^rill  he  presented  among 
the  annual  transactions  of  the  Department.  The  following  statements 
are  the  results  of  experiments  made  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
\\ith  seeds  Tvhich  were  distributed  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  their 
adaptation  to  the  different  sods  and  climates  of  the  United  States : 

"WE^TTini  win: AT. 

Windsor  County,  Yermant. — One  quart  of  Tappahannock  wheat  was 
sowed  on  an  alluviid  sod  the  1st  of  October:  yield,  ten  cj[uarts  of  line 
wheat  with  very  full  Ijemel :  quality  sui)erior  to  any  other  wheat  in  that 
se<;tion. 

Bristol  County.  JIassachiisetts. — The  Tappahannoc-k  wheat  has  been 
successful  in  some  pans  of  the  State  5  in  Bristol  Gount;.- twelve  to  sixteen 
bushels  per  acre  ha\ing  Ijeeu  raised. 

Hampden  County,  Massachusetts. — One  quajrt  of  each  variety  of  the 
White  and  the  Eed  Mediterranean  wheat  was  sowed  the  4th  of  October, 
and  harvested  the  lOth  of  July.  The  ^ield  was  nfty-one  pounds  of  the 
Eed  and  forty -six  of  the  T\Tiite'  The  Pied  yielded  better  than  theTThite, 
and  appears  more  desii'iible  for  the  Connecticut  Valley.  It  was  grown 
en  sandy  soil,  and  is  superior  to  the  native  varieties. 

yaqiort  County.  Rhode  Island. — The  White  Flint,  the  Tappahannock, 
and  the  "VMiite  Metliterranean  wheat  have  been  cultivated,  but  witli 
little  success.  The  largest  yield  is  only  about  sixteen  bushels  per  acre, 
on  a  soil  which  vrould  produce  lifty  or  sixty  bushels  of  corn. 

Dutchess  County.  Xcic  Yorl: — The  Tappahannock  wheat  sov>ti  last 
Tall  was  a  failure.    Xo  kernel  was  formed  in  the  heads. 

Jefferson  County.  Xeic  York. — A  quart  of  Sandomirka  wheat  was  sown 
in  drills,  the  last  of  Augtist.  on  five  and  a  half  square  roels  of  gTOund. 
which  had  not  been  manured,  and  had  produced  three  crops  after  being 
cleared  up  Irom  the  forest.  The  crop  was  harvested  the  last  of  July, 
and  produced  forty-seven  and  a  half  iiounds  of  tine,  plump  wheat,  at 
the  rate  of  twenty-three  bushels  per  acre.  It  seems  well  adapted  to  the 
soil  and  climate  of  Xew  York,  and  preferable  to  the  common  spring 
wheat. 

Tioga  County.  Xeic  Yorl: — Tappahannock  wheat,  received  fi'om  the 
Department,  is  finite  fifteen  days  earlier  than  any  other  variety. 

Cayuga  County.  Xew  Yorl: — Tap>)ahannock  wheat,  sown  on  the  10th  of 
;>eptember;  grew  well:  stood  the  winter  lirst-rate :  ripened  about  theSth 
ui  ,Iidy,  with  large  heads  and  plump  kernel :  and  escaiied  by  its  carliness 
both  rust  and  weevd.  which  injured  other  varieties  badly. 

East  Maine,  Xeic  Yorl: — The  White  ^lediteiTanean  and  Sandomirka 
wheats  were  badly  winter-killed,  and  produced  less  than  an  average 
crop.  The  Polish  wheat  yielded  a  good  croji — superior  to  anything  in 
the  \icinity. 

Wyominf/  County.  Pennsylvania. — The  Tappahannock  v.heat  is  ten  days 
earher  than  any  other  variety  grown  in  this  counts".    Two  quarts  of  seed. 


406  AGRICULTUEAL   EEPOET. 

received  from  tlie  Departmeut,  yielded  from  the  second  year's  sowing 
five  bushels  of  very  fine  "^lieat, 

Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania. — One  quart  of  the  Tappaliaunock 
^vheat,  sown  on  the  18th  of  Se])tember,  yielded  seventy-nine  pounds.  It 
ripened  twenty  days  earlier  than  other  varieties,  and  was  not  injured  by 
the  midge.  It  stood  the  winter  well,  and  promises  to  be  the  wheat  for 
this  region. 

Columbia  County,  Pennsylvania. — One  quart  of  Tappahannock  wheat, 
sown  broadcast  iii  September,  on  one-twentieth  of  an  acre,  ripened  a 
week  earlier  than  other  varieties,  and  produced  eighty-two  pounds,  or 
over  twenty-seven  bushels  to  the  acre,  of  screened  wheat  of  fine  quality. 
Our  reporter  says,  if  it  does  not  deteriorate,  it  will  be  a  great  acquisition. 

2Iont(jomery  County,  Maryland. — The  Tappahannock  and  the  White 
Mediterranean  wheat  are  cultivated  in  the  county.  The  White  Medi- 
terranean yields  more,  but  the  Tappahannock  commands  a  higher  price. 

Baltimore  County,  Maryland. — The  Tappahannock  wheat  ripened  early, 
and  yielded  exceedingly  weU.  There  was  no  appearance  of  injury  from 
the  midge. 

Amelia  County,  Virginia. — After  a  trial  of  twenty  varieties  of  wheat, 
preference  is  given  to  the  Tappahannock,  which  is  now  found  on  almost 
every  plantation.  If  sown  from  the  20tli  of  September  to  the  10th  of 
October,  it  will  ripen  from  the  10th  to  the  25th  of  June. 

Powhatan  Hill,  Virginia. — The  Tappahannock  wheat  has  failed  gene- 
rally, and  is  likely  to  be  abandoned,  as  most  popular  varieties  have  been 
after  ha\ing  a  good  run  for  a  few  seasons. 

Montgomery  County,  Virginia. — About  a  pint  and  a  half  of  the  Tappa- 
hannock wheat  produced  three  pecks  of  the  most  perfect  wheat  our  cor- 
res])ondent  ever  saw.  The  kernel  was  one-fourth  larger  than  the  sample 
sown. 

Dover  Mines,  Virginia. — Seven  quarts  of  Mediterranean  wheat,  drilled 
one  foot  apart,  produced  seven  bushels  of  heavy  wheat,  uninjured  by 
rust. 

Clarice  County,  Virginia. — The  Tappahannock  wheat  was  somewhat 
injured  by  the  liy.  The  injury  appears  to  have  been  occasioned  by  late 
sowing.  Fields  sown  in  September  produced  heavy  croi)S  of  fine  quality 
Tappahannock  wheat  is  preferred  to  any  other  in  Greene,  Washington,. 
Wythe,  ('raig,  Louisa,  and  Clarke  counties. 

Duplin  County,  North  Carolina. — About  a  quart  of  Tappahannock 
wheat  was  sown  on  a  stiff,  sandy  loam,  in  drills  eighteen  inches  apai-t. 
The  land  was  as  fertile  it  could  well  be  made.  After  the  gi-ain  came  up 
about  one-fourth  was  destroyed  by  grasshoppers.  In  February  a  top- 
dressing  of  guauo  and  phosphate  of  lime  was  applied,  mixed,  at  the  rate 
of  two  hundred  pounds  to  an  acre.  In  April  the  rabbits  destroyed  nearly 
one-fourth  of  what  renmined.  A  crop  of  throe  and  a  quarter  bushels 
was  harvested  from  the  one  quart  of  seed.  It  grew  five  feet  high,  and 
ripened  ten  days  earlier  than  other  winter  wheat. 

Albermarle  County,  North  Carolina. — Two  quarts  were  sown  on  high,  dry 
land,  a  gras'elly  clay  slate,  without  manure,  and  produced,  from  a  little 
more  than  half  an  acre,  seven  bushels  of  fine  wheat.  It  tillered  aston- 
ishingly, as  many  as  liity  heads  sometimes  growing  from  one  kernel. 
They  were  much  larger  than  common,  and  the  wheat  weighed  sixty-two 
and  a  half  pounds  per  bushel.  No  other  variety  yielded  anything  like 
the  Tapi)ahannock. 

Franliin  County,  North  Carolina. — Two  and  a  half  pounds  of  Tappa- 
hannock wheat,  sown  on  four  hundi-ed  square  yards  of  ground,  poorly 
prepared,  ripened  eiglit  or  ten  days  earlier  than  other  wheat  in  the 


EXPERIMENT  WITH  FIELD   SEEDS.  407 

vicinity,  aud  yielded  eighty  pounds,  or  at  the  mte  of  about  seventeen 
bushels  per  acre — sixty-two  and  a  half  pounds  to  a  bushel.  The  grain 
was  injiu"ed  by  the  rains. 

Chester.  Xokh  Carolina.— The  Tappahannock  wheat  is  much  esteemed 
by  the  few  who  have  tried  it:  it  is  ten  days  later  than  the  Alabama. 

^ EarlasviUe,  South  Carolina.— The  Tappahannock  wheat  will  succeed 
better  in  this  latiuide  than  the  Eussian,  and  will  prove  a  valuable  acqui- 
sition. 

Carroll  County,  Georgia.— The  Tappahannock  wheat  sent  by  the  Depart- 
ment yielded  one  hundred  to  one. 

Belair,  Georgia. — One  quart  of  the  Eed-bearded  Mediterranean  wheat, 
sown  on  six  and  a  half  square  rods,  produced  two  bushels,  weighing 
sixty-four  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

De  Kalh  County,  Alabama. — Two  pounds  of  Tappahannock  wheat  were 
sown  on  a  piece  twenty  feet  square,  the  land  being  much  worn,  soil 
about  thi-ee  inches  of  dark  loam,  and  stiff  clay  subsoil,  cultivated  with 
corn  the  previous  year,  and  feitihzed  with  four  loads  of  stable  manure, 
plovred  under.  The  yield  was  two  and  a  half  bushels  of  the  finest  wheat 
ever  seen  in  this  section. 

Claihorne.  Mississippi. — The  Tappahannock  and  Mediterranean  wheats 
made  a  lai'ge  yield.  The  former  was  a  httle  injui"ed  by  the  rust,  but  the 
latter  was  untouched. 

Washington  County.  Jlississippi. — TVhite  Mediterranean  and  the  Tap 
pahannock  wheat,  sown  the  11th  of  November,  were  ripe  the  first  oi 
Jime,  and  yielded  thirty- five  bushels  per  acre. 

Union  Parish,  Louisiana. — The  Tappahannock  wheat  has  been  inti'O- 
duced  into  Union  Parish,  and  has  shown  that  wheat  may  be  successfully 
gro^NTi  in  that  part  of  the  State.  In  most  parishes  the  culture  is  con- 
sidered impracticable,  on  accoimt  of  rast.  The  season  of  sowing  is  the 
last  of  October  and  the  first  of  November:  of  harvesting,  the  latter  i^art 
of  June. 

Giles  County.  Tennessee. — The  Tappahannock  wheat,  sown  the  10th 
of  October,  ripened  two  weeks  earUer  than  other  varieties,  and  yielded 
one-fom-th  more  of  excellent  wheat.  Oiu"  correspondent  thinks  it  will 
prove  to  be  of  gTeat  advantage  to  that  section. 

Smith  County,  Tennessee. — Two  pounds  of  Tappahannock  wheat,  sowed 
on  one  twenty-fouith  pait  of  an  acre,  produced  eighty  pounds  of  very 
fine  wheat.  More  than  ten  pounds  of  it  were  destroyed  by  Guinea 
chickens  just  before  ripening.  After  this  loss  it  yielded  at  the  rate  of 
over  thirty-five  and  a  half  bushels  per  acre,  more  than  twice  the  yield 
of  the  wheat  commonly  cultivated. 

Maickins  County,  Tennessee. — Four  quarts  of  Tappahannock  wheat 
yielded  one  hundi^ed  and  sixty-four  quarts.  The  correspondent  states 
that  it  was  as  fine  wheat  as  he  ever  saw  in  this  couutiy  or  in  England. 

Bavidson  County,  Tennessee. — The  Tappahannock  wheat  has  had  a  fair 
trial  in  this  section.  Last  season  one  hundi^d  and  twenty  acres  were 
sown,  and  yielded  thirty  bushels  per  acre.  From  four  quarts  of  Tap- 
pahamiock  wheat,  received  in  1S6G,  enough  was  raised  in  1SG7  to  produce 
sixty-three  bushels  in  1S68.  Our  correspondent  says  that  its  vigorous 
growth,  hardiness,  early  maturing,  freedom  from  rust  and  smut,  and  its 
abundant  yield  and  fine  flour,  recommend  it  to  all  cultivators. 

Coffee  County,  Tennessee. — Our  correspondent  is  satisfied  that  the 
Tappahannock  wheat  will  prove  a  success  iu  this  section.  It  stood  AveU 
through  the  haixl  winter  of  last  season,  and  made  a  large  yield  of  beau- 
tiful wheat.  The  "White  Mediterranean  and  the  TThite  California  grew 
beautiful] V.  but  did  not  stand  the  winter  so  weU. 


40S  AGRICULTURAI.   REPORT. 

The  Taitiiabiiijuock  wheat  has  become  popular  in  Greeue,  Hawkms, 
Uuioii,  lihea,  ]\Ioiiioe,  Polk,  aud  other  counties,  ou  account  of  its  earli- 
ncss,  freedom  from  rust,  certainty,  aud  i)roductiveness. 

Braxton  County,  West  Virginia. — Trials  of  the  T;ippahauuock  Avheat, 
for  the  past  two  years,  justify  the  conclusion  that  it  is  ten  days  earlier  than 
any  other  kiud,'and  that  the  gTain  is  of  better  quality.  It  is  fi'ee  from 
rust  aud  the  weevil.  The  Tappahaunock  is  also  prefened  in  Marion 
County  and  Kanawha. 

Benton,  West  Virginia. — A  peck  of  Tappaliannoek  wheat  sown  last 
fall  was  suiiiciently  upe  to  harvest  the  first  of  July ;  thought  to  be  the 
best  wheat  in  the  neighborhood. 

Kentucl-y. — The  White  Z\Iay  and  the  Tappahaunock  wheat  are  pre- 
ferred, the  former  for  its  early  maturity  and  exemption  ti'om  rust ;  the 
latter  for  its  good  yield,  and  for  the  preference  given  to  it  in  market,  being 
fifteen  to  twenty  cents  higher  per  bushel  than  other  varieties. 

Missouri. — The  Tappahaunock  wheat  is  popular  so  far  as  it  has  been 
introduced,  being  earlier,  and  yielding  better  floiu'  than  most  other 
varieties.  It  is  sown  in  September  aud  October,  aud  harvested  from  the 
middle  of  June  to  the  middle  of  July. 

Scdalia,  Missouri. — Oue  pint  of  Tappahaunock  wheat,  sown  two  years 
ago,  has  i^roduced  five  bushels,  and  the  variety  has  done  well  thus  far. 

Hannibal,  Missouri. — The  Tappahaunock  wheat  has  been  cidtivated 
for  two  years.  It  gives  an  average  yield  of  thirty-five  bushels  per  acre; 
ripens  about  the  same  time  as  the  Early  May,  but  is  a  better  wheat.  It 
■s^ill  be  a  valuable  acquisition. 

Hermitage,  Missouri. — The  Tappahamiock  wheat  ripens  about  two 
weeks  earlier  than  other  varieties,  and,  for  this  reason,  has  always 
escaped  the  rust;  does  not  yield  quite  so  much  as  other  vrheat,  but  its 
full  kernel  and  sni^erior  flour  fully  compensate  for  this  deficiency. 

Harrison  County,  Missouri. — One  quart  of  the  Mediterranean  wheat 
produced  forty  pounds  of  good  gTain,  though  injured  considerably  by 
gi-asshoppers. 

Baxter's  Sjjrings,  Kansas. — The  Tappahaunock  wheat,  received  from 
the  Department,  is  superior  to  any  other  kind  cultivated  here. 

Canton,  Illinois. — One  pound  and  a  half  of  the  Tappahaunock  wheat 
produced  twenty  poimds,  fully  equal  in  quality  to  that  received  from  the 
Department. 

Hardin  Comity,  Ohio. —  One  quart  of  Tappahaunock  wheat  produced 
twenty  quarts  of  handsome,  plump  grain,  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the 
seed  sent. 

Portage  County,  Ohio. — Tlie  Tappahaunock  wheat  is  i)referred  in  this 
count>\  It  is  sown  Irom  the  Ist  to  the  i-'Oth  of  Septendx-r:  harvested 
from  the  1st  to  the  12th  of  July. 

Miehigan. — The  Tapjiahannock  wheat  holds  a  high  rank  for  its  early 
ri]>ening,  large  yield,  and  fine  quality  of  floiu".  White's  Bald  Me«liter- 
ranean  is  becoming  a  gi'eat  favorite. 

Berrien  County,  Miehigan. — The  Tappahaunock,  the  Tasmania,  and  the 
Cliiddam  vrheat  were  sowed  ui  equal  quantities,  side  by  side.  The  Chid- 
dam  was  entirely  destroyed,  while  the  others  were  not  injured.  The 
Tappahamiock  and  Tasmania  made  a  fair  yield,  but  our  correspondent 
thiidcs  the  Wliitc  Mediteniinean  ahead  of  the  other  varieties. 

Washtenaie  County,  Miehigan. — The  Tappahaunock  wheat,  sowu  about 
the  1st  of  October,  rii)ened  nearly  three  weeks  earher  than  the  Tread- 
well,  sown  at  the  same  time  and  on  the  same  soil.  Seventy-four  pouuds 
of  good,  heavy  wheat  were  raised  from  oue  ouart  sowu,  weighiug  over 
sixty  pounds  per  bushel. 


EXPEEDJEXT    ^YITH   FIELD    SEEDS.  409 

Lcnaiccc  County,  Michigan. —  One  bushel  of  very  plump  white  \rheat 
\v;is  raised  from  one  quart  of  the  Tappahannock  variety,  sown  the  20th 
c»f  September. 

ik-hoolcra/t,  2IicJii(fan. — Sovved  tlve-ei?:hths  of  an  acre  with  the  Tappa- 
hannock wheat ;  raised  at  the  rate  of  thiny-two  bushels  per  acre.  The 
best  wheat  of  other  varieties  did  not  yield  more  than  twenry-five 
bushels. 

Lexington,  Michigan. — The  Tappahannock  wheat,  sent  by  the  Depart- 
ment, proved  a  complete  failure.  The  climate  seems  too  severe  for  its 
growth :  it  was  batUy  winterkilled,  notwithstanding  the  precautions 
taken. 

Lapeer  Comity,  Michigan. — One  bushel  of  the  Tappahamiock  wheat, 
sown  the  20th  of  September,  produced  twenty-four  bushels  of  as  fine 
wheat  as  our  correspondent  ever  saw ;  it  weighed  on  an  average  sixty- 
five  and  a  half  pounds  jjer  bushel.  It  is  not  iierfect  proof  against  the 
midge. 

Ingham  County.  Michigan. — Two  quaiTS  of  Tappahannock  wheat  were 
sown  on  dinerent  farms.  One  lot  was  winter-killed  on  account  of  the 
wet  condition  of  the  sod  :  the  other  grew  finely,  and  x^rcduced  twenty- 
eight  pounds  of  beautiful  wheat, 

Wisconsin. — The  Tappahannock  wheat  has  been  received  with  much 
favor,  but  the  MediteiTanean.  the  Blue  Stem,  the  "White  Wabash,  and 
the  Winter  Club  are  i)i"eterred. 

Monroe  County.  Wiscoyisin. — One  quart  of  Tappahannock  wheat,  sown 
the  15th  of  September  and  harvested  the  ith  of  July,  yielded  at  the  rate 
of  thirty -two  bushels  per  acre.  It  was  not  infested  by  insects*  as  other 
varieties  were,  and  matured  twenty  days  earUer.  It  is  the  most  i^opular 
grain  in  that  part  of  the  State,  where  the  thermometer  sinks  to  twenty- 
eight  degi"ecs  below  zero. 

Des  Moines  County,  loica. — A  quart  of  the  Tappahannock  wheat. 
received  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  pi-oduced  a  hundred 
bushehs  at  the  thiixi  sowing.  It  brougut  #4  per  bushel,  when  sold  for 
seed. 

Another  report  from  Iowa  says :  Forty  acres,  sown  with  Tappahan- 
nock wheat,  i^roduced  one  thousand  bushels  of  fine  gi-ain.  Average 
fwent>'-five  bushels  ])er  acre. 

Cuming  County.  Xebrasl-a. — Two-thirds  of  a  quart  of  White  Mediter- 
ranean winter  wheat  were  sown  in  the  hope  of  making  it  spring  wheat. 
It  grew  finely,  and  produced  three  pecks  of  excellent  wheat. 

Washington.  Utah. — Tlie  Tappahannock  wheat,  sent  by  the  Depart- 
ment, was  harvested  in  May :  it  was  full  and  i>lnmp.  and  will  succeed 

ell  here. 

Aurora,  lierada. — The  Tappahannock  wheat  is  of  good  quality :  ripens 
early,  which  i.<;  an  imiwrtant  consideration  where  the  seasons  are  so 
short. 

SPEIXG  "WHEAT. 

Xfic  London  County,  Connecticut. — On  the  13th  of  April,  one  quart  of 
Ainautka  spring  wheat  was  sov,-n  in  ibillson  sandy  loam,  fertihzed  with 
horse  manui'e.  hen  maniu-e.  and  ashes,  scattered  along  the  drdls.  The 
other  i)ackage  was  sowed  in  a  compact  sod.  iu  better  condition,  and  ma- 
nm-ed  highly  in  the  drills.  Both  did  well,  but  that  on  the  sandy  soil 
did  best.  The  yield  was  at  the  rate  of  twenty  bushels  per  acre,  of  very 
nice  gi-ain.     It  proves  to  be  a  very  valuable  variety  for  that  locahty. 

Baltimore  County.  2Iaryland. — The  Ainautka  spring  wheat  was  injured 


410  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

by  the  midge,  about  one-fourtli  being  destroyed.  The  injury  was  pro- 
bably caused  by  late  sowing.  Tlie  wheat  had  a  very  beautiful  appear- 
ance. 

WasJiington,  D.  G. — ^Among  the  large  number  of  varieties  of  spring 
wheat  tested  on  the  exjierimeutal  farm,  the  Black  Sea  wheat,  from  Cali- 
fornia, proved  to  be  the  earliest  and  best.  It  was  sown  the  12th  of 
March,  and  came  iuto  ear  the  2Sth  of  May,  in  eighty-one  days.  The 
red  Chili  was  sown  at  the  same  time,  and  was  only  about  three  days  later 
in  coming  into  ear.    This  is  a  very  promising  variety. 

Timber,  Illinois. — One  quart  of  Arnautka  spring  wheat  yielded  sixteen 
quarts  of  good  quality,  making  more  and  better  flour  than  any  other 
wheat. 

Clinton  Gouniy^  Indiana. — Two  quarts  of  Arnautka  wheat  were  sown 
broadcast  on  common  clay  land,  the  IGth  of  April,  at  the  rate  of  one  and 
a  half  bushel  per  acre.  It  was  harvested  the  20th  of  July,  and  produced 
at  the  rate  of  twenty  bushels  per  acre.  It  was  not  attacked  by  the 
weevil  or  rust,  and  is  regarded  by  wheat  growers  as  a  success.  There 
was  only  about  one-fourth  of  a  crop  of  native  wheat. 

Washington  County,  Minnesota. — The  Scotch  Fife  wheat  is  preferred 
here,  being  less  liable  to  rust  than  other  varieties,  and  standing  up 
better.  The  Black  Sea  is  very  popular.  Little  wintfer  wheat  is  culti- 
vated. 

Le  Sueur  County,  Minnesota. — One  pound  and  three-fourths  of  iVi-nautka 
spring  wheat  was  sown  April  24.  It  grew  liuely  and  stood  up  well. 
When  harvested,  August  12,  the  yield  was  fifty  pounds.  Our  correspond- 
ent says  it  appears  to  be  a  good  kind  of  wheat,  and  well  adapted  to  that 
soil  (a  sandy  loam)  and  climate. 

Dubuque  County,  Iowa. — One  pound  andahalf  of  the  Arnautka  spring 
wheat  was  sown  in  drills,  on  three  square  rods  of  ground.  Sixty-one 
pounds  were  harvested,  being  about  fifty-three  bushels  per  acre. 

Johnson  County,  Nebraslca. — One  pint  of  Arnautka  wheat,  sown  the 
20th  of  April,  produced  twenty-five  pounds  of  good  wheat.  It  appears 
to  be  well  adapted  to  Nebraska. 

Aurora,  Nevada. — Three  table  spoonfuls  of  the  Arnautka  wheat,  sown 
in  the  .^pring  for  two  seasons,  has  increased  to  six  *and  a  quarter  bushels 
of  large  and  plumj)  grain. 

OATS. 

East  Maine,  Kew  York. — Two  and  a  half  bushels  of  the  Swedish  oats 
produced  thirty-one  bushels,  weighing  thirty-nine  pounds  to  the  bushel, 
although  damaged  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent,  by  drought.  The 
Strausburg  yielded  well,  but  not  so  well  as  the  Swedish. 

Ashtabula  County,  Ohio. — The  Poland  oats,  sent  from  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  yielded  about  fifty-fold,  while  the  common  variety  pro- 
duced only  about  twelve-fold. 

Calhoun  County,  Michigan. — From  a  quart  of  the  Potato  oats,  sent 
from  the  Department,  two  hundred  bushels  of  fine,  sound  oats,  weighing 
about  forty-five  pounds  per  bushel,  were  raised  from  the  second  sowing. 
Our  reporter  considers  one  bushel  worth  two  of  the  common  oats,  which 
weigh  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty-two  pounds  per  bushel. 

Sibley  County,  Minnesota. — ^he  New  Brunswick  oats,  sent  from  the 
Department  of  AgTiculture,  yielded  forty-five  bushels  per  acre,  and 
averaged  forty- seven  pounds  per  bushel. 

Cuming  County,  Nebraska. — A  little  less  than  a  quart  of  white  Su'cdish 
oats  produced  more  than  a  bushel,  weighing  forty  pounds  per  bushel. 


EXPERDIEN'T   WITH   FIELD   SEEDS.  411 

Iron  County,  Utah. — From  eight  ounces  of  vrhite  Swedisli  oats,  a  crop 
of  seventy-six  pounds  was  raised,  being  at  tlie  rate  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty-two  bushels  fi'om  one.  The  soil  was  a  sandy  loam,  liberally  dressed 
with  barn-yard  manure,  plowed  in. 

Aurora,  Sevada. — Three  table  sj)00ufiils  of  Swedish  oats  yielded  one 
bushel  of  fine,  plump  grain. 

CLOTER. 

He.incpin  County,  Minnesota. — The  Alsike  clover  proved  true  to  its 
name,  and  bore  last  year  a  heavy  crop :  smothered  out  the  timothy ; 
will  prove  a  valuable  acquisition  for  Minnesota.  The  black  and  the 
Italian  bees  worked  upon  it  ti*om  June  to  October. 

Jeifersoa  County.,  Missouri. — Sowed  the  Alsike  clover  received  fi-om 
thei)epartment;  growth  very  luxiuiant;  the  best  clover  ever  cultivated 
on  the  farm. 

Montgomery,  Texas. — After  thirty  years'  exi>erience  with  the  most 
celebrated  gi-asses,  such  as  fescue,  «S:c..  none  approaches  in  value  the 
California  clover.  It  gTOws  well  on  any  soil,  affording  two  crops  of  hay 
mnually.  double  the  yield  of  any  other  grass.  Once  sowed,  it  gTOws 
peqietually.  Cows  afford  more  and  better  milk  and  butter  when  gi'azed 
on  this,  than  on  any  other  gxass.  It  is  thought  that  it  would  be  a  val 
lable  addition  to  the  grasses  of  the  middle  and  southern  States. 


RECENT  FAKM  EXPERIMENTS. 


The  following  statements,  condensed  from  amass  of  material  gathered 
from  various  soiu'ces,  are  not  presented  vrith  a  riew  to  deciding  con- 
tested agricultural,  theories,  but  rather  as  a  compilation  of  the  results 
of  experiments,  which  shall  be  considered  as  suggestive  rather  than 
autiioritative ;  suggestive,  particiilarly,  to  the  many  who  have  not  the 
disposition,  or  the  time,  for  scientific  iliscussion,  but  vrho  may  be  interested 
in  the  accounts  given  by  i)laiu  working  farmers  of  the  methods  which 
they  have  tested. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  examples  here  given  may  induce  others  to  experi- 
mental effort,  with  increased  knowledge  as  to  what  is  needful  to  render 
such  effort  valuable  to  themselves  and  to  the  public — there  being  great 
necessity  for  more  care  in  conducting  farm  experiments  and  for  gxeater 
pi'ecision  in  the  statement  of  results.  In  making  these  selections,  many 
simDar  statements,  apparently  valuable  at  first  glance,  have  been 
rejected  on  accoimt  of  the  omission  of  imiwrtant  facts.  Failure  to  state 
the  character  of  the  soil  on  which  the  trial  was  made ;  the  quantity  of 
seed  sown  ;  the  natiu-e,  amount,  and  cost  of  manures  applied ;  the  product 
from  a  given  area — omission,  or  at  best,  want  of  ju-ecision  in  the  state- 
ment of  one  or  more  of  these  and  similar  i)oints,  is  so  frequent  as  to  be 
rather  the  rule  than  the  exception.  The  constant  occiu-rence  of  such 
inaccuracies  is  indeed  not  surprising :  but  not  the  less  is  it  to  be 
regi'etted,  and  not  the  less  should  effort  be  made  for  its  avoidance. 

Frequent,  careful,  and  practical  field  trials  are  especially  desii'aljlo  in 
the  present  agricultural  condition  of  this  country.  Tliere  is  a  class  of 
Em^opean  agiicultiu'al  experiments,  very  valuable  and  made  at  large  cost 
of  time  and  money,  which  are  so  distinctively  scientijic  as  to  serve  oui" 
agTiculturists  often  rather  as  oracular  authorities,  whose  deci-ees  must  be 
translated  for  the  uses  of  actual  process,  than  as  direct  guides  to  eco- 
nomical methods  of  farm  culture.  Says  Professor  Toelcker  of  the  Eoyal 
Agricultural  Society  of  England — one  of  the  most  thorough  scientific 
experimentalists  of  the  age  :  "  The  scientific  experimenter  is  not  neces- 
sarily interested  in  the  economical  result  of  a  field  trial ;  direct  profit  is 
not  his  aim,  but  rather  the  establishment  of  general  principles  which 
may  be  applied  by  the  practical  farmer."  He  adds  :  "  It  is  for  the  farmer 
to  keep  these  general  i^rinciples  in  view,  and  to  determine  for  himself 
what  i)ractical  bearing  such  principles  have  on  the  cultivation  of  his 
crops  in  a  i)articular  locality." 

V»'  H  E  A  T . 

The  following  statements  are  condensed  from  the  reports  of  the  several 
competitors  for  the  premiums  oflered  by  the  Athens  (Georgia)  "Wheat 
Club,  the  re])ort  in  each  case  having  been  made  upon  one  acre  of  wheat 
entered. 

No.  1.  lieport  of  Dr.  J.  ^'.  Ilamilton. — Land,  light  gray  or  sandy  sur- 
face soil,  with  red  clay  subsoil ;  brought  into  cultivation  in  1SG7,  and 
planted  in  corn  and  peas,  producing  about  V2  bushels  of  corn.  I^ovem- 
ber  7,  the  lot  was  plowed  and  replowed  at  right  angles,  close  and  deep, 
with  a  scooter  plow ;  70  bushels  of  cotton  seed  were  iheu  spread  an,d 


EECENT    FAEM    EXPEEBIEJsTS.  413 

tiu-ned  in  ^itli  a  tvro-horse  plow,  breakiug  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  six 
or  eight  inches.  November  12,  a  ruixturc  of  3S5  pounds  each  of  Peni- 
Tian  gnauo  and  dissolved  bone  (the  latter  of  Georgia  niannfacnu'e,  two 
parts  bone  to  one  of  acid,  with  equal  weight  of  ground  piue  charcoal) 
was  spread  very  evenly.  ZS"oveniber  13,  137  pounds  of  Tai"»pahaimock 
wheat,  steei^ed  in  a  solution  of  salt  and  bluestone.  was  sown  and 
plowed  in  ^ith  the  fertilizer,  and  then  haiTowed  and  rolled.  A  top- 
dressing  of  two  sacks  of  ammonia  phosphate  was  applied  about  the 
1st  of  Zvlareh.  Cost  of  70  bushels  cotton  seed,  811 ;  giiano  and  dissolved 
bone,  610  08:  ammonia  phosphate,  ?^7  28;  total,  $70  30.  Yield,  15 
bushels  30  pounds. 

Xo.  2.  Sij)ort  of  J.  TT.  Xichohon. — Land  very  poor:  cultivated  but 
once  ia  six  years,  when  it  was  sown  in  oats.  The  field  was  iilowed  three 
times  with  a  scooter  plow,  and  wheat  harrowed  in — a  red-bearded 
variety,  slow  in  maturing  and  not  prolific,  but  said  to  escajie  rust.  Seed 
sown  October  13;  (piantity,  two  bushels.  Manure  applied — seven  two- 
horse  loads  stable  maniu-e,  20  loads  of  half-rotted  chips  and  leaves,  three 
loads  of  well-leached  ashes,  1,000  jjouuds  of  Plienix  guano,  and  eight 
loads  of  clay:  the  whole  valued  at  $03  50.  Top-(.bessed.  March  10. 
with  250  pounds  of  Peruvian  guano.  TMieat  cut  June  1.  Yield.  21 
bushels  30  pounds.  The  (h'ought  killed  more  than  one-half  as  it  sprouted, 
and  storms  blew  the  plants  down  when  in  bloom  and  heading  out.  and 
one-third  were  flat  on  the  gTound  when  cut.  Little  damage  Irom  nist. 
but  rabbits  and  dogs  injiu-ed  the  crop  one-fourth. 

yo.  3.  Eeport  of  E.  L.  Bloomfield. — The  acre  was  poor  upland,  uncul- 
tivated for  filteen  or  twenty  years.  Land  was  broken  up  with  a  two- 
horse  plow  followed  by  a  scooter  in  each  Iiutow,  and  then  thrown  up  in 
beds  sixteen  feet  wide,  leaving  water-fiuTows  between  the  beds.  The 
beds  were  then  fiuTowed  with  a  turning  shovel,  and  cotton  seed  sown 
and  covered  with  the  next  furrow,  the  latter  jirocess  being  continued 
antd  70  bushels  of  the  cotton  seed  had  been  applied.  Cost  of  320  pounds 
of  guano  used,  $1G ;  70  bushels  of  cotton  seed,  $11 :  15  loads  of  stable 
u?anure  compost,  $20:  total,  $50.  Wheat  sown  the  second  week  in 
December,  a  bearded  variety,  one  and  a  quarter  bushel.  A  top-dressing  of 
five  loads  of  compost  was  applied  in  the  spring  with  great  advantage. 
Crop  cut  June  17.  Yield,  32  bushels  10^  pounds.  The  season  was  wet 
until  the  wheat  bloomed:  afterwards  chy  until  the  crop  ripened. 

Xo.  4.  Eeport  of  Captain  II.  A.  GartycU. — The  field  was  red  valley 
land^  in  constant  cultivation  for  many  years,  and  in  Avheat  the  previous 
two  years.  ^Vheu  the  crop  was  cut  the  stubble  was  turned  under  with 
a  bushel  of  peas;  and.  October  1,  the  green  pea-\'ines  were  plowed  under. 
Three  weeks  afterwards  the  gTouud  was  broken  Avith  a  subsoil  jilow, 
fourteen  inches  both  ways,  and  100  pounds  Baugh's  phosphate,  200 
pounds  Peruvian  guano,  and  200  pounds  gy-psum  applied.  October  22, 
two  bushels  of  inferior  wheat  were  so^vn  and  plowed  in,  harrowed  and 
rolled.  Xo  top-dressing  used.  Harvested  May  20.  Y'ield,  21  bushels 
26  pounds.  Seilson  nniavorable ;  frequent  rains  with  high  winds,  fol- 
lowed by  hot  simshine.  AVheat  bloAvn  down  in  spots  two  or  three  times. 
Crop  cut  short  one-half  by  mst. 

Xo.  5.  Eeport  of  A.  F.  Dearimj. — Soil  thin  and  gravelly,  on  a  ridge 
sloping  to  north  and  west;  one-fourth  partially  fertilized  iis  the  resting 
])lace  of  cattle :  ten  years  in  cultivation,  the  last  three  seeded  to  wheat 
The  lot  T.as  plowed  with  a  turning  plow,  followed  l\v  ;i  scooter  in  the 
same  furrow,  after  which  100  bushels  cotton  seed,  500  pounds  Peni^iau 
guano,  and  000  pounds  dissolved  bone  were  applied  and  plowed  in.  No- 
vember 2,  three  bushels  of  Tappahannock  wheat  were  sown  and  harrowed 


414  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

in ;  aucl  in  February  a  top-dressing  of  100  pounds  salt  and  20  bushels 
ashes  was  ap])lied  to  three-fourths  of  the  acre,  and  in  April  about  100 
pounds  of  salt,  100  pounds  Augusta  ItrtLlizer,  and  100  pounds  Peruvian 
guano,  to  the  same  area.  Yield,  40  bushels  23  pounds.  When  in  bloom, 
one-fourth  of  the  acre  was  prostrated  by  frequent  storms.  Eust  on  the 
blade  from  the  time  it  commenced  to  lill ;  stalk,  before  cutting,  entirely 
bare.  When  cut,  in  June,  one-fourth  was  badly  tangled,  aud  flat  on 
the  ground.    The  portion  treated  with  ashes  and  salt  did  not  tail. 

No.  G.  Report  of  General  W.  M.  Broicne. — Soil  poor,  gray  surface,  aud 
red  clay  foimdation ;  an  old  second-growth  pine  held,  cleared  in  1866 
aud  seeded  to  wheat  in  1S66-'G7.  After  the  harvest  of  1867  the  land 
was  plowed  thoroughly  across  the  old  furrows,  and  peas  sown  and  plowed 
in.  The  last  of  September,  the  peas  Avere  sprinkled  with  lime  and 
turned  under  with  a  two-horse  plow.  lu  a  few  days  thereafter  100 
bushels  of  cotton  seed  were  turned  under  with  a  Brinley  plow, 
followed  in  the  same  furrow  by  a  scooter,  breaking  the  soil  six  or  seven 
inches.  Feitilizers  used:  100  bushels  cotton  seed,  250  pouuds  Pera- 
vian  gniano,  aud  250  pounds  lleid's  superphosphate,  costing  $13  75.  No 
top-dressing  applied.  Wheat  sown  Xovemlier  1,  after  soaking  in  brine 
and  a  solution  of  bluestone.  Harvested  May  1.  Yield,  38  bushels  52i 
pounds.  Much  rain  and  high  wind  in  April  and  May,  and  considerable 
rust  on  the  blade. 

Ko.  7.  Report  of  Colonel  D.  C.  Barroic. — Gray  land,  thin  and  poor, 
utterly  exhausted  by  repeated  croppiugs.  A  very  poor  crop  of  v\'heat 
taken  fi"om  it  last  year.  In  the  summer  two  bushels  of  peas  were  so-\ra, 
and  in  September  turned  under  with  a  two-horse  plow.  The  first  week 
in  November,  100  bushels  cotton  seed  were  spread  and  plowed  under, 
the  soil  being  pretty  well  pulverized,  but  not  thoroughly.  Two  bushels 
of  Tappahannock  wheat,  1,150  pounds  Eeid's  phosphate,  aud  250  pounds 
Peruvian  giiano  were  sown  and  plowed  in  together,  and  the  field  then 
dragged  smooth  with  brush.  Two  gallons  of  clover  were  also  sown. 
Cost  of  100  bushels  cotton  seed,  $20;  1,150  pounds  phosphate,  $28  75; 
250  pounds  guano,  $12  50 ;  total,  $61  25.  Harvested  June  3.  Yield, 
27  bushels.  In  the  gullies  and  clayey  places  the  stand  was  injured  by 
winter-killing;  and  there  was  some  loss  from  rust  on  the  blade. 

No.  8.  Report  of  Colonel  B.  C.  Yancey. — Soil  poor ;  in  cidtivation  many 
years ;  produced  last  season,  without  manure,  seven  bushels  of  wheat. 
Land  broken  in  October  with  a  two-horse  Brinley  plow,  followed  by  a 
sub-soiler ;  cross-broken  with  a  two-horse  plow,  and  then  harrowed  and 
rolled  before  sowing.  About  60  bushels  of  cotton  seed,  two  barrels 
bone  flour,  750  pouuds  Peruvian  guano,  and  one  barrel  land  plaster 
were  used  as  fertilizers.  December  3,  three  bushels  of  Schley  wheat 
were  sown  ;  top-di-essed  in  the  spring  with  two  bushels  of  salt  and  eight 
bushels  of  ashes.  Value  of  fertilizers,  $75.  Harvested  June  16.  Yield, 
39  bushels  16  pounds.  Winter  rather  wet  and  peculiarly  unfavora- 
ble to  the  locality,  Avhicli  was  level  upland,  receiving  surplus  water  from 
adjoining  slopes  of  rising  land.  In  addition  to  leaf  mold,  the  crop  was 
damaged  hy  rust  on  the  stem  from  June  3  to  June  16.  WLile  sprouting 
a  severe  freeze  injured  the  stand.  The  opinion  is  expressed  by  some 
Virginia  farmers  that  the  use  of  plaster  produced  the  rust,  the  season 
having  been  wet.  Colonel  Yancey  thinks  an  excess  of  guano  and  bone- 
dust  was  used. 

No.  9.  Report  of  Major  A.  L.  Bearing. — Gray  land,  with  red  clay 
foundation ;  inclined  to  be  sandy ;  in  cultivation  five  years.  The  field 
was  plowed  with  a  tiu-ning  plow,  follo^red  in  the  same  furrow  with  a 
long  bull-tongue  plow;  crossed  in  the  same  manner,  and  harrowed  tv^•ice. 


KECENT  FAKM  EXPEEDIENTS.  415 

iN"ovember  11,  two  and  a  quarter  bushels  Tappaliaimock  wheat  were 
sown ;  and  ]March  12,  75  pounds  Peruvian  guano,  12  bushels  ashes,  and 
one  bushel  salt,  were  applied.  Total  of  fertilizers  used,  331  pounds 
Peruvian  guano,  280  pounds  dissolved  bone,  and  08  one-horse  loads  barn- 
yard manure,  the  whole  valued  at  870.  Yield,  35  bushels  G  poimds.  The 
wheat  rusted  badly  on  the  blade  and  slightly  on  the  stalk,  and  about 
thirty  feet  square  lell  down. 

EemcD-ls. — In  all. these  cases  the  wheat  was  sown  broadcast,  drilling 
not  yet  having  received,  in  the  South,  the  favor  which  it  merits.  Xos. 
2  and  7  indicate  a  less  thorough  judverization  of  the  sod  than  do  the 
other  statements.  The  unfavorable  circumstances  mentioned  at  the 
close  of  these  two  reports  as  affecting  the  crops  appear  to  be  paralleled 
in  several  cases  in  which  a  much  larger  yield  is  exhibited.  In  'So.  5, 
the  falling  of  the  wheat  on  the  one-fourth  acre  fertilized  only  by  cattle 
droppings  may  in  a  great  measure  be  accounted  for  by  the  non-applica- 
tion of  salt  and  ashes  on  that  portion  of  the  field,  two  materials  tending 
specially  to  strengthen  and  harden  the  stalk  and  to  aid  in  resisting  rust. 

Recapitulation  in  order  of  yield. — ZSTo.  1.  Thin,  sandy  surface  soil,  with 
red  clay  subsoil.  Plowed  thoroughly,  stirring  the  subsoil ;  strongly  and 
very  evenly  manured,  and  top-dressed.  Seed  of  an  excellent  variety, 
well  adapted  to  the  climate,  in  quantity  about  two  and  a  quarter  bush- 
els. Yield,  45  bushels  30  pounds.  Cost  of -manures,  870  30. — Xo.  5. 
Soil  thin  and  gTavelly ;  well  prepared  with  tlie  plow,  and  heavily  fer- 
tilized. Too  much  seed  sown,  crowding  and  thereby  damaging  the 
growth  in  quality  and  in  power  of  resisting  disease,  aftd  consequently 
in  amount  of  yield ;  quantity  of  seed,  three  bushels.  Yield,  40  bushels 
23  pounds. — ZS^o.  8.  Soil  poor,  and  worn  by  loug  cidtivation  ;  by  peculiar 
formation  of  the  surface  accumulating  superabundant  moisture;  well 
prepared  by  plowing  and  manuring.  Too  much  seed  sown ;  quantity, 
three  bushels.  Yield,  39  bushels  10  pounds, — No.  0.  Land  old  and  poor, 
surface  soil  and  subsoil  similar  to  No.  1;  well  prepared  by  plowing; 
well  manured,  but  not  top-tlressed.  Yield,  38  bushels  b2h  poimds.  Cost 
of  manures,  $43  75. — Xo.  9.  Soil  and  subsoil  similar  to  Nos.  1  and  C ; 
well  plowed  and  heavily  fertilized.  Yield,  35  bushels  G  pounds. — Xo.  3. 
Soil  poor  u])laud,  cidtivated  fifteen  to  twentj'  years ;  well  prepared  by 
plowing  and  manures.  Yield,  32  bushels  4Gi  pounds.  Cost  of  manures," 
$50. — Xo.  7.  Thin  and  very  poor  gTay  soil ;  not  thoroughly  pulverized ; 
well  manured,  but  not  top-dressed.  Yield,  27  bushels. — Xo.  2.  Soil  not 
well  pulverized.  Yield,  21  bushels  30  pounds. — Xo.  4.  Soil  apparently 
well  prepared.     "Very  poor  seed."    Yield  21  bushels  20  pounds. 

The  average  yield  of  these  nine  acres  was  33  bushels  ol^  pounds  per 
acre,  the  A^alue  of  which,  at  82  35  per  bushel,  (the  average  fate  of  wheat 
in  Georgia  in  1807,)  woukl  amount  to  878  81.  Make  the  small  addition 
of  83  19  as  the  value  of  the  straw,  and  the  total  amount  is  882.  Esti- 
mate labor,  seed,  &c.,  at  an  average  cost  of  817  per  acre ;  the  average 
cost  of  manures  at  800 ;  thus  making  the  average  cost  of  production 
$77  per  acre.  This  leaves  an  average  immediate  pecuniary  profit  of  ^b 
per  acre.  The  immediate  profit  of  Xo.  1  may  be  estimated  as  at  least 
between  825  and  830  per  acre.  Oppose  to  this  the  common  plan  of  "as 
little  cultivation  as  1)0881^6,"  allowing  to  it  a  production  of  wheat  per 
acre  equal  to  the  average  in  Georgia  in  1807,  viz.,  eight  bushels.  (In 
1800  the  average  was  four  bushels.)  At  this  rate,  the  value  of  the  pro- 
duct, straw  included,  would  be  819  00.  Fiuthermore,  to  give  this  side 
of  the  question  every  advantage  that  it  can  plausibly  assume,  state  the 
cost  of  seed  and  culture  at  S14  GO  j)er  acre,  which  will  leave  an  imme- 
diate profit  of  ^b  per  acre. 


416  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Xow  obsprve  the  contrast  between  the  high  culture  and  the  low,  even 
when  exhibiting-  at  the  outset  apparently  the  same  immediate 'pecuniary- 
profit.  On  the  one  hand,  the  soil  brought  forward  from  an  impoverished 
to  a  highly  productive  condition  ;  on  the  other,  the  already  impoverished 
land  made  poorer  by  every  cropping  until  reduced  to  barrenness.  Is'or 
is  this  a  full  statement  of  the  bearings  of  the  case.  The  above  exi>eri- 
mental  trials  were  made  for  premiums  and  for  an  especial  puiiiose,  at 
enormous  outlays  for  fertilizers.  They  are  not  presented  as  example, 
of -what  should  i)e  the  usual  coiu'se  of  farm  administration  in  the  restor:i- 
tion  of  the  land  to  a  state  of  generous  and  profitable  cultiu'c.  In  such 
a  coitrse  the  process  of  renovation  would  be  more  gradual,  and  without 
extravagant  outlays :  and  the  retiu-ns  would  be  more  surely  satisfac- 
tory. 

These  experiments  are  evidences  that  a  better  day  is  davming  on 
southern  agTiculture,  and  that,  in  spite  of  all  temporary  discoirrage- 
ments,  intelligence  and  enterinise  are  surely,  if  slowly,  making  their 
mark  on  its  general  character. 

CULTITATIOX  OF  WHEAT. 

Public  attention  has  been  directed,  in  the  recent  reports  of  thi^ 
Department,  to  the  propriety  of  making  experiments  in  the  cultivation 
of  wheat  in  wide  drilling  and  thin  seeding.  The  fact  that  millions  of 
acres  of  v.heat  are  annually  overrun  with  weeds,  and  that  sod  lands, 
imperfectly  pulverized,  often  yield  larger  crops  than  the  same  soil  in  a 
better  luechaiii^al  condition  but  thoroughly  seeded  with  wild  plants  of 
rampant  growth,  ought  to  suggest  the  probable  success  of  a  system  of 
cultivation  of  growing  wheat  whereby  it  might  have  unchecked  oppor- 
tunity for  growth,  tillering,  and  perfect  ripening,  with  such  robustness 
of  stalk  as" to  preclude  the  liability  of  fallirig,  and  consequent  imperfec- 
tion and  loss  of  grain. 

Several  correspondents  of  the  Department  acted  upon  these  sugges- 
tions, and  reported  la\orable  results.  One,  in  Ivock  County,  Wisconsin, 
cultivated  ten  acres,  i)lanted  in  drills  fourteen  inches  apart,  with  tvro 
pecks  of  seed  i)er  acre,  with  success  so  marked  as  to  induce  him  to  init 
in  seventeen  acres  more. 

Mr.  li.  A.  Gilpin,  of  West  Chester,  Pa.,  in  ISOO  planted  one  acre  v.ith 
three  pecks  of  seed  in  drills  twenty  inches  apart,  and  drilled  the  remain- 
der of  the  field  at  intervals  of  ten  inches.  In  the  spring,  when  the 
ground  had  become  sulficiently  di\v,  a  small  garden  hoe-harrow  was  run 
between  the  wide  rows,  woi'king  three  inches  deep.  "  The  wheat  tcok  a 
rapid  start  and  outgrew  the  rest  of  the  field.  As  the  season  advanced 
it  grew  tall  and  strong,  and  no  amount  of  wind  or  rain  had  an}-  eflx'c: 
to  lay  it  down.  Vv^hen  the  heads  formed,  their  greater  length  was  appar- 
ent. It  was  backward  in  ripening,  aud  the  resr  of  the  field  was  cut  and 
hauled  in  before  this  was  ripe."  But  the  single  acre  yielded  twenty- 
three  bushels,  v»hile  the  remainder  of  the  field  produced  only  riinc 
bushels  ])er  acre.  Thus  a  single  hoeing  produced  foiu-teen  bushels  on  an 
acre,  or  loo  i)er  cent,  increase,  vrorth  at  the  current  value  830,  besides 
saving  one-half  of  the  value  of  the  seed.  A  large  number  of  results 
like  these,  definite  and  partionlar,  in  varied  circumstances  of  soil,  cli- 
mate, and  condition,  would  test  the  ])ccuniary  advantage  of  horse- 
hoeing  wheat. 

:iETnODS  OF   SEEDING   CO^ITARED. 

The  following  is  a  report  of  an  experiment  made  by  a  member  of  the 
Goodhue  Farmer's  Club,  Minnesota,  with  three  fields  seeded  to  spring 


KECENT  FAEM  EXPEREMEXTS.  417 

wheat  of  tbe  Chiuu  Ten  variety.  The  statement  exhibits,  among  other 
points,  tbe  great  advantage  arising  from  a  proper  method  of  drilling,  in 
.d\ing  equal  gro\\-th  to  the  wheat  plants  and  sufficient  room  for  their 
de^'flopnient. 

Field  Xo.  1,  two  bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  sown  with  broadcast  sower 
;iinl  cuitivator  combined,  the  seed  being  planted  at  depths  varying  from 
one  to  fom-  inches.  Field  ZSTo.  2,  live  pecks  per  acre,  sown  in  drills,  east 
and  west,  two  and  a  half  inches  deep.  Field  Xo.  3,  three  pecks  per 
acre,  sown  in  drills,  east  and  west,  two  and  a  half  iuches  deep,  eighteen 
inches  apait;  cultivated  but  once,  when  about  a  foot  high,  Avith  a  five- 
toothed  walking  cultivator,  at  an  expense  of  one  dollar  per  aore. 

liesults. — No.  1,  good  wheat,  head  mediimi  in  length,  well  filled,  and 
standing  thick  on  the  ground ;  miequal  in  growth,  some  straws  being 
five  and  six  feet  long,  others  only  tv,-o  feet;  some  heads  very  green, 
others  ri])e ;  estimated  yield  tv.enty  to  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre. 
Xo.  '2  had  a  better  color  during  growth  than  Xo.  1,  and  was  very  eveain 
straw  and  degree  of  ripeness:  heads  about  even,  of  extra  length; 
bundles  very  Lvavy ;  estimated  vield,  thirty  bushels  per  acre.  Xo.  3 
was  extra  at  all  times,  its  unusual  deep-gTeen  color  and  broad  leaves 
attracting  nuicli  atteution:  no  one  supposed  it  the  same  kind  of  grain 
as  lots  1  and  2 :  it  stcoled  out  much  more  than  either,  and  was  uniform 
in  rii>eness  and  length  of  straw;  estimated  yield,  thiity-five  to  forty 
bushels  per  acre. 

The  Club  concluded  that  they  had  been  in  the  habit  of  usiug  too  much 
seed  for  spring  v.heat,  and  that  wheat  needs  cultivation. 

THE   PEOPEK   TEME   TO   IIAEYEST. 

Several  experiments  toudiiug  the  proper  time  for  harvesting  wheat 
are  detailed  in  agTicultural  papers  published  in  different  sections  of  the 
country,  the  results  of  which  are  con^oborative  of  the  theory,  already 
well  est^iblished,  that  wheat  should  be  cut  v,hcn  the  grain  is  in  the  dough 
state.  The  yield  of  flour  is  then  gTcatest  in  quantity  and  best  in  qual- 
ity, and  the  straw  also  is  in  the  best  condition.  The  principle  and  its 
exemplification  in  practice  will  be  found  fully  set  forth  in  the  reports  of 
this  Department  for  ISo'O,  (p.  102,)  and  ISoO,  (p.  210.)  Wheat  gro^A-nfor 
seed  should,  of  course,  stand  till  ripe. 

WTEEAT   ATTEIl   CLOTEE. 

With  regard  to  the  peculiar  influence  of  the  red  clover  crop  on  the 
subse.quent  growth  of  wheat.  Professor  Voelcker,  reporting  on  experi- 
mental trials,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  of  Eng- 
land for  1808,  says:  ''The  heaviest  crops  of  clover  removed  from  the 
soil  appear  to  render  it  more  capable j^f  yielding  a  good  crop  of  wheat. 
The  addition  of  even  powerfifl  saline  manures  (superphosphate  of  lime, 
mixed  alkalies,  »S:c.)  seems  hardly  to  imin'ove  the  subsequent  wheat 
crop.  *  *  *  *  *  It  is  a  fact  that  after  a  heavy  crop  of  clover  car- 
ried off  as  hay,  the  land,  far  from  being  less  fertile  than  before,  is  i>ecii- 
liarly  well  adajjfed,  even  without  the  addition  of  manure,  to  bear  a  good 
crop  of  wheat  the  following  year,  provided  the  season  be  favorable  to 
its  growth.  *  *  *  *  Clover  mown  twice  leaves  the  land  in  a  better 
condition,  as  regarding  its  wheat-producing  capabilities,  than  when 
movrn  once  only  for  hay,  and  the  second  crop  fed  oft"  the  land  by  sheep." 

Fiu'tlier  remarks  are,  in  substance,  that  land  whereon  [A]  clover  has 
been  gTown  tor  seed  the  jireceding  rear  appears  to  ^iel(l  a  still  better 
27 


418 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


crop  of  wheat  than  when  [BJ  the  clover  is  mown  twic€  for  hay,  or  when 
[C]  mown  once  and  afterwards  fed  off  by  sheep.  Among  the  stated 
.resnlts  of  the  professors  investigations  arc  the  following:  1st.  During 
the  gi^owth  of  clover  a  large  amount  of  nitrogeuons  matter  accumulates 
in  the  soil.  2d.  This  accumulation,  which  is  greatest  iu the  'urface  soil, 
is  due  to  decaying  leaves  dropped  during  the  gro^^vth  of  clover,  and  to 
an  abundance  of  roots  containing,  wlirn  dry,  from  one  and  three-quar- 
ters to  two  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  3d.  The  clover  roots  are, stronger  and 
more  numerous,  and  more  leaves  fall  to  the  gi^ound,  in  case  A  than  in 
case  B.  ith.  In  case  C  the  d;\  eiopment  of  clover  roots  is  checked,  and 
the  consequent  loss  of  feitilization  is  not  sufficiently  counterbalanced  by 
the  excrements  of  the  sheep  on  the  land.  The  subjoined  table  repre- 
sents certain  comparative  etfects  of  cases  A  and  B. 


A.  Clover  soil  once  moim  and 
then  left  for  seed. 


First       ]     Second  Third 

six  inches,    six  inches.  '  six  inches. 


B.  Clover  soU  t-^oe  moTvn. 


First  Second  Third 

six  inches,    six  inches.  '  six  inches. 


Percentage  of  nitrogen  in 
dried  soil 

Equal  to  ammonia 


.139 


.134 

.160 


.089 
.10? 


.168 

.193 


.0S>2 
.11-2 


.064 
.078 


Another  deduction  is  thus  given :  "  Clover  not  only  provides  abundance 
of  nitrogenous  food,  but  delivers  this  food  in  a  readily  available  form 
(as  nitrates)  more  gi\adually  and  continuously,  and,  consequently,  with 
more  certainty'  of  a  good  result  than  such  food  can  be  applied  to  the 
land  in  the  shape  of  nitrogenous  spring  top-dressings." 


THE  EOTHAMPSTED  EXPEKDEGNTS. 

The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  experiments  of  J.  B.  Lawes, 
Kothampsted,  Herts,  England,  on  ditierent  plots  of  wheat  for  the  last  six 
^years;  being  in  continuation  of  like  experiments  on  the  same  areas 
ma(te  annually  since  1852.  DuiTug  the  whole  seventeen  years  "  the  same 
description  and  amoimt  of  manuie  have  l>eeu  applied  on  the  same  plot 
each  year.  In  every  other  respect  the  treatment  has  been  the  .same  over 
all  the  ])lots  each  year,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  year  after 
year.  The  variation  in  the  product  from  year  to  year  may,  therefore, 
be  considered  as  almost  enth-ely  due  to  the  varying  character  of  the 
seasons.''  Plots  numbered  3,  2,  and  9,  are  nearly  one-thii'd  of  an  acre 
each,  and  plots  numbered  7  and  8  are  each  nearly  two-thirds  of  an  acre. 
The  residts  are  given  as  follows: 


Bow  manured  each  year. 

Harvests.    Bushels  of  dressed  wheat  per  acre. 

lb 

Plots. 

1663. 

18C4. 

1865. 

1666. 

1867. 

1866. 

3 

44 

531 

55i 

55i 

161 

40 

45i 

49i 

51 

,     13i 
37i 
40i 
43i 
44 

12J 
32| 
30 
32i 

Pi 
27i 

30i 

1C| 
41i 
391 
46J 

35i 
351 
3f^ 
35J 

o 

7 

8 

9 

Artilicial  manure 

Average  of  7,  8,  and  9 

i>b 

49 

i-l           31 i 

-~i 

"• 

3tr| 

KECENT  FARM  EXPEEDIENTS. 


419 


How  manured  each  year. 

Harvests.    Average  weight  per  hnshcl.  (lbs.) 

1SC3.    i    li<U. 

1 

lc6o. 

liCG.     '    I  SOT.         K^S. 

.1 

62.7         62.0 
62.5         02.0 

60.6 
61.4 

61.3    1    5tvl     i    61.0 
60.9         60?8         61.5 

I    Tu.  4 

1    59.0 

Here  is  an  iucrease  of  fully  t^o  and  a  half  per  cent,  in  weight  per 
bushel,  as  the  result  of  uianuriijg". 

The  experience  thus  set  forth  vrill  caution  the  farmer  not  to  maice  the 
production  of  a  single  sea.son  the  criterion  for  a  given  method  of  culture. 
In  forming  his  judgment,  he  should  consider  whether  the  season  fairly 
represents  the  average  of  several  years.  And,  in  determining  this  point, 
the  state  of  suiTOiinding  crops  will  generally  atford  much  assistance. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  above-meatioued  areas  were  aU  under  a 
high  degTee  of  mechanical  cultm'e.  The  years  1867  and  18(38  were  excep- 
tional thi'oughout  England,  as  regardmg  the  wheat  crop :  the  former 
year  exhibiting  a  yield  unusaUy  small,  the  latter  a  remarkably  abund- 
ant production. 

This  average  result  of  sixteen  annual  experiments  is  interesting  and 
instiiictive.  tending  to  show — indeed  actually  j^howing — that  English 
soil  immanured,  though  thoroughly  tiUed,  yields  little  more  than  the 
average  product  of  uumanured  American  soil  indifferently  tilled.  It 
also  teaches  the  necessity,  as  well  as  the  proht,  of  liberal  manimng. 
The  increase  eflected  by  barn-yard  maniu-e  was  138  per  cent.,  and  by 
the  application  of  various  fertilizers,  148  per  cent — in  bushels,  respect- 
ively, 20|  and  21|,  worth,  at  average  rates  for  the  period,  at  least  825 
and  827.  This  is  far  more  than  the  cost  of  the  fertilizers,  leaving  a  rent- 
pa%'ing  profit.  Our  own  wheat-gTowers  should  ponder  these  results  and 
profit  by  them. 

IXI>IAX  CORX. 

FEETILIZEES  COMPAEED. 


John  May,  of  Wiuthrop,  !Maine,  on  84  sciuare  rods,  fertilized  with  ih 
loads  of  barnyard  manm^e  and  a  tablespoonfid  of  Coe's  superphosphate 
in  each  hill,  grevr  39  bushels  of  corn  and  other  i:)roducts.  costing  838, 
and  worth  $(J'J  GO. 

Another  correspondent  states  that  he  has  been  in  the  habit,  every  few 
days  diuiug  the  fall  and  ■v^inter.  of  sjireadiug  dry  muck  over  the  drop- 
pings from  his  hcn-rcosts.  In  the  .spring  his  hen-hou.se  aflbrded  him  a 
I)ile  of  excellent  home-made  giiano,  which  was  shoveled  over  several 
times,  becoming  finally  pidverized,  and  no  more  unplea.sant  to  handle 
than  dry  earth.  It  was  used  on  a  late  piece  of  corn,  a  hanilfiil  in  each 
hill.  The  corn  soon  caught  up  with  that  planted  ten  d^ys  earlier,  ripened 
quite  as  soon,  and  gave  a  better  yield.  It  gi"ew  so  last  that  the  cut- 
worm could  make  no  impression  on  it. 

E.  E.  Townley,  of  Vermont,  reports  the  following  experiment :  The  land 
and  cultivation  were  uniform — inverted  gTCcnsward,  heavily  maniu*ed  on 
the  surface.  The  fertilizers  were  put  m  the  hill.  Each  plot  contained 
two  rows  through  the  field.  Plot  No.  1,  not  manured ;  product,  2^  baskets 
of  ears  of  corn.  Xo.  2,  fertilized  with  a  compost  of  hen-manme,  ashes, 
plaster,  and  earth;  product,  2^  baskets.  Xo.  3,  Lodi  jMauulacturipg 
Company's  poudrette;  i)roduct,  3J  baskets.    Xo.  4,  rotten  baru-j'ard 


420 


AGRICITLTURAI.    REPORT. 


inauuiv  ;  product,  4;n>askets.  No.  o,  lio;^"  maimn-;  product,  5  baskets. 
No.  0,  Bradley's  NL  superi)liosi)hate :  }»r()duct,  5  baskets.  Tbe  defrree 
of  sounduess  Avas  in  pro])ortiou  to  tbe  yield,  tbe  last  beiu.e:  best. 

"J.  M.  M./'  Eayubani,  Massiicbusetts. — Laud  poor,  gi-avelly,  and  moist : 
was  turned  over  in  Se])teraber,  but  no  manure  spread.  3Iay  25.  five 
to^t;  of  corn  were  planted,  tifty-tive  bills  in  a  row,  tbe  bills  four  feet  apart 
eaeb  way.  •  Kow  No.  1 :  a  large  sbovelfw.1  of  brst-rate  manure  was  ]nit  in 
»\icb  bill ;  product,  81  pounds  of  corn,  of  wbicb  bve  pounds  were  unsouud. 
No.  2:  no  manure;  product,  49  pounds,  of  Avbicb  Gi  j^oiuids  weie  uusoun<b 
No.  3:  one  and  a  balf  busbels  compost  of  ]»bister,  asbes.  and  ben-manure: 
product,  Gii  pounds — -Impounds  unsound.  No.  4:  twenty  pounds  super- 
pbospbate  of  lime,  tborouj;bly  mixed  witb  tbe  soil ;  product,  Tl^V  pounds 
— 2i  ])Ounds  nnsound.  No.  5:  (me  busbei  Lodi  iiouibettc;  jn-oduct,  02i 
pounds — 3.^  pounds  unsound.  Tbe  corn  was  busked  on  tbe  bills  and  tbe 
cars  of  eaeb  row  were  weigbed  separateh".  Tbe  row  witb  manure  yiebled 
tbe  most  corn,  tbat  vritb  tbe  su])erpbospbate  raukin<>-  next  and  giving 
tbe  smallest  quantity  of  unsound  corn. 

Benjamin  Caswell,  Ebode  Island. — Cidti\"ated  one  acre  of  new  ground. 
Spread  on  tbe  sod  in  tbe  spring  twenty  ox-cart  loads  of  barn  manure  mixed 
witb  sand  in  tbe  barn  cellar ;  plowed  seven  incbcs  deep :  barrowed  tbor- 
ougbly :  tben  witb  sballow  furrov»'s  marked  twenty-live  bills  to  a  square 
nxl,  and  dropped  in  eaeb  bill  tbi'ee  kernels  of  corn  Avitb  a  small  spoonful 
of  droppings  from  tbe  ben-roost  mixed  witb  sand;  boed  twice,  grass  be- 
ing sown  at  tbe  last  boeing';  yield,  75^  busbels. 

Experiment  at  tbe  East  Pennsylvania  Experimental  Earm. — A  timo- 
tby  sod  plowed  late  in  spring,  put  in  good  order,  and  jdanted  3Iay  27tb. 
The  "cbemical  solution  *'  mentioned  in  Nos.  3  and  7  of  tbe  following  table 
was  composed  of  four  ounces  carbonate  of  ammonia,  foiu-  ounces  nitrate 
of  j)otasb,  four  ounces  sulpbate  of  kou,  four  ounces  sulpbate  of  magne- 
sia, and  one  gallon  of  water.  Tbe  solution  appeared  to  do  neitber  good 
nor  barm.  Tbe  seed  employed  in  Nos.  1  to  4  is  particularized  as  a  bgbt, 
yellow,  long  kernel.  In  Nos.  o  to  20,  "  a  darker  yellow,  perbaps  a  Uttle 
earlier.'' 


1  Dry  s(?o(l,  no  fertilizer '■  4 

2  S»;e«l  soaked  18  bours  iu  pute  water 4 

3  Seed  »i)akod  Hi  Imurs  in  clieaiical  .sulutiou 4 

4  '  Dry  seed,  no  IVrtilizer 4 

.5     Dry  seed,  no  fertilizer 4 

(»     Seed  so.iUed  1(1  hours  iu  pure  wat^'r 4 

7     Seed  soaked  IG  hours  iu  eheniioal  solution j  4 

5  Whanu's  pliosiiliate  iu  hill, -JOO  i)o;uid.s  to  aere 4 

0     Hewes's  phns])hato  in  liill.  21)0  jv.rands  to  aero ■  4 

10  Bau^h's  (■hi<"i;ro  fertilizer.  "JO'l  poan<ls  to  aero    4 

1 1  Uarrisons  plant  ferl  ilizev.  "Mi)  poiuids  to  acre 4 

}'i     Moro  Philip's  phosplirite,  i  /O  pounds  to  acre ' 4 

V.i     Shoemaker's  phuine » 

14  IJaufrh's  raw-bone  phospbat*' 

15  Bowers's  complet»>  nimiui-e 

lii     Heu-manure.  not  weighed,  baud  full  to  hill 

17     Dry  seed,  no  fertilizer 

J !?.    Dry  seed,  no  fertilizer [3 

10     Dry  seed,  no  fertilizei.  t-ovned  'i  inches  deep 4 

20     Dry  seed,  no  fertilizer,  1  inch  deep I  4 


REGENT  FARM  EXPERIMENTS. 


421 


PROPER  DEPTH  OF  SEED. 

A  Pennsylvania  farmer,  experimenting  in  plantinj,'  corn  iit  viirious 
iit'pths,  planted  corn  "witli  a  pointed  stick  at  depths  of  one,  one  and  a 
;::ilf,  two  inclies,  &c.,  down  to  six  inches.  The  grains  planted  at  one 
inch  came  up  in  eight  and  three-quarter  days.  Those  at  one  and  a  half 
inches  came  up  in  nine  and  a  quarter  days.  Those  at  depths  from  two 
to  five  inches  came  up  in  periods  ranging  from  ten  to  eighteen  days,  pro- 
l)ortioual  to  the  depth  of  seed.  Of  those  at  live  and  a  half  inches,  only 
Ten  grains  came  tip.  Those  at  six  inches  did  not  make  their  appearance 
;!t  all.  Of  those  at  live  inches  only  forty-two  grains  attained  a  height  of 
six  to  eight  inches.  Those  planted  at  the  depth  of  four  and  a  half  inches 
produced  no  ears  of  full  size.  Those  at  one  and  a  half  inch  produced 
far  the  best  corn.  Those  at  one  and  two  inches  gave  sound  ears,  but  in- 
ferior to  those  just  mentioned.  He  concludes  that  the  proper  depth  for 
planting  corn  is  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches.  This  may  stiind  as 
a  general  rule,  ,but  it  cannot  1  )e  made  an  absolute  guide,  in  -^iew  of  the 
<.'onditious  of  tliverse  soils. 

ROOT    CUliTURE. 

EXPERBEENTS  IN  TimNIP  CULTURE. 


The  prominence  of  root  cultiu'e  in  the  agricultiutd  system  of  Great 
Britain  is  well  known,  though  the  value  of  the  product  and  the  quan- 
tity obtained  per  acre  by  good  culture  in  a  favoring  climate  are  not 
fully  understood.  In  the  Transactions  of  the  Highland  Agricultural 
Society*  of  Scotland  for  18G8  is  published  a  report  of  experiments  made 
by  Mr.  Henry  Shaw,  with  different  varieties  of  turnips.  Upon  this  re- 
sult a  gold  medal  was  aAYarded  to  him  by  the  society.  The  field  on 
which  the  exi)eriments  w^ere  made  had  a  southern  exposure,  about 
seven  hundred  feet  above  the  sea  level,  its  soil  being  a  light  loam,  dark 
in  color,  es]>ecially  adapted  to  gTass  and  turnips  ;  the  subsoil,  a  strong, 
brownish  clay.  The  land  had  been  subjected  to  a  six-course  rotation  5 
one  year  in  mowing,  three  in  pasture,  foUowed  the  fifth  year  by  oats, 
and  the  next  year  by  turnij>s.  Sixteen  varieties  of  tmiiips  Avere  sown  in 
plots  measuring  one-eighth  of  an  acre  each.  Each  of  these  allotments 
was  manured  with  two  and  a  half  cubic  yards  of  farm-yard  dung  and 
twenty -eight  pounds  of  dissolved  bone ;  excepting  the  j)lots  sown  with 
Swedes,  whereon  this  quantity  of  dissolved  bone  was  doubled,  the  amount 
of  dung  being  the  same.  The  product  per  imperial  acre  is  given  in  the 
accompanying  table,  fractions  of  hundred- weights  not  reported : 


Kiud. 


•V\'HITE  TUKXirS. 

ComTnoTi  White  Globe 

T.ankard  Qlobo 

Poiiit-raniau  AVliite  Globe  . . 

Gray  stone  Globe 

Keil-top  Globe 

YELLOW  TUIOJn'S. 

Early  Bnlloclc  Yillow , 

Abpid<'eii  Biillopk  Yellow... 
Dale's  Hybrid  Yellow 


1 
Piodnct. 

*• 

1 

!  Tom. 

Cwt. 

25 

1;-) 

t        24 

10 

1        -iC 

00 

1      2r. 

19 

25 

4 

23 

15 

23 

2 

" 

6 

Kind. 


Old  Meldrnin  Yellow 

Tweeddalc  Piu-yb'-top  Yellow. 
Aberdeen  PurjAe-top  Yellow  . 


Prodtict. 


Tans.  CiCt. 
24      3 
21      2 
21     15 


Banpholme  Swede 

Bronze  or  Kinaldie's  Swede 

She])licrd'8  Swede ^ 

Skirvin<r'.<s  Ituprove^l  Swede 

SkiI•^•iIl";'s  Kiug  of  the  Swedes 


10  1^ 

19  14 
21  7 

20  (J 
19  15 


Mr.  John  ^lilne  also  received  a  gold  medal  from  the  Highland  Society 
for  experiments  matle  during  three  consecutive  years  on  a  farm  in  Aber- 


422 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


cleensliire,  designed  to  test  the  comparative  i3roductiveuess  of  varieties. 
The  tiekl  had  a  light  soil,  suitable  to  turnips,  resting  on  a  clay  slate;  and 
had  been  subjected  to  a  five-course  rotation.  In  each  case  the  manures 
applied  per  acre  -^ere  fifteen  yards  of  farm-yard  dung,  one  hundrcd- 
Aveight  of  PeruA-ian  guano,  t^vo  hundred- weight  of  bone-dust,  and  two 
hundred-weight  of  superphosphate.  The  results  are  given  by  Mr.  Milne 
in  tons  and  thousandths  of  a  ton.  The  abstract  here  presented  is  confined 
to  varieties  of  Swedes : 


Varieties. 

1864. 

1865. 

1866. 

rh-nranionil's  Extra  Iiilproved 

East  Lotiiian 

Tons. 
iri.t04 
15.W)4 
12.  •)40 
Ifi.  C0« 
16.563 

Tom. 
12.  051 
11.787 
12.  402 
10. 075 
13.001 

Tons. 

16.850 

14.250 

Grt-eu-top 

14. 700 

Laiu5r"s 

13.150 

Bauglioliae 

The  report  states  that  the  turnip  degenerates,  if  sown  for  a  few  suc- 
cessive years  on  poor,  unmanm^d  soil,  from  a  large  fieshy  bidb  to  a  small, 
elongated  fibrous  root;  and  years  of  careful  cultivation  are  required  to 
restore  it  to  its  former  value.  Hence  the  use  of  seed  grown  for  a  series 
of  years  from  fidl-sized.  transplanted  bulbs  is  urged;  and  it  is  claimed 
that  the  dilierence  in  producciveness  between  two  A'arieties,  or  two  sam- 
ples oi  the  same  variety,  may  be  wholly  owing  to  the  method  in  which 
the  seed  has  been  raised. 

Mr.  liussell  Swan  wick,  in  18G5,  made  experiments  showing  the  effect 
of  different  fertilizers  lor  turnii)s.  The  soil  experimented  on  was  a  mod- 
erately heavy  loam.  The  pre\'ions  crop  was  wlieat.  The  dressings  were 
sown  May  27,  in  drills,  which  were  then  ridged  in  and  sown  with  white 
globe  turnip  seed.  The  tiuiiips  were  pullc-tl  and  weighed  in  the  last 
week  of  November.  The  following  table  states  the  maniu-es  applied, 
and  the  \-ield,  per  acre : 


•M.iiiures. 


Amount 

of  maDwre 

applied. 


Yield  of 

tim;ii)s. 


Manures. 


Xone 

"Kouo 

Glue 

Dissolved  coprolites. 

Glue 

Dissolved  boue-asb . . 

Glne 

Dissolved  bones 

Glne 

Bolivi.an  guano 

Glue , 

Di.ssolved  coi)rolitos 
Dissolved  boue-ash. . 


Ctot.  Lbs. 


70  J 
703 

70  i 
70( 
^7  5 
70  J 
24  5 
70 
70 
70 


Tons.  CwU 

12  17 

12  185 

16  8» 

16  m 

16  16| 

16  lOi 

IC  9.i 


Bolivian  gnano 

Sal  ammoniac 

Sal  ammoniac 

Bolivian  giuiuo 

Sal  ammoniac 

Dis-solved  bones 

SaJ  ammouiae 

Dissolved  boue-asb... 

Sal  aniujindac 

Dis.solved  eoprolites. , 
Twelve  tous  of  duujr. 
Tbroo  cwt.  of  guaiio 


Amount 
of  nianui-e 
applied. 


Yield  of 

tui'uips. 


Cwt.  Lbs.  Tons.Cvts 


3  24 
1  105 
1  105  i 
3  24  J 
1  105? 
5  87  5 
1  105  \ 
5  70  5 
1  105  ( 
5    70  5 

( 

5 


11 


18      3 
17     lOJ 

10   lei 


13     14= 


ROOT   CULTURE  IN  MAliYLAJXD. 

Many  have  doubted  the  desirability  of  attempting  root  culture  in  this 
country,  south  of  foity  degrees  north  hititude.  It  has  been  found  a  pro- 
lific and  i)rofitable  culture  in  many  localities.  Mr.  George  F.  Armor, 
of  Ellwood,  Baltimore  County,  Maryland,  communicates  the  following 
result  of  an  experiment  in  the  culture  of  the  mangold- wurzel,  undertaken 
to  test  the  profit  of  such  a  crop  in  that  neighborhood.  The  yield,  as 
win  be 'seen,  was  something  more  than  four  bushels  to  the  square  rod, 


RECENT   FARM    EXPERIMENTS.  42 C3 

or  about  700  bushels  ])er  acre,  iiroduced  at  a  cost  of  a  little  more  than 
ten  cents  per  bushel : 

'•  I  had  a  piece  of  oTOund  prepared,  15  by  120  feet,  southern  exposure, 
slightly  rolling-,  but  inclined  to  be  vret.  After  plowing  and  manuring-, 
(with  stable  maniu-e,)  the  seed  vcas  run  in  drills  three  feet  apart,  making 
six  rows  IL'O  feet  longr.  on  or  about  May  10.  Upon  thinning  out  enough 
plants  were  cast  away  to  have  nm  at  least  twelve  rows  additional.  The 
roots  were  gathered  November  8,  and  the  residt  was  twenty-eight  bushels. 
The  tops  I  fed  to  the  cattle,  and  they  were  eaten  with  great  avidity,  and 
the  roots  were  greatly  relished.  So  far  as  I  can  judge  from  so  limited  an 
exi^eriment,  the  result  is  highly  satisfactory.  The  whole  cost,  including 
twelve  oimces  of  seed.  (Long  and  Yellow  Globe  mixed.)  at  $1  per  pound, 
three  cultiva tings,  with  use  of  horse,  does  not  exceed  $3,  or  about  S-TL' 
per  acre." 

GRASS  AX©   HAT. 

In  the  report  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  for  1867, 
Professor  Toelcker  states'  at  considerable  length  the  results  of  experi- 
ments instituted  by  him  some  years  ago  at  the  AgTicultural  College, 
Cii-encester.  on  a  level  clover  field  of  calcareous  soil,  botli  by  nature  and 
condition  of  tillage  well  adapted  to  this  plant.  The  experiments  were 
especially  directed  toward  establishing  the  proper  period  for  cutting  the 
hay  crop.  Twelve  idots  were  set  apart,  each  measuring  one  rod  square. 
On  these  plots  cuttings  were  made  at  dilierent  periods  from  May  26, 
to  July  2S:  some  of  them  being  mown  fi'om  two  to  foiu*  times  each,  others 
only  once.  The  cuttings  were  analyzed  in  such  manner  as  to  exhibit  in 
each  case.  1st.  The  weight  of  the  fresh-cut  clover;  2d.  The  weight  of  the 
hay  made  therelrom  and  ciu^ed  to  a  uniform  standard,  containing  16.7  per 
cent,  of  moisture;  3d.  The  percentage  of  nutiitious  elements  contained 
in  this  hay.  By  estimate  from  the  product  of  a  first  cutting  made  June 
10,  the  yield  of  hay  per  acre  at  that  period  was  7,o57  pounds,  being  the 
greatest  cjuantity  obtained  at  any  one  mowing.  Ajialyses  of  the  cuttings 
of  the  ditiereut  periods  show  furthermore  that  at  this  time  the  hay  con- 
tained the  greatest  proportional  amount  of  nutiiment.  In  the  plots  first 
cut  at  dates  earlier  or  later  than  that  just  mentioned,  deficiencies  in 
quality  and  total  yield  were  in  approximate  proportion  to  the  differences 
of  time  observable  between  said  dates  and  the  period  of  best  prodnction, 
namely,  Jime  10.  As  au  indicatory  example,  Plot  Xo.  5  was  first  cut  June 
2,  yielding  5,372  pounds  of  hay,  and  again  mowed  June  10,  yielding  102 
pounds.  Total  yield  of  Plot  Xo.  5.  up  to  date  of  June  10,  5,471  pounds; 
thus  exhibiting,  when  compared  with  !N^o.  7,  not  only  a  deficiency  in 
average  quality,  but  also  a  deficiency  in  quantity  of  at  least  2,083  pounds. 

Deduction :  Cut  at  the  period  when  the  clover  plant  contains  its  great- 
est proportion  of  nutriment,  and  before  the  ripening  of  the  seed.  A  cur- 
rent agiicultural  rule  expresses  the  princii)le :  '•  Cut  when  one-half  of 
the  heads  are  browned.""  A  Like  principle  is  involved  in  the  cutting  of 
the  other  g-rasses. 

citrentt  hay. 

F.  T.  Stewart.  Farmington,  Maine,  states  that  his  practice  has  been 
to  commence  cutting  the  grass  when  in  "the  second  blossom."  which 
occurs  generally  in  his  section  from  the  lOth  to  the  loth  of  July.  He 
begins  mo^ving  with  the  machine  as  soon  as  the  dew  is  completely  off, 
and  about  one  o'clock  commences  to  rake  and  haid  in,  foUowirig  tlie 
• 


424  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT 

couise  of  the  mucbiue.  aud  getting;  all  in  before  riie  tlew  be.trins  to  f:ilJ. 
Each  subsoijuent  day's  j^atlieiinff  i.s  put  on  the  same  uiowitntilthe  band 
LS  full,  aud  at  the  top  of  the  mow  a  layer  of  straiv  or  old  hay  is  idacid 
one  aud  a  half  foot  deep.  IMr.  Steuait  claims  that  this  absorbs  the 
moisture  given  off  by  the  heating-  Y>rocoss,  aud  that  the  hay  is  bright, 
sweet,  and  of  delicate  tlavor,  and  is  especially  sought  by  stock.  He 
states  that  he  has  never  known  a  failuie  where  this  plan  was  closely  fol- 
lowed, aiid  if  attempts  prove  unsuccessful  it  must  be  tli»»t  there  was 
dew  on  the  gi-ass  when  cut,  or  that  it  was  cut  at  too  early  a  stage  of 
growth. 

At  the  industrial  College  of  Maine,  situated  at  Orono,  in  that  State, 
foiu'  tons  of  hay,  chietly  timothy  aud  red-to}),  were  ])at  iu  one  mow  with 
"no  making,  and  no  foreign  moisture  in  the  grass."  01d*stif\w  to  tlK? 
dei)th  of  a  foot  or  more  was  intched  on  the  top  of  the  mow.  The  result 
was  a  couijdete  loss.  The  hay  was  cut  July  18,  about  ll  a.  m.,  and 
hauled  into  the  bam  about  2  j).  m.  The  qualification  of  ''  no  making" 
sufficieutly  explains  the  result. 

B.  F.  Eeed,  of  Greene  County,  Ohio,  stated  in  the  district  agricultural 
convention,  that  he  stored  his  timothy  and  clover  in  the  barn,  quite 
green,  making  chimneys,  so  to  s])eak,  in  the  mow,  by  putting  barrels  on 
the  mow  lloor  and  cb'awiug  them  up  as  the  hay  was  stowed  about  them, 
thtLs  leaAiug  ventilators  which  permit  air  to  i)*iss  through  the  hay  and 
cure  it  in  tlie  mow. 

LIQUID   MA>'UHK   ON   GIIASS   LAM). 

Two  experiments  were  made  by  J.  V.  Howill,  Cherry  ^'all(is',  Penn- 
sylvania. The  fii"st  was  on  pasture,  the  soil  sandy,  subsod  sandy  gravel, 
and  i>erfectly  (by.  Four  acres  of  the  held  were  dressed  in  February 
with  excellent  barn-yard  rnanm-e,  at  the  rate  of  twelve  two-horse  loads 
per  acre.  The  remainder  of  the  lield  (about  an  acre)  was  manirred  with 
bquid  from  the  barn-yard.  In  the  spring,  the  appearance  of  the  gi^ass, 
in  color,  height,  and  thickness  of  the  sward,  was  in  favor  of  the 
liquid  maunre,  and  during  the  summer  this  acre  was  greatly  prefeiTed 
by  the  cows.  In  the  second  experiment,  a  small  portion  of  the  lield  was 
manured  vrith  a  compost  of  night  soil  and  wood-mold,  and  the  remain- 
der v.ith  liquid  manure :  when  the  lot  was  mowed,  the  line  between 
them  coidd  be  feiisily  ti'aced,  and  the  difference  was  strongly  in  favor  of 
the  liquid  manure. 

DRY  a:nd  wlt  meadow. 

The  secretary  of  a  '•  sociid  farmei^'  club "  in  Pennsylvania  narrates 
the  ex])erience  of  three  members  of  the  club.  Tlie  several  statements 
will  be  designated  A,  13,  and  C. 

A. — A  meadow  of  forty  acres  was  brought  into  line  condition  by 
draining  wet  poi^ions,  paring  down  tufts  of  coarse  grass,  and  then 
.administering  a  dressing  of  lime,  followed  by  a  light  one  of  bone-dust. 
Subsequently  a  portion  of  the  meadow  was  dressed  with  a  light  coat  ot 
superi)hos])hate  and  cut  for  hay,  of  which  nine  tons  of  excellent  quality 
were  obtained  from  seven  acres.  The  cattle  were  kept  fioni  the  low 
meadow  whenever  it  v.as  very  wet.  Great  bencBt  was  derived  from  the 
a])i)licatibn  of  ground  idaster  to  the  dry  meadow,  but  not  fi-om  its  appli- 
cation to  the  wet. 

B, — A  meadow  of  twenty  acres  was  divided  into  ])lots  running  the 
whole  length  of  the  meadow,  each  containing  wet  i3oitious  as  well  as 


ICLCENT    tWRM    F.XPERIMEN  IS.  '-l:2fj 

dry.  :uicl  each  tveiily  prepared  throughout  its  outirc  leujith  with  u 
.sj)ecial  fertilizor.  At  the  eud  of  four  years  the  results  are  reported. 
Tlie  subjoint'd  table  indicates  the  application  made  to  each  particular 
plot,  (with  the  eost  ])er  acre  so  far  as  given  in  the  original  narration.) 
and  the  effect  exhibited  on  the  diy  and  on  the  wet  portions  of  eaeh  plot. 
The  figure  1  is  used  as  the  index  of  best  production ;  2,  as  that  of  second 
in  excellence,  &c. : 


,.  (Cost per  I      Dry 


Wet 
meadow. 


Sidt  and  lime 

Superphosphate - ^  ^ 

Bone-dust i  i  ^ 

Salt i  ~-p 

Caustic  lime ;■ "- j  ?  ^  . 

truano  ^  ^ 

The  salt  and  lime  were  iu  the  pi\)portion  of  three  bushels  of  salt  to  five 
of  lime,  mixed  about  three  months  before  use  and  afterward  shoveled 
over  several  times.  It  was  applied  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  eight  bushels 
per  acre. 

C. — About  ten  years  ago  a  "finejlai-ge  meadow"'  was  divided  into  two 
portions,  the  one  lliy,  the  other  wet.  The  former  was  subdivided  into 
several  plots.  One  of  these  was  dressed  with  caustic  lime  at  the  rate  oi 
twenty-five  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  other  plots  were  dressed  with  air- 
slacked  lime  in  (paantities  varying  fi'om  twenty  bushels  to  sixty  bushels 
per  acre.  That  treated  with  caustic  lime  has  always  produced  the  best 
pasture  since  the  fall  following  the  time  of  application.  In  the  wet  por- 
tion was  included  a  ''low,  wet  flat.''  It  should  be  remai'ked  that  iu  the 
report  made  respecting  this  portion,  a  serious  omission  occm-s,  as  the 
statement  of  effects  seems  to  be  confined  to  recent  appearances,  and 
does  not  point  out  relative  states  from  season  to  season.  Subdivisions 
of  this  low.  wet  meadow  were  treated  ^^■itll  various  fertilizers.  The  fol- 
lowing- api)lications  made  to  seven  of  the  plots  are  named  in  the  order  of 
best  effect,  commencing-  with  the  first  in  excellence :  1,  caustic  lime,  at 
$3  25  per  acre :  2,  an  animal  compost  formed  of  the  ctu'cass  of  a  dead 
horse,  a  load  of  rough  hair,  earth,  and  common  plaster ;  3,  salt,  at  83 
per  acre  ;  4,  superi)hosphate,  at  65  per  acre ;  o,  guano,  at  85  per  acre  : 
G,  ])laster  and  salt ;  7,  nothing. 

The  wet  meadow  of  B,  and  the  ''lov.,  wet  flat"'  of  C,  appear  to  exhibit 
similar  conditions,  i)romineiit  among-  which  is  a  sour  and  stagnant  state 
of  soil.  Against  this  condition  the  caustic  lime  proves  a  powerful 
.emedy,  (eiepecially  when  accompanying  draining,)  attacking-  injurious 
bog-acids,  forming  new  combinations  with  them,  and  thereby  setting  fi'ee 
\aluable  elements  of  laitritiou  which  had  l)re^ious]y  been  held  inactive. 
In  the  dry  meadow  of  13,  th6  salt  and  lime  mixture  stands  first,  as  the 
sweetening-  effect  of  the  lime  is  there  not  needed  in  so  great  degTC*.  In 
the  dry  meadow  of  C,  hovrever,  there  appears  to  have  existed  an  acidity 
which  required  the  action  of  caustic  lime.  In  B,  as  well  as  in  A,  is 
indicated  the  necessity  of  disciimination  in  the  use  of  plaster  as  beiug 
suitable  rather  to  dry  than  to  wet  soils.  A  also  i)oints  to  the  avoidance 
of  kneading  wet  meadow  by  the  tread  of  cattle. 

incniGA^'   COLLEGE  EXPEimffir^TS. 

The  experinients  of  the  ^Michigan  Agricultural  College  in  top-dressing 
g-rass  laud  iu  the  years  18G4-'G5- GG  are  reproduced  here  in  concise  form. 


426 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


for  purposes  of  comparisou.  The  soil  was  a  light  sandy  loam ;  the  area, 
three  and  six-teuths  acres,  divided  into  ei^ht  equal  plots.  The  whole  was 
seeded  to  timothy  and  clover  in  18G3.  and  received  no  other  manure  than 
the  below-named  top-diessings,  whi(;h  were  applied  3Iay  10,  18G4.  Ko 
subsequent  application  was  made.  Plot  No.  ]  was  not  manured.  The  fol- 
lowing- table  exhibits  the  top-dressings  applied  to  the  other  plots,  and  also 
the  gain  of  these  manured  plots  over  the  unmauured  in  weight  of  hay 
produced.  Plot  jSo.  1,  not  manured,  yielded  in  18G4,  (two  crops.)  4,598 
pounds;  in  18G5,  (two  crops,)  2,755  pounds;  in  18GG,  (one  crop,)  1,359 
pounds^-total,  8,742  pounds. 


Plot. 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


Gain  in  pounds  of  raauured  over 

unnianurcd. 

Total     per 
cent.  gain. 

18C4. 

18C5. 

1866. 

Total. 

2,375 

1,778 

331 

4,  484 

51 

2,804 

1.058 

213 

4,165 

48 

3,274 

1,409 

391 

5,074 

•53 

3,063 

2. 245 

769 

6,077 

70 

1,682 

2,503 

1,  042 

5, 227 

60 

],783 

3, 245 

1,211 

6, 244 

71 

2,189 

2,689 

944 

5, 822 

67 

Top-d:cs6ings,  1864. 


2  bushels  ]ilaster. 

5  bushels  wood-a.shes. 
20  loads  pulverized  muck. 
20  loads  muck,  3  bush,  salt 

3  buslicls  salt. 

20  loads  horse-manure. 
20  loads  cow-mauura. 


The  top-dressings  were  applied  on  the  yoimg  growth  of  clover  and 
timothy.  At  the  outset  the  land  was  in  fair  ])ioductivc  condition,  as  is 
shown  by  the  yield  of  the  plot  not  manured.  The  "  twenty  loads  of 
horse-manure,''  though  not  giving  so  large  an  immediate  yield  as  some 
of  the  other  dres.sings,  was  the  most  lasting  in  elfect  and  gave  the  great- 
est total  yield.  The  "  twenty  loads  of  mnck  am(  three  bushels  of  salt" 
gave  a  very  large  percentage  of  immediate  gain,  (indeed  the  largest  per- 
centage in  the  Jirst  crop  of  18G4,)  and  stood  only  second  in  rank  as  respect- 
ing total  yield.  Considering  the  cost  of  application,  the  final  results  of 
the  "three  bushels  of  salt''  are  especially  noticeable,  although  in  imme- 
diate productiveness  it  ranks  comparatively  low ;  for  instance,  as  regard- 
ing the  respective  gains  of  the  several  manured  plots  over  that  not  ma- 
nured, in  the  fii'st  crop  of  18G4  the  salt  stood  sixth  in  rank,  and  lowest  in 
rank  in  the  complete  yield  of  that  year.  The  "  twenty  loads  of  pulver- 
ized muck"  gave  the  largest  percentage  of  gain  in  the  com])lete  yield  of 
the  two  crox)s  of  18G4,  but  stands  third  in  rank  in  the  total  of  the  five 
crops,  18G4-'G5-'GG.  The  "five  bushels  of  wood-ashes"  stands  third  in 
rank  in  the  complete  yield  of  18G4,  and  lowest  in  rank  in  the  final  sum- 
ming-up. 

RECLADHINa  OLD  PASTURE. 

Renovation  of  an  old  hill  pasture  hy  Professor  Johnson,  of  Yale  College. — 
This  pasture  had  once  been — twenty  years  ago — in  tolerably  good  con- 
dition ;  but  when  the  work  of  restoration  commenced,  ten  years  ago,  the 
field  was  unproductive,  and  almost  covered  with  low  bushes  and  mossy 
gro^vth.  The  bushes  were  cut,  drains  established,  and  lime  ai)plied  at 
the  rate  of  150  bushels  per  acre  in  the  autumn  and  winter.  In  the  fol- 
lowing spring  the  surface  was  scratched  with  a  fine-toothed  harrow,  red- 
top  seed  sown,  and  a  light  dressing  of  phosphatic  guano  (250  pounds  to 
the  acre)  applied.  The  field  contained  from  five  to  six  acres,  and,  before 
the  dressing,  offered  scant  pasturage  for  one  cow.  In  the  season  of  18G8 
it  afforded  abundant  pasturage  for  five  cows,  the  growth  being  mainly 


.\ 


RECENT  FARM  EXPERBrEXTS.  427 

red-top  aud  white  clover.  No  fai-ther  dressing  bas  beeu  applied.  Weeds 
and  scattered  woody  gTowtli  are  auiuially  cnt  off  in  Angnist,  and  a  grood 
coatinii  of  grass  is  left  for  winter  protection.  No  gTazing-  is  allowed  after 
the  2.')th  of  Oetol>er.  In  commenting  on  the  coui^se  pursued,  Professor 
Johnson  remarks  that  the  pastme  had  evidently  beeu  slowly  undergoing 
a  change  in  its  chemical  constitution — hardening  in  some  such  manner 
as  "  hard-pan''  forms  in  ocaerous  soils.  The  eaith  being  compacted  also 
by  the  tread  of  cattle  around  springs  which  existed  on  the  slope,  the  How 
of  water  was  checked  and  the  soil  became  moist  and  spongy-.  The  reme- 
dial action  of  the  lime  was  both  mechanical  and  chemical.  Tlie  soils  of 
the  neighborhood  arc  ferrnginons.  and  the  opinion  is  ex|n"essed  that  the 
hardening  of  the  land  had,  for  the  most  part,  been  caused  by  the  exist- 
ence therein  of  oxide  of  iron  and  of  acids  resulting  from  a  peaty  decom- 
position of  vegetable  matter. 

FEEDING    STOCK. 

Mr.  ATilliam  Birney,  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  commenced  ten  years 
ago  the  practice  of  cooking  food  ibr  stock.  The  present  winter  (1S68) 
he  feeds  foity-three  head  of  neat  stock,  equivalent  to  thirty-foiu'  mature 
animals ;  also  thi-ee  worldng  horses,  three  thi-ee-year-old  colts,  aud  three 
yearling  colts.  The  food  is  cooked  in  a  large  steam-box,  holding,  for 
instance,  1,330  pounds  poor  average  quality  of  hay — two-thuds  bog  or 
marsh  hay — 112  pounds  wheat  shorts,  aud  14  pounds  cotton-seed :  200  gal- 
lons of  water  are  poiued  on  i^reA-ions  to  the  steaming,  which  takes  live  or 
six  hoiu's,  and  requires  125  pounds  of  coal.  Steaming  is  done  only  twice 
a  week,  the  food  keeping  warm  tluee  or  foiu'  days  in  the  box,  even  in 
the  coldest  weather.  Twice  a  day  the  requisite  quantity  of  material  is 
taken  from  the  box.  The  horses,  when  at  work,  receive  fonr  quarts  of 
corn  each  per  day,  sprinkled  on  the  steamed  food.  Each  milch  covr  has 
also  two  quarts  of  wheat  shorts  per  day.  Roots  fed  raw  are  also  admin- 
istered. The  stock  is  kept  in  good,  condition,  carded  and  combed.  The 
temperature  of  the  stable  is  always  above  freezing  point.  A  statement 
of  the  cost  of  the  food  is  given  below.  The  coal  is  charged  to  general 
accotmt;  were  it  added  to  the  following  items  it  would  not  increase  the 
average  daily  cost  to  seventeen  cent6 : 

l,3o0  pounds  poor  hay,  at  812  per  tun 63  10 

112  pounds  bran 1  90 

41  pounds  cotton-seed  meal 99 

Total  cost  of  steamed  food  for  three  aud  a  half  days 10  99 

Cost  for  one  day,  steamed  food. . .  * $3  14 

Extra  meal  for  three  horses,  24  pounds 60 

Extra  shorts  for  twenty  cows,  70  pounds 1  19 

12  bushels  roots,  at  IG-j  cents  x>^r  bushel 2  00 

170  pounds  of  hay.  at  $20  per  ton 1  70 

Daily  cost  of  feeding  52  animals S  G3 

Average  cost,  1G|  cents. 

The  170  pounds  of  good  hay  is  for  noon  lunch— :fom-  or  five  pounds  to 
each  animal,  on- an  average. 


428  AOKICITLTURAL    REPORT. 

FER3IENTED   A^^D   COOKED   FofJSD. 

A  coiiipari.sou  between  fermented  and  cooked  food  is  jriwu  in  the  lol 
lovriug:  experiment :  Foiu-  heifers,  jiractically  equal  in  all  ret>i)ect.s,  and 
six  pig's,  from  one  famOy,  were  selected.  The  ten  animals  were  sepaiated 
into  equal  lots  by  alternate  choice,  and  were  weighed  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  experiment  and  weekly  diu'iug  its  continuance.  Those  in 
the  one  lot  were  fed  Avith  fermented  food ;  the  otliers  with  cooked  food. 
During  the  tirst  week  the  amount  of  fermented  food  eaten  was  less  than 
the  quantity  of  cooked  food  consumed,  and  the  animals  led  on  the  fer- 
mented material  made  the  gieater  inr-rease  of  live  weight.  During  the 
second  week  those  on  the  cooked  food  made  a  steady  progi-ess ;  those  on 
the  fermented  food  scarce  any.  The  apparent  success  of  the  latter  during 
the  lirst  week  was  actually  the  residt  of  an  accumulation  of  undigested 
matter  in  the  intestines.  The  experimeut  was  continued  three  weeks, 
those  fed  on  the  cooked  food  thriving  and  increasing,  the  others  not. 
There  was  a  diflerence  in  the  return  of  the  lots  of  pigs,  in  favor  of  those 
fed  on  cooked  food,  of  £1  Is.  3d. 

^ATTE^"I^'G  noGs. 

Besults  of  Experiments  bi/  <S.  H.  (Slay.,  Borrrbvit  County.  Kentucky. — 
Other  conditions  being  similar.  oJie  bushel  of  dry  corn  made  five  pounds 
ten  ounces  of  live  pork;  one  bushel  of  boiled  corn,  fourteen  pounds 
seven  ounces  of  ])ork ;  one  bushel  of  ground  corn,  boOed,  made,  in  one 
instance,  sixteen  pounds  seven  ounces ;  in  another,  nearly  eighteen 
pounds  of  pork.  Estimating  the  i)ork  at  eight  cents  per  i>ound,  one 
bushel  of  dry  com  made  4.5  cents'  worth  of  pork;  one  bushel  of  boiled 
corn.  61  14  worth  of  i>ork  :  and  one  biLshel  of  grornid  com,  boded, 
§1  30  worth  of  pork. 

Eespectiug  these  experiments,  a  western  agricultural  joiu^nal  remarks 
that  the  question  of  the  advisability  of  grinding  and  cooking  food  must 
be  <;onsidered  in  connection  with  the  circumstances  of  locality;  such, 
for  instance,  as  cost  of  grinding,  expense  of  labor  and  fuel.  The  sug- 
gestion is  made  that  the  method  practiced  by  many  in  Kentucky  may 
be  best  adapted  to  the  majority  of  cases  in  the  "West,  viz.,  of  ttirning  the 
hogs  iuto  an  uuharvested  field  when  commencing  to  fatten  ;  then,  after 
a  few  weeks,  feeding  them  on  corn  in  the  ear  tiU  they  are  pretty  well 
fattened  ;  and  then  feeding  on  corn-meal  till  they  are  in  jtrime  market- 
able condition. 

Accordiug  to  experiments  made  by  the  late  I'rofessor  Mapes,  in  I^ew 
Jersey,  it  reqiured  thirty  pounds  of  raw  corn  to  make  as  much  pork  as 
thirteen  pounds  of  cooked  meal  would  produce. 

The  purjiort  of  certain  experiments  with  five  pigs  duiiug  the  past 
year,  by  a  Xew  England  farmer,  may  be  exhibited  by  tiiking  his  state- 
ments as  to  pigs  2s'o.  1  and  'So.  5.  2s o.  1,  taken  from  the  sow  at  four 
months  of  iige,  was  supplied  with  two  and  a  hulf  <iuarts  of  corn  or  meal, 
three  times  a  day,  and  about  the  same  quantity  of  milk,  contiuueil  as  long 
as  the  pigs  lived,  and  made  eleven  pounds  of  pork  to  the  bushel.  N'o,  3, 
other  conditions  being  equivalent,  received  three  aiul  ;'•  halfiiiiarts  per  day, 
and  produced  seven  and  a  half  pounds  of  pork  to  the  bushel.  The  farm- 
er thinks  he  tlid  not  get  so  much  i)ork  as  he  should  if  he  had  kept  tlie 
pig  on  three  quarts  per  day.  Alter  experimenting  for  several  years  in 
feeding  pigs,  he  holds  that  they  shoidd  not  be  allowed  a  superabundant 
])roportion  of  lluid  food,  but  rather  be  treated  with  a  regular  and  more 
substantial  diet,  commencing  when  they  are  taken  from  the  sow  ;  and 


RECENT    FARM    EXPERIMENTS, 


4.29i 


also  that  a  certaii!  (jiiantity  of  com  or  meal  per  flay  should  not  bo 
exceeded. 

At  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  ui  18G(3,  experiments  were 
made  in  feeding  three  thoroi}g"h-l)red  Essex  pigs,  Avhich  were  weighed 
when  eleven  days  old,  and  afterwards  allowed  all  the  milk  they  would 
consume.  The  total  Aveight  of  the  three  at  the  time  just  mentioned  was 
tburteen  and  a  half  i^ounds.  Similar  experiments  Avere  made  in  1SG8 
with  corresponding  results,  showing  that  the  younger  the  pig  the  more 
it  Avill  eat  in  proportion  to  its  live  v.cight,  and  also  the  more  rapidly  it 
will  gain  in  proportion  to  the  food  it  consumes.  The  subjoined  table 
shows  the  amomit  of  milk  consumed  at  diilbrent  times,  in  making  one 
pound  increase  in  live  weight : 


Expcrtnirnt  of  1800,  lbs. 
EsiX'riiuent  of  1868,  lbs. 


1st  vrcck.  ,   2d  week,   i   3d  week. 


T.20 
G.5J 


7.02 
7.70 


11.81 
12. 52 


4tb  -iTcek. 


iO.  n 

10.  5f> 


VALUES   OF  DIFFERENT  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

However  useful  as  a  means  of  comjiarison,  chemical  analysis  alone  is 
not  able  to  determine  with  sufdcient  exactness  the  values  of  different 
food  materials ;  and  a  really  satisfactory  decision  can  be  reached  only 
through  actual  experience.  The  following  table,  prepared  by  Professoi 
Tanner,  of  England,  represents  the  composition  of  various  materials 
used  for  food  of  animals,  and  their  feeding  value  as  demonstrated  in 
pMictice : 


^laUrials. 


B-arley. 
Oata 


CoTiiposition. 


Beaus 4H. 

I'ea.sc 50 

LiiiHPcd  cake ^ i .  13. 

Linseed  cako  and  pease,  equal  part.-* 31. 

Rape  cake i  11. 

'                 ■                33. 

rv "40 

e. 


("fitton  cake. 
Clover  bay. 
Swedes  .... 
Manifolds.. 
Oanots 


474 
19 


iC   - 
C  u 


13 

13.  G 

23.3 

23. 3 

28.  ,'5<> 

25.93 

:«.  7 

42.9 

9.3 

1.44 

1.P1 

I. :. 


14.83 
12.8 
14.8 
14.1 

H.fi 
11.3 

f>.H 
,  7.9 
14 
89 
PC 


rocdLn";  value. 


Jh  ','  cS 
w  o  2 
U  rt. 

|2o 


c 

7 

8 

8 

to  6 

4.i 

C 

() 

12 

If'O 

153 

KJO 


16.7 

14.3 

12.5 

12.5 

16.7 

22.2 

16.7 

16.7 

6.3 

0.66 

0.66 

0.C6 


In  actual  application  these  estimates  of  value  are  moditied  by  various 
considerations.  Son^e  of  these  are  stated  by  Professor  Voelcker  as  fol- 
lows :  1st.  The  age  of  the  animal ;  young  animals,  especially,  requiring 
a  large  proportion  of  nitrogenized  matter  and  bone-forming  materia). 
2d.  The  kind  of  animal;  (the  food  best  suited  to  horses  is  not  always 
best  for  coavs  or  sheep.)  8d.  The  natiual  disposition  or  temper  of  the 
animal.  4th.  .The  purpose  tor  which  the  animal  is  kept — as  whether  for 
fattening,  or  for  Avoik,  or  for  milk.  The  digestibility  of  the  food,  also, 
demands  attention.     Pi-ofessor  Yoelcker  .states  a  few  of  the  conditious 


430  AGRICULTUKAL   REPORT. 

afiectiDg  it :  1st.  The  kind  oi'  animal,  cows  more  readily  asamilating  the 

nutriment  of  cnt  straw  tliau  liorses.  2d.  The  amonnt  and  characrer  of 
woody  fibre  contained  in  the*  food.  3d-  The  amount  of  flesh-forming 
substances.  4th.  The  bullc  of  the  food.  5th  The  form  in  which  it  is 
presented  to  the  animal ;  whether  cut,  or  not  cut.  cooked  or  raw,  ^c, 

EXPERIHE^i'TS    11ITH    FER  TI  i.IZER  S'. 

The  subjoined  statement  of  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Levi  Bartlett,  of 
Warner,  Xew  Hampshire,  with  superphosphate  of  lime  and  other  con- 
centrated manures,  gives  an  idea  of  the  effect  of  these  fertilizers  upon 
the  grranite  soil  of  Xew  Hampshire. 

Within  the  past  few  year?  large  numbers  of  the  farmers  in  that  section 
of  the  country  have  made  free  use  of  the  supeai^hosphate  of  lime  for 
manurial  pui'poses.  and  generally  %vith  paying  results;  so  much  so  that 
its  use  is  annually  increasing.  The  reasons  why  a  few  hundred  pounds 
per  acre,  applied  to  the  laud  planted  with  com,  potatoes,  turnips,  beans, 
and  clover,  usually  exhibit  such  favorable  results,  is  supposed  to  be 
owing  to  the  restoration,  to  long  cultivated  fields,  of  those  ithosphates 
so  necessary  in  the  production  of  cultivated  crops,  but  which  have 
been,  year  after  year,  abstracted  fi'om  them.  Each  crop  grown  and 
removed  fi'om  the  land  carries  with  it  certain  well-known  mineral  plant 
food.  In  the  usual  routine  of  farming  pursued  in  the  region  referred 
to,  but  small  portions  of  these  mineral  ingredients  of  crops  ever  find 
their  way  back  to  the  soil  whence  they  were  derived ;  and  sooner  or 
later  the  crops  diminish  in  product  from  lack  of  appropriate  food.  Pot- 
ash, lime,  magnesia,  ithosphoric  acid,  and  sulphuric  acid  are  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  life  of  agricultural  plants,  as  is  demonstrated  by  all 
the  experiments  hitherto  made  for  studying  thcii-  influence.  These, 
with  a  few  other  minerals,  constitute  the  ash  of  plants.  Were  it  i>ossible 
for  a  plant  to  grow,  flower,  and  bear  seed,  without  the  co-operation  of 
mineral  matters,  it  would  be  utterly  valueless  to  man  or  aidmals,  because 
these  minerals  are  as  absolutely  necessary  in  the  food  of  man  and  an- 
imals as  they  are  in  the  soils.  A  deficiency  of  them  in  either  case  leads 
to  a  stunted  gi^owth,  enervation,  and  premature  death.  Phosphoric  acid 
and  lime  are  indispensable  in  the  formation  of  the  bones  of  animals,  and 
no  other  combination  of  lime  and  acid  can  be  substituted.  Potash,  soda, 
sulphur,  iron,  &:c.,  enter  into  the  composition  of  animals  in  very  small 
proportion  when  contrasted  with  the  amount  of  phosphate  of  lime 
required  to  build  un  their  bony  skeletons.  Professor  Liebig  says :  "  In 
an  ox  of  550  pounds'  weight  there  are  183  poimds  of  bones,  containing 
nearly  120  pounds  of  phosphate  of  lime;  in  the  flesh,  hide,  and  other 
parts  of  the  animal,  15  pounds  of  phosphate."  Professor  Johnston 
says:  ''For  every  cow  it  maintains,  a  dairy  farm  will  annually  lose  of 
earthy  phosphates  as  much  as  is  contained  in  50  i"K)unds  of  Iwne-dust-" 

A  hirge  portion  of  the  tarms  in  New  England  l;/.ve  been  ui  '  "*:- 

vation  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  years,  and  the  r  s 

required  in  the  formation  of  the  bones  of  all  the  animo'  ■. 

quadrupeds,  raised  uj^on  these  farms,  have  come  d;  rectly  li 
By  the  agency  of  the  various  food-crops  grown  u]  on  them  u  > 

long  period,  a  deficiency  of  phos}>hates  exists  in  tlr*  soil  '^f  th  f 

these  farms.    This  is  so  manifest  that  the  most  s.  r  it. 

The  only  feasible  method  of  restoring  the  needt    .       ,-      -:?bvthe 
application  of  ground  bone,  or  what  is  better,  the  soluble  supei_, 
of  hme.    The  above  citation  from  Professor  Liebi:  :hows  the  . s 


RECENT  FARM  EXPERIMENTS.  431 

excess  of  phospbatc  of  lime  iii  animal  vStiiictiu'es  over  all  other  of  the 
inorganic  constituents  entering-  iuto  their  composition.  Something 
analogous  holds  good  in  the  inorganic  constituents  of  certain  cultivated 
crops,  especially  "the  cereals.  The  mean  results  of  thirty-two  analyses, 
by  Professors  Way  and  Ogston,  show  that  "  w^heat  contains  some  lime, 
but  only  very  little,  much  less  than  is  generally  supposed,  not  more  than 
one  ounce  in  a  bushel  of  grain  (and  a  little  more  in  the  straw.)  while  it 
contains  rather  more  soda  than  lime,  about  five  times  as  much  magnesia, 
nearly  nine  times  as  much  potash,  and  more  than  thirteen  times  as  much 
phosphoric  acid."  This  acid  is  found  in  the  ash  of  plants  in  combination 
with  lime,  i^otash,  soda,  &c. 

These  prefatory  remarks  are  made  "^ith  especial  reference  to  the  ben- 
eficial action  of  a  good  superphosphate  of  lime  on  the  long  cropped 
soils  of  New  England.  Such  apphcations  are  not  needed  on  the  fertile 
soils  of  the  West,  which  have  been  under  cultivation  but  a  few  yea^ s. 
But  the  time  will  come,  sooner  or  later,  when  many  of  these  prodiic- 
tive  lands  will  feel  the  want  of  the  phosphates  which  have  been  so  lav- 
ishly drawn  from  them  year  after  year  in  their  wheat  and  corn  crops, 
with  no  adequate  retiu-ns  of  manui'e  of  any  kind. 

Some  may  ask,  "  Can  the  fertiUts'  of  annually  cropped  soils  be  kept 
up  by  the  application  of  superi)hosphates  and  other  concentrated 
manures  ? "  Perhaps  it  may,  but  the  safer  way  for  the  farmer  is,  to 
use  these  commercial  manures  in  conjunction  with  the  farm-yard  and 
other  manurial  resources  of  the  farm.  This  is  the  course  piu-sued  by 
many  of  the  most  successful  cotton  growers  of  Georgia,  some  of  whom 
annually  expend  thousands  of  dollars  in  the  purchase  of  guano  and 
other  commercial  manures.  A  similar  course  is  pursued  by  the  wheat 
and  root  growing  farmers  of  England. 

Carefully  conducted  experiments,  by  Mr.  Lawes,  of  England,  on  manur- 
ing grass  lands,  with  a  great  variety  of  maniu-es,  animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral,  indicate  that,  practically  speaking,  stable  or  farm-yard  manure 
is  a  much  more  perfect  and  economical  restorer  of  the  constituents  re- 
moved in  the  hay  crop  than  are  the  so-called  artificial  manures.  But  ex- 
perience shows  that,  even  when  farm-yard  manure  is  used,  activity  of 
growth  is  frequently  increased  if  direct  phosiihatic  manm-es  be  also  em- 
ployed. Phosphoric  acid  may  be  advantageously  and  economically  ap- 
plied either  in  the  form  of  Peruvian  gmuio,  which  at  the  same  time 
supplies  a  large  quantity  of  ammonia  or  ammonia-yielding  matter,  and  a 
little  potash  also,  or  a  superphosphate  of  lime.  Mr.  Lawes  says:  '"There 
can  b?  no  progressive  agriculture  without  farm  stock;  consequently, 
without  stock,  no  manures.-' 

Mr.  Bartlett's  report  of  experiments  is  as  follows : 

"  Having  the  past  season  experimented  with  several  different  brands  of 
superphosphates  and  other  concentrated  manures,  I  herewith  report  the 
results.  Wishing  to  test  the  worth  of  various  manures  on  ditierent  crops 
on  my  farm,  about  the  20th  of  May  I  turned  over,  with  a  good  plow, 
ninety  rods  of  green-sward,  a  fair  quality  of  corn-land,  a  part  of  which 
was  planted  with  a  small  variety  of  eight-rowed  corn.  The  rows  across 
the  land  contained  twenty-two  hills  each — liiils  three  by  three  feet  apart. 
The  first  tvro  rows  had  a  small  spoonful  of  Duncan  &  McKellar's  Glasgow 
Company  fertilizer  applied  to  each  hill — ,^ield,  38  pounds ;  two  rovrs 
Cumberland,  Portland,  ]\Iaiue,  3G  pounds;  two  rows  Rhodes  &  Co.'s 
ammoniated,  40  pounds ;  llhodes'  standard,  37.}  pounds ;  two  rows  of 
Andrew  Coe's,  34  pounds;  two  rows  Coxsackie,  New  York,  33  pounds; 
two  rows  mineral  superphosphate,  39  pounds.  All  of 'the  above-named 
were  superphosphates,  equal  quantities  of  each  applied  in  the  hill,  and 


432  AGRICULTURA.L    REPORT. 

slightly  covered  with  vsoil  bei'ore  dro])i)iii^'  the  corn.  Two  rows  of  ashes 
and  tiiie  boue-dust,  wetted  with  water  six  weeks  previously,  yielded  30 
pounds ;  two  rows,  tiue  hen-duuy:,  oO  pounds;  two  rows  Peruviau  guano, 
.50  pounds;  two  rows,  hen-manure  and  dry  ashes,  oG  pounds;  two  rows, 
fish-pomaee  or  guano,  27  pounds ;  two  rows,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  (put  too 
much  in  the  hills — some  of  the  seed  failed  to  come  up,)  .\ield,  L'4  poimds; 
two  rows,  one- third  of  each  having  Cuban  guano,  ^Vlta  Vela  guano,  and 
Baker's  Island  giiano,  yield,  .3  i  pounds ;  two  rows,  seed  soaked  in  the 
'  French  liquid  fertilizer'  for  24  hours  i)revious  to  planting,  yield,  2(3 
pounds ;  two  rows,  without  manure,  23  ])ounds.  The  corn  was  husked 
in  the  held  October  20,  each  two  rows  weighed  soon  as  husked,  and 
noted  down  as  abo\e.  Soft  corn  there  was  none ;  the  smallest  nubbins 
were  thoroughly  rijjened.  1  do  not  think  the  above  is  a  perfectly  fair 
record  of  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  dilierent  manures,  for  the  cut- worms 
destroyed  many  ])lants  in  some  of  the  rows,  and  a  heavy  shower,  attended 
with  \V'iud,  about  the  time  the  corn  was  fairly  in  the  milk,  prostrated  a 
l)ortion  of  it,  thereby  much  lessening  the  yield. 

"■  Some  of  our  farmers,  who  experimented  with  dilierent  brands  of  super- 
pliosphatcs  on  coj-n,  on  dilierent  and  better  corn-soUs,  realized  different 
and  nuich  more  favorable  resiUts ;  and  so  pleased  are  they  with  these 
results  that  they  will  purchase  largely  of  superphosphates  for  their 
corn  and  other  farm-crops  the  coming  season. 

''The  remainder  of  the  ninety  rods  of  land  was  planted  with  the  Orono 
potato — i)lanted  2Gth  of  ]May :  rows  twenty-two  hills  long.  The  four 
south  rows  receiv(Kl  a  spoonful  of  Andrew  Coe's  superphosphate  to  each 
hill;  fifth  row, no  manure;  then  four  rows,  Portland  superphosphate;  next 
row,  no  m;inure;  every  tifth  row  without  manure;  four  rows,  hen  ma- 
mu'e;  fonr  rows,  lish  guano:  four  rows,  Coxsackie  ])hosphate;  and  so 
on,  till  the  Held  was  planted.  The  four  rows  without  manure  through 
the  held  averaged  two  bushels,  each  set  of  four  rows  not  varying  over 
half  a  peck ;  the  manured  rows  averaged  three  bushels,  varying  with 
the  different  maiuires  to  each  four  rows  from  two  and  a  half  to  a  little 
over  three  bushels — the  fish  guano  gi\iug  the  largest  yield  and  fairest 
tubers. 

''Another  plat  of  sixty  rods,  green-sward,  soil  sandy  loam,  was  planted 
with  Orono  potatoes  2Gth  of  May.  The  following  kinds  of  manures  were 
used,  a  spoonful  in  the  hill,  viz :  Duncan  &  McKellar's  phosi)hatcd 
guano,  Khodes's  ammoniated,  and  his  standard  superphosphate,  Peru- 
vian g-uano,  fish  pomace,  hen  manure,  Portland  superphosphate,  ashes, 
and  fine  bone-dust — four  rows  of  each,  and  four  rows  without  manure; 
the  remainder  of  the  patch  nearly  a  repetition  of  the  foregoing.  The 
residt  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words.  The  yield  of  the  manui'ed 
rows  varied  somewhat,  but  the  increase,  as  a  whole,  where  the  manures 
ymre  used,  was  fully  fifty  ]>er  cent,  over  the  unmanured,  The  Peruviau 
guano  gave  the  largest'  yield,  but  the  tubers  were  much  more  prongy 
and  misshapen.  Potatoes  at  harvest-time  were  worth  about  75  cents 
per  bushel ;  at  that  price,  I  think,  the  commercial  manures  used  paid 
well.  The  whole  season  was  a  very  wet  one ;  perhajjs  in  a  very  dry  season 
the  result  might  have  been  different.  I  planted  some  twenty  rods  with 
the  same  kind  of  i>otatoes  on  highly  manured  land,  in  corn  the  previous 
year;  the  ])otatoes  were  very  large,  misshapen,  prongy  tubers,  badly 
diseased,  and  of  poor  (juality  for  table  use. 

''On  corn,  where  a  fair  dressing  of  manure  was  applied,  phosphate 
sown  broadcast  and  applied  in  the  hill,  increased  the  crop,  and  xciy 
much  hastened  its  ripening.  On  white  beans,  it  doubled  the  yield,  and 
hastened  the  ripening  at  least  ten  days." 


RECENT  FARM  EXPERIMENTS. 


433 


EFFECTS  OF  GFANO  BURIED  AT  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS. 

Recent  experiments  made  by  tlic  Agricultural  Society  of  |*rague  «Iiow 
the  effects  of  guano  buried  in  the  soil  at  different  depths.  'I'he  amount 
applied  uas  2'JO  kUograms  per  hectare.     This  is  251)  pounds  per  acre. 


Product  per  liectiire, 
(lirst  year.) 

Product  per  hectare, 
(.second  year.) 

Depth  of  application. 

P*- 

o 

"Without  new  raautirc. 

Wit!lno^- 
manure. 

Data. 

Winter  Winter 
ryo.      barley. 

"Winter 
barley. 

1 .  Put  iu  with  the  sect! 

2.  From  1  to  2  iuehcs 

3-  From  2  to  3  inches 

4.  From  3  to  4  inches 

Eiloqr. 
2,  500 
2,  044 
4, 142 
4,C70 

Eiloqr. 
2,  203 

2,  203 

2,  (rn 

2,590 

Kiloqr. 

7,  402 

7,  402 
7,i=43 

8,  K8 

Kiloqr. 
3,  OfH! 
3,  013 

4, 8-f; 

5, 125 

Kiloqr. 
3, 340 
3,  525 

3,  877 

4,  23:j 

Kilogr. 
1, 1 58 
1,7  4 
2,115 

2,y.8 

Kilofir 
2,  (.27 
2,  054 
2,  C55 
3, 204 

s  :?ir  s  K  €  T  s . 


EXPEEU/IENTS   WITH  THE  POTATO  BUG. 

Edwin  EejTiolds,  correspondent  of  the  Department  at  Fond  du  Lac, 
Wisconsin,  writes  as  follows  of  his  experience  with  the  potato  bug : 

I  planted  potatoes  May  7  aixl  b ;  the  field  thirty  by  eiglit  rods ;  planted  cast  aud 
vv'est.  Ill  the  centre  I  planted  ten  rows  of  early  varieties,  which  canio  np  much  sooner 
than  the  main  tk'ld,  ivnd  some  days  earlier  than  the  Early  Goodrich,  plante^l  side  by 
.side  at  the  same  time.  On  the  '26th  full-ffrowu  bugs  (two)  made  their  appearance,  the 
tietd  being  eighty  rods  from  where  ])otatoeshad  beenbeforty;  :<!7th,  ten  were  destroyed; 
:2Sth,  thirty  ;  2'Jth,  sixty-seven  ;  SkOth,  thirty  ;  31st,  fifteen — u])  to  which  time  all  were 
on  about  a  rod  of  ground.  June  1,  tvio  other  small  8i)ots  were  infested,  when  I  camo 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  price  of  potatoes  was  eternal  vigilance.  Thcjreibro,  with  two 
paddles  in  hand,  I  scrutinized  every  hill  myself,  destroying  bugs  and  larvaj  until  the 
■2"2d,  when  the  laiwa  that  I  had  overlooked  became  crawling  slugs  and  so  numerous  that 
I  resorted  to  a  pan  and  stick,  knocking  them  oif  and  destroying  them.  This  I  prac- 
ticed until  July  5,  when  I  was  told  by  a  farmer  from  Iowa  that  one  pound  Paris  green 
aud  four  pounds  dry  ashes  siited  and  well  mixed,  ap])licd  to  the  infested  vines  while 
the  dew  was  on,  was  sure  death  to  the  bugs  aud  no  ii.jury  to  the  vines.  I  tried  it,  and 
to  my  gi'cat  satisfaction  found  it  to  be  so.  I  used  the  composition,  passing  over  the 
field  twice  a  week,  and  kept  the  bugs  subdued  until  the  leaves  had  become  too  tough 
for  their  food,  and  they  have  disappeare<l. 

It  will  be  noticed  the  bugs  appeared  in  my  field  in  patches.  Many  conjectures  arose 
hi  my  mind,  as  to  whether  they  were  deposited  in  the  ground  last  fall,  or  flew  in  the 
night  from  ono  field  to  another.  I  camo  to  the  former  conclusion,  for  had  they  Homti 
iu  the  night  they  would  have  been  more  evenly  distributed  over  the  lield. 

I  would  recommend  planting  in  fields  of  long  narrov.'  strips,  and,  at  least  once  in  two 
rods,  plant  the  earliest  varieties  across  the  piece,  that  the  Ijugs  in  the  ground  may  be 
destroyed  before  the  main  field  is  up,  as  they  will  surely  concentrate  on  the  eariicst 
varirties.  I  would  further  recommend  that  planting  be  done  with  single  eyes,  say  five 
in  a  hill,  that  they  may  grow  single  stalks,  in  order  to  more  closely  detect  the  larvuB,  as 
tliej'  arc  deposited  on  the  under  side  of  tho  leaves. 

'rhemost  convenient  method  of  destroying  tho  bugs  is  by  using  a  pair  of  tongs  mado 
of  nail-rod.  With  such  an  instrument  bugs  and  eggs  can  bo  kept  off  for  some  time  with 
as  little  labor  as  using  the  Paris  green  ami  a.shes,  and  saving  the  cost  of  the  pigment. 

A  neighbor  of  mine  planted  potatocH  on  ground  that  grew  potatoes  the  year  before, 
and  when  covering  them  found  from  thrtse  to  seven  full-grown  bugs  on  each  x^otato. 


ANTS  AT   THE  ROOTS  OF  FRUIT-TREES. 

Eev.  W.  P.  Smith,  M.  D.,  of  Fayette viUe,  Texas,  communicates  the 
following  succe.ssfnl  mode  of  dealing  with  ants  at  the  roots  of  fruit-trees, 

2.S 


434  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

which  insects  are  very  tronbleyorne  and  destructive,  particuLirly  in  warm 
climates : 

"  I  was  raising-  some  tobacco,  aud  operated  Avith  the  green  leaves  in 
the  following  manner:  I  removed  the  earth  ti'oni  around  tlie  tree  or 
vine  as  much  as  I  could  without  iiijuriug  the  roots :  then  I  put  a  hand- 
ful of  tobacco  leaves  arouud  the  tree  or  vine,  where  the  ants  worked, 
covered  them  nicely  with  the  earth,  aud  pressed  it  well.  In  a  few  cases 
I  had  to  repeat  the  dose,  but  I  have  tried  it  often  with  uniform  success 
in  driving  the  ants  and  saving  the  tree  or  vine." 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  foregoing  collection  embraces  a  large  variety 
of  exi^eriments  from  the  skillful  and  careful  field-trial  down  to  that  which 
is  comparatively  crude  and  incomplete.  Hovrever  imperfect  many  ot 
these  experiments  may  appear,  taken  collectively  they  furnish  material 
for  i)ractice,  thought,  critical  comparison,  and  profitable  deduction.  Ex- 
periments even  of  small  value  in  themselves  may  serve  by  example  as 
stepping-stones  to  others  of  more  perfect  character,  affording  more  decis- 
ive conclusions.  It  is  by  the  constant  accretion  of  kuov.iedge  gained 
through  similar  trials,  and  by  the  slow  progress  made  through  conflict- 
ing successes  and  failures,  that  improvements  are  established  and  errors 
overcome. 

It  is  important  to  note  some  of  the  requisites  to  the  clear  statement 
of  a  field  experiment.  The  narrator  should  specify  the  nature  of  the 
surface  soO,  whether  clayey  or  sandy  loam,  porous  or  compact,  wet  or 
dry,  and  its  depth;  the  nature  of  the  subsoil;  the  manures  applied,  in 
what  manner  applied,  and  in  Avhat  quantity  per  acre  or  square  rod,  &c; 
the  quantity  of  seed  sown  to  a  given  area,  of  what  particular  variety, 
and  in  what  manner  soAvn;  the  manner  of  cultivation:  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction; the  amount  of  product  to  a  given  area,  and  its  value.  It  is, 
of  course,  impossible  to  prescribe  an  unvarying  form  of  statement  suit- 
able to  all  cases.  Common  sense  and  reflection  will  supply  means  of 
adaptation.  It  is  the  plain  statement  of  facts  that  is  wanted,  not  ele- 
gance of  style.  The  farmer  who  contributes  such  desirable  information 
may  in  that  act  be  a  benefactor  to  himself,  to  his  immediate  section,  and 
to  thousands  remote  from  his  own  habitation.  It  shoidd  never  be  for- 
gotten that,  iu  its  proper  estate,  agriculture  is  indeed  an  art ;  and  that 
its  followers,  wherever  they  be  and  in  whatever  condition,  are  bound  by 
the  most  common  ties  of  humanity  to  contribute  as  far  as  possible  to 
the  general  welfare  of  their  fraternity-. 


CURRENT  FACTS  IN  AGRICULTURE. 


FOREIGN  PEODUCTIO^\ 

The  Jonrual  of  the  Eojal  AgTicultiu-al  Society  of  Englaud  contains 
an  exhibit  of  tlie  product,  imports,  and  consumption  of  wheat  in  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  during  a  period  of  years,  in  "vrhich  the 
following  conchisious  are  reached:  There  has  been  a  reduction  in  the 
area  of  wheat  cidture  in  each  of  the  three  main  divisions  of  the  king- 
dom; very  large,  proportionally,  in  Scotland  and  Ii'eland,  comparatively 
small  in  England.  In  yield  there  has  been  a  small  increase  per  acre  in 
England  and  "Wales,  and  probably  in  Scotland,  and  a  marked  diminu- 
tion in  Ii-eland;  on  the  whole,  a  small  increase  in  yield  per  acre  in  the 
United  Ejngdom  collectively.  In  the  aggregate  of  home-produced 
wheat  in  the  United  Kingdom  there  has  been  a  diminution;  proportion- 
ally small  in  England  and  Wales,  very  considerable  in  Scotland,  and 
still  greater  in  Ireland.  The  imports  of  breadstuffs  have  incrci^sed 
enormously  of  late  years,  and  in  much  gxeater  proportion  in  Ireland 
than  in  Great  Britain.  The  aggregate  amount  of  wheat  consumed 
annually  in  the  United  Kingdom  has  increased  very  considerably,  the 
ratio  of  increase  being  about  the  same  in  Great  Britain  as  in  Ireland. 
In  the  United  Kingdom  collectively  the  population  has  increased  con- 
siderably notwithstanding  a  diminution  in  Ireland;  and  the  actual  con- 
sumption of  wheat  per  head  in  Great  Britain  has  increased  a  little  more 
than  five  per  cent.,  and  in  Ireland  over  twenty  per  cent.  The  final 
deduction  made  is  that,  "unless  the  home  product  of  wheat  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  available  as  human  food,  (which  has  been  about 
12,250,000  quarters  per  anniun  during  the  last  eight  years,)  should 
increase,  there  will  be  required  the  next  five  years  an  average  im- 
portation of  between  0,000,000  and  10,000,000  quarters  annuallv,  or  fi*om 
72,000,000  to  80,000,000  bushels."  Eive  and  a  half  bushels  per  head  are 
given  as  a  low  estimate  of  the  average  annual  consumption. 

Acreage  in  Ireland. — The  total  acreage  under  crops  ui  Ireland  in  1867 
was  0,459,702  acres;  in  18G8,  o,517,335  acres;  showing  an  increase  of 
87,633  acres.  Of  the  several  crops  the  greatest  increase  in  acreage  was 
in  oats;  next  in  meado^r  and  clover,  potatoes,  and  wheat,  respectively. 
During  the  same  period  there  was  a  decrease  of  more  than  three  per 
cent,  in  the  estimated  value  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs. 

Increase  of  acreage. — In  Great  Britain,  in  1868,  the  increase  of  acre- 
age in  wheat,  over  that  of  1867,  was  a  little  more  than  eight  per  cent; 
and  over  that  of  1806.  nearly  nine  per  cent.  In  barley  the  increase  of 
acreage  in  1868,  over  that  of  1867,  was  nearly  five  per  cent.;  over  that 
of  1866,  only  foiu'  per  cent.  In  oats  the  year  1868  shows  an  increase 
of  acreage  of  only  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent,  over  1867,  and  thi^ee-tenths 
of  one  per  cent,  over  1866..  In  potatoes  the  year  1868  exhibits  an  increase 
of  acreage  over  1867  of  nearly  ten  per  cent!,  and  over  1866  of  more  than 
nine  per  cent.  In  the  number  of  live  stock,  per  estimate  of  June  25, 
1868,  there  was  an  increase  in  cattle  in  1868  over  1867  of  eight  and  a 
half  per  cent. ;  in  sheep,  a  little  more  than  sis  per  cent. ;  in  pigs,  about 
twenty-two  and  a  third  per  cent.  " 

Yield  of  tcheaf. — Eeliable  English  authority  places  the  average  yield 


436  AORICULTUKxVL    REPORT. 

of  Tvlieat,  tiiioujiiiout  Euglaud  aud  AVales,  for  a  series  of  years,  at 
twenty-ciglit  bushels  per  acre.  The  average  for  ISGS  is  lai'ger,  this  year 
haviug  beeu  URCommouly  productive.  By  eomiiarisou  of  recent  statistics 
with  similar  iuforraatioii  obtained  by  Arthm- Youug.  iu  twenty-six  counties 
of  England,  in  17G0,  it  appears  that  the  average  product  of  wheat  per 
acre  iu  England  has  increased  tive  bushels,  or  nearly  twenty-two  per 
cent.,  during  the  past  century.  This  increase  Iws  resulted  from  improved 
farming. 

In  the  estimates  presented  by  James  Caird,  the  well-lcnowu  English 
writer  on  agricultural  statistics,  the  average  yield  of  Avheat  per  acre,  in 
different  European  countries,  is  given  as  follows:  In  England,  twenty- 
eight  bushels;  Ii-eland,  twenty-four;  Austria,  Spain,  and  Holland,  twen- 
ty'three;  Belgium,  twenty-one:  France,  fitteen  and  a  half.  "With  refer- 
ence to  this  low  acreage  of  Avheat  in  France,  ]\[r.  Caird  says  that,  in  dis- 
cussing this  point  with  the  eminent  French  statist.  31.  Leonce  de 
Lavergne,  the  latter  agrreed  ^^ith  him  that,  apait  fi-om  diflerence  in  soil 
and  climate,  the  deficiency  was  probably  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that,  while  the  grass  and  the  green  crops,  or  restorative  area,  of  Eng- 
land are  as  two  to  one  of  grain,  in  France  the  case  is  reversed,  the  grain 
or  exhaustive  crops  being  there  as  two  to  one  of  the  grass  and  the  green 
crops. 

In  Australia  the  v>heat  crop  was  tAventy  per  cent,  greater  iu  1SG7  than 
in  ISGG,  comiirising  sixty-eight  acres  out  of  every  hundred  acres  under 
cultivation.  The  wheat  crop  of  18G7  vras,  however,  reduced,  through 
red  rust,  to  an  average  of  four  and  three-quarters  bushels  per  acre,  nine 
and  thi'ce-quaiters  bushels  less  than  in  18GG.  All  other  cereals  showed 
a  comparative  decline  iu  average  product. 

Remarkable  scasou. -^The  Mark  Lane  Ex]>re«s,  revicAAing  the  agricul- 
tural experience  of  Euglaud,  for  the  year  18GS,  says:  "A  long  proti^acted 
drought,  with  intense  heat,  characterized  the  summer.  The  hay  crop 
and  all  esculents  were  materially  reduced.  All  sjiring  corn  suffered,  iu 
consequence,  as  to  yield ;  more  especially  oats.  The  light  lands,  where 
wheat  was  grown,  gave  but  a  scanty  produce,  aiid  fears  wei'C  entertained 
that  all  soils  would  materially  suffer.  Those  fonrs  soon  gave  way  upon 
examination  of  the  standing  crops,  and  the  result  has  been  the  largest 
and  best  growth  of  wheat  known  diu-ing  the  present  century.'' 

TIIE  DATKY. 

The  report  of  the  American  Dairymen's  Association,  for  IS68,  gives 
the  folio-wing  statement  of  cheese  and  butter  factories  in  the  various 
States:  Xew  York,  G39  factories,  to  377  of  which  are  attached  1G9,812 
cows,  no  retnrns  being  given  of  the  number  attach.ed  to  the  2G2 
factories  remaining;  Ohio,  72  factories,  to  20  of  Avhicb  are  attached 
12,100  cows;  Illinois,  2G  lactones,  to  !.">  of  wliich  are  attached  5,950 
cows;  Vermont,  22  factories,  to  9  of  which  are  attached  5.oS0  cows; 
Massachusetts.  15  factories,  to  4of  v.iiich  are  attached  1,717  cows;  "Wis- 
consin, 8  factories,  to  G  of  which  are  attached  2,050  cov.-s;  Pennsylvania. 
5  factories,  930  cows;  Kentucky,  5  factories,  to  2  of  which  are  attached 
500  cows;  Michigan,  4  lactories,  to  2  of  which  are  attached  850  cows: 
Iowa,  3  lactones;"  Xorth  Carolina,  1  factory,  230  cows;  Minnesota,  Vir- 
ginia, and  Tennessee,  each  1  factory.  Total,'803  factories,  to  441  of  which 
are  attached  199,519  cov.s.  This  statement  does  not  exhibit  the  whole 
number  of  cheese  and  butter  lactones  in  the  United  States.  It  is  knovai 
that,  in  18GG,  there  wore  more  than  1,000:  and  the  num])er  l.as  been  in 
creasing  since  that  time. 


CURRENT    FACTS    IN    AGRICULTIIRK.  4:0  Y 

The  quality  of  English  cheese  has  deteriorated  during-  the  past 
^even  years.  '  In  the  Scottish  cheese  there  has  been  a  very  great  im- 
[)rovement  in  quality.  Five-eighths  of  the  whole  production  of  cheese 
in  Great  Britain  is  made  iii  Cheddar  shapes.  Prominent  English  dairy- 
men frankly  acknowledge  the  merits  of  the  American  cheese  factory 
system,  and  some  efforts  have  been  made  toward  its  introduction  into 
tiie  kingdom.  Sweden  is  already  introducing  this  system  within  her 
borders. 

Cheese  production  in  1868. — Concerning  the  production  of  cheese  in 
this  country  in  1868,  31.  G.  B.  Weeks,  secretary  of  the  American  Dairy- 
men's Association,  writes :  "  Of  cheese,  probably  not  over  three-quarters 
as  much  has  been  made  as  in  1867,  while  the  price  has  averaged  as  much 
iis  one  and  a  half  cent  per  pound  higher — from  tifteen  to  seventeen  cents 
])er  pound  for  produce  of  good  to  fancy  factories.  There  is  no  stock  in 
the  coimtiy.  There  has  l^een,  diuing  the  past  season,  far  less  complaint, 
by  dealers,  respecting  Inid-davored  cheese.  This  is,  in  paiT,  accounted 
for  from  the  briskness  of  the  demand,  most  of  the  time,  which  leads 
slight  faults  to  be  passed  over ;  but  mainly  because  there  has  been  more 
than  usual  attention  paid  to  style  and  quality.'' 

Comparative  prices. — Corderoy's  Cheese  Circular  for  January.  1869.  says : 
'•'  Eeally  line  Cheshire  cheese  would  briug  to-day  806-.  to  86s.;  Cheddar. 
84«.  to  SSs.;  Scotch  Cheddar,  686'.  to  7-s. ;  Swedish,  606'.  to  (jQs.;  American, 
70s.  to  74.?.  These  quotations  have  reference  only  to  cheese  of  the  first 
class ;  other  sorts  are  nominal  in  price.  Cheese  of  line  quality  and  pure 
flavor  is  in  increasing  demand."  The  following  statement  is  given  of  the 
arrivals  of  Anierir-an  cheese  for  1868,  as  compared  with  amvals  in  1867: 

Boxes. 

Year  ending  December  31, 1868 910, 924 

Year  ending  December  M,  1867 935, 512 

Increase 5, 412 


Choice  of  breeds. — In  thf  annual  addi'ess  before  the  American  Dairy- 
men's Association.  Jauuaiy,  1868,  Professor  Brewer,  of  Yale  College, 
remarking  on  failiu-es  ui  i^rofitable  use  of  imported  breeds,  says : 
'•Breeds  are  local  in  their  origin,  and  almost  local  in  their  excellencies. 
When  we  transport  an  improved  breed  to  a  region  distant  fi^om  where 
it  origiuated.it  mu.st  be  to  one  similar  to  its  heme,  if  it  would  do  equally 
well — otherwise  it  deteriorates :  and  different  localities,  as  well  as  dif- 
ferent uses,  demand  different  breeds.'' 

Whey. — '•  Butter-making  from  whey,  can  it  be  profitably  done  at  cheese 
factories  f  In  the  discussion  of  this  question  by  the  association  named 
above,  Mr.  Kenuey,  of  Cortland  County,  ISTew  York,  stated  that,  in 
1867,  he  made  fi-om  000  cows  288.781  pounds  of  cheese ;  and  fiom  the 
whey  9,000  pounds  of  butter,  which  sold  for  twenty  to  thiity  cents  per 
l)0und,  amounting  to  more  than  81,900.  The  process  is  very  delicate. 
Mr.  Kenuey  holds  that  the  making  of  butter  from  whey,  in  counection 
with  cheese  manufacture,  will  pay  well,  if  properly  nianaged.  His  cheese 
brought  the  highest  market  prices,  and  the  average  i^er  cow  was  as  large 
as  though  no  butter  had  been  made  from  the  whey. 

Amount  of  easeinc  in  cheese. — The  averages  exhibited  by  twenty-eight 
cheese  factories  in  Xew  York,  in  1867,  show  that  from  nine  and  a  half  to  ten 
})cunds  of  milk  were  required  to  i)roduce  one  ])ound  of  cured  cheese. 

Scotch  axiom. — '-A  cow  that  will  make  less  than  her  dressed  weight  of 
cheese  per  aimum  should  be  sent  to  the  butcher." 


438  AGEICFLTTIRAL    REPORT. 

London  dairies. — In  tbe  London  cow-honses  tlie  animals  serve  perhaps 
eight  to  ten  mouths,  yieklin,i;at  first  abont  sixteen,  and  at  leng^th  six  quarts, 
of  milk  per  day.  They  then  go  to  the  butcher.  In  the  better  class  o: 
these  cow-houses  are  to  be  seen  large-fi'amed.  wide  and  straight-backc^l. 
and  deep-bodied,  short-horn  cows,  especially  notable  for  size  and  mass, 
and  adaptability*  to  fattening,  as  well  as  to  yield  milk,  and  costing,  per- 
haps, £20  to  £i'5  each,  on  entering.  Elsewhere  small  Irish  and  also 
Dutch  cows  are  found  which  have  cost,  on  entering,  £13  to  £15  each, 
and  wiU  sell,  on  leading,  at  £10  to  .£12.  The  general  practice  is  to  buy 
the  cow  immediately  after  her  third,  fourth,  or  fifth  calf.  It  may  be  said 
that  the  most  important  requisite  to  the  sweetness  of  the  milk  produced 
is  that  the  water  given  to  the  cows  should  l>e  clean  and  good.  A  stranger, 
entering  a  London  cow-house,  during  the  winter,  is  struck  with  the 
warmth  iu  which  the  cows  are  kept.  Exi>erience  has  shown  that  this 
has  an  important  infiuence  on  their  productiveness.  They  stand  very 
close — one  to  every  thirty  or  thirty -six  square  feet.  The  vdndows  are 
closed  and  matted,  and  no  thorough-draught  is  allowed.  In  this  manner 
the  shed  is  wai*med.  There  is  generally  room  enough  overhead.  andi)er- 
haps  a  tiled  roof,  which  aliows  ample  ventilation ;  and  thus,  where  the 
shed  is  kept  tolerably  clean,  the  air  is  sweet  enough,  as  well  as  warm. 
The  average  yield  of  the  cows  is  calculated  to  be  about  OGC  gallons  each 
for  the  eight  months.  These  cow-houses,  however,  have  proved  icjurious 
both  to  the  health  of  the  animals  and  to  that  of  the  pubhc.  Many  of 
the  cows  have  died  of  disease.  Some  of  the  cow-keepers  have  removed 
their  stock  to  farms,  fix)m  which  they  sendiu their  milk  by  rail.  In  j>articu- 
lar  districts  of  London  magistrates  refuse  to  license  these  sheds,  and 
medical  health  officers  have  frequently  reported  their  unfavorable  in- 
fluence on  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  neighborhoods  in  which  they  are 
situated. 

London  milk-dealers,  iu  purchasing  cows,  invaiiabiy  look  to  the  prospect 
of  a  good  futui^e  sale  to  the  butcher,  and  consider,  as  essential  to  profit, 
a  cow  which  will  fatten,  as  well  as  give  a  satisfactory  yield  of  milk. 

An  exi^ert  in  the  London  milk  trade  says :  ''  Very  little  pure  milk  is 
sold,  especially  to  the  poor."  A  few  months  ago  the  proprietors  of  the 
British  Medical  Journal  obtained  specimens  of  milk  from  ten  first-class 
establishments  of  London,  and  submitted  them  to  Dr.  Yoelcker  for  analysis. 
The  price  of  the  specimens  was  fom-  to  five  pence  i)er  quart.  In  every 
instance,  except  one,  the  milk  sold  as  pure  milk  was  skimmed  milk, 
diluted  with  water  until  its  real  value  was  less  than  one  i^enny  per  quart. 
"  The  more  wealthy  the  neighborhood,  and  the  more  showy  the  shop  in 
which  the  miik  Avas  sold,  the  poorer  was  the  article  sujjplied." 

KOKTH  MIDDLESEX  PKEMTCZiiS  Ol\  aHLCH  COTTS. 

Tlie  subjoined  exhibit  of  yield  of  premium  milch  cows  is  condensed 
from  data  furnished  by  the  annual  reports  of  the  transactions  of  the 
^Middlesex  >. orth  Agricultural  Society-,  Massachusetts.  The  agiicultural 
societies  of  this  county  have,  for  a  long  course  of  yeai^  given  particu- 
lar attention  to  the  milk  i^roduct.  The  rules  of  this  society,  among 
other  specifications,  require  statements  cf  the  quantity  of  iLilk  given 
during  the  second  week  in  June,  and  during  the  first  week  in  Septem- 
ber, except  in  case  of  winter  cows,  when  the  requirement  is  for  the  fist 
week  iu  ]5Iaich  and  the  first  week  in  June.  JSTo  animal,  on  which 
one  premium  has  been  awarded  to  any  owner,  is  ever  i^ciniitted  to 
receive  the  same  or  a  less  premium.  The  amount  of  prtniiums  given 
for  the  best  dairy  of  three  cows  was,  in  185S,  §7 ;  and  in  the  other 
years  named  in  this  statement,  $10  or  their  equivalent,  nearly.    For  the 


CUERENT    FACTS   IN    AGRICULTUEE.  439 

beBt  native  or  mixed  cows,  taken  singly,  in  1S5S  (No.  1,)  $7.  In  tlie  other 
years  named  the  i)remium  given  for  cow  No.  1,  of  this  description,  varies 
from  $12  to  $10.  Prices  for  animals  of  less  merit  ranged  from  these 
snms  to  $3. 

The  following  statements  are  on  ])remiums  given  for  "•the  best  dairy 
of  three  cows,"raised  by  the  exhibitor,"  in  1858,  186-1,  1805,  and  1867. 
Ko  prerainms  of  this  description  Avere  bestowed  in  18G0  and  1868.  The 
amount  of  yield  is  given  in  quarts  and  decimals  of  a  quart. 

Dairy  of  1858,  entered  by  Amos  Carlton,  Chelmsford.  Cow  ^STo.  1, 
eleven  years  old,  one-quarter  Diu?ham;  calved  about  the  first  of  Novem- 
ber, 1857  ;  during  the  vsecond  week  in  June,  1858,  averaged  15.75  quarts 
per  day,  and  duiing  the  first  week  in  September  five  quarts  per  day; 
time  to  calve  again,  October  12,  1858.  Cow  No.  2,  thirteen  years  old, 
native;  calved  April  20;  dimng  the  second  week  in  June,  average'd 
sixteen  quarts  daily,  and  during  the  first  week  in  September  12.86 
quarts.  Cow  No.  3,  eight  years  old,  native ;  calved  July  9 ;  during  the 
first  week  in  September  averaged  14.8G  quai-ts  per  day.  Daily  feed 
of  No.  1  tb  rough  the  winter,  one  and  one-half  peck  of  roots  and  two 
quarts  of  cob-meal  or  fine  feed,  with  hay.  Of  No.  2,  one  i^eck  of  roots 
with  hay ;  since  calving  two  to  three  quarts  fine  feed.  No.  3,  since 
cahing,  was  fed  on  haj',  corn  fodder,  and  pasturage. 

Dairy  of  1864  entered  by  Oilman  Eoby,  of  Dunstable.  Breed,  "gTade 
Durham,  mixed  with  Devon ;  and  one  with  Ayrshire; "  kept  iu  the  first 
of  the  winter  on  "run"  and  meadow  hay,  corn  fodder  and  oat  straw; 
during  latter  part  of  the  winter  on  English  hay  with  meadow  shorts, 
one-half  peck  to  one  peck  daily.  Cow  No.  1,  calved  June  13,  and 
gave  foiuteen  quarts  daily  during  the  first  week  in  September.  No.  2, 
calved  August  31,  and  in  the  week  commencing  September  4  gave 
fifteen  quarts  daily.  No.  3,  calved  March  1,  and  gave  fourteen  quart-s 
per  day  during  the  second  week  in  June,  and  10.71  quarts  per  day 
during  the  first  week  in  September. 

Dairy  of  1865,  by  Oilman  lioby,  of  Dunstable.  Premium  $10.  Breed  of 
the  three  cows,  gi-ade  Durham.  Cow  No.  1,  nine  years  old ;  time  of  calving 
November  22,  1804,  and  December,  1865;  gave,  the  last  week  in  March, 
eleven  quarts  per  day,  and  during  the  first  week  in  June  ten  quarts  per 
day.  No.  2,  five  years  old ;  time  of  cahing  December  17,  1SG4,  and 
December,  1865;  gave  in  the  first  week  in  March  ten  quarts.  No.  3, 
four  years  old;  time  of  calving,  December  7,  1864,  and  December,  1865; 
gave  in  the  first  week  of  March  10.5  quarts  per  day;  has  suckled  a  calf 
since  the  fii^st  of  May.  The  keeping  of  these  cows  was  "  not  very  different 
from  the  common  lot  of  cows — poor  pastures,  poor  meadows,  hay,  and  a 
few  shorts  or  cob-meal." 

Dairy  of  1867,  entered  by  John  C.  Corbett,  of  Lowell.  Premium  88 
and  diploma.  Cow  No.  1,  seven  years  old  in  November,  1866;  one-half 
Ayi'shire,  one-half  native ;  calved  April  7 ;  draiug  the  second  week  in 
June  averaged  19.36  quarts  daily,  and  during  the  first  week  in  Septem- 
ber 13.45  quarts  daily.  No.  2,  four  years  old,  one-half  Dtirham,  one- 
quarter  AjTshire,  and  one-quarter  native;  calved  November  20,  1866, 
and  would  come  in  again  December,  1867 ;  gave  during  the  first  week 
in  March  fourteen  quarts  per  day;  and  during  the  first  week  in  June 
sixteen  quarts  daily.  No.  3,  which  was  three  years  old  July  5,  1867, 
calved  April  23;  breed  one-half  Alderney,  one-quarter  Ayrshire,  and 
one-quarter  native ;  gave  during  the  second  week  in  June  14.14  quarts 
per  day,  and  during  the  first  v/eek  in  September  10.93  quarts  per  day. 
No.  1  was  the  mother  of  Nos.  2  and  3.  All  were  kept  on  English  hay  in 
V.  inter,  and  on  conuuon  pasture  in  summer,  with  no  extra  feed. 


44U 


AGRICCLTUKA.L   JiEPORJ 


The  following  tiibulatiou  is  a  summary  of  the  «tatemeuts  made  on  i»ic'- 
miums  given  by  the  society',  iu  the  years  named,  for  the  "best  native  or 
mixed  cows  taken  singly.*'  Ii  will  be  seen,  on  a  comparison  and  general 
average  of  these  statements,  that  they  shovr  a  decided  increase  as  to 
jield  of  milk  iu  later  over  earlier  years,  especially  when  the  relative 
periods  of  the  milking  season  and  the  leading  circumstances  are  suffi- 
ciently paralleled.  For  instance,  first  premiimi  cow  of  1858,  ten  jears 
old,  gives  diuing  the  first  week  in  June,  six  weeks  after  cahing,  a  daily 
average  of  13  Gl  quarts,  and  diuing  the  first  vreek  in  September  a  daily 
average  of  0.55  quarts.  First  premium  cow  of  18GG,  ten  years  old,  gives 
during  the  third  week  in  February,  one  month  after  cah  ing,  a  daily 
average  of  22.G  quarts,  and  diuiug  the  second  week  in  Jime  a  daily 
average  of  18  quarts.  With  regard  to  the  year  18GS.  the  cause  of  the 
relative  positions  assigned  to  the  first  and  the  second  }>remium  cows 
is  not  so  clearly  shown  by  the  report  as  might  be  desired.  It  may  be 
understood,  however,  that,  as  in  neighboring  societies,  the  size  and 
form  of  the  animal,  indicating  gi^eater  or  less  economy  of  keeping,  the 
richness  of  the  milk,  and  other  circumstances,  are  taken  into  account  in 
the  adju'Jication  of  prizes. 


Age. 

Premirun 

cows. 

Ui 

a 

V* 

1858. 

Nal... 

18&1. 


2<fo.l. 
XaS. 


Xo.3. 
Xo.4. 
Xo.5. 


ldG5. 

Xo.l... 
>o.2... 
No.  3... 
Xo.4... 
Xo.  5. . . 


18C6. 


No.l. 
Xo.3. 

2fo.3. 

So.  4. 
50.5. 


Uifwl. 


Time  of 
cnlvlnj:. 


Tii-ld  iif  milk  imt  day  in  stateil  weets.  Qts. 


ieC7.     I 

Xo.l.... 

3T0.2.... 

So.  3.... 
So.  4.... 
So.  5.... 


1868. 

So.l... 
So.  2... 
So.  3... 
So.*^.. 
So.  5... 


10 


■Mix<-<r Aiu-il  i: 


Jui;.-   Is?  ir.-.-':  i:?.(;i.    Sept.,  1st  w"k,  9.  J5. 


J^Dniiwiii.   1  Aldemev :  Apill  21 IJest  of  sea.soii,  -20.  Sept.. — ■week,  IC. 

Cri-ade  L'uiliam ." Dec.  1, 1863 !  Feb.,  l.st  week,  17.79.    June,  do.  15.  (Mar. 

I  I      do.  13.4.) 

Aldemev  and  Ayrshire . . . :  April  7 >■  June,  2d  wepk.  10.11.    Sept..  1st  w'k,  11. 

Satkve  .1 ". June  15 !  June,  Inst  v.etk.  20.   Sept..  1st  week,  13. 

Sa;ivc(comesin.Mav.l8o5)'Dec.30,18C3...lil:ir.,lsiwjek,  ll.efl.    June,  1st  week,  10. 
'       " '         \ 

i  I 

ISative September Mar..  Ist  w"k,  11.07.    June,  1st  w'k,  14.25. 

I  Gnule  Duibam Aug.  30 i  One  \reek,  Sept..  18.57. 

!  Aldercer  and  Durham May    26 June,  2d  week,  17.71.  Sept..  l.st  w'k,  12.25. 

I  Aldeniev.  J  A  vrshirc Mar.    21 June,  2d  week,  15.07.    .Sept..  2d  w'k,  lO.Ki. 

i  AJ.Jeruev.  J  na'tire '■  Apnl  20 Jmie,  2d  week.  U.43.  Sept..  1st  week,  ».3. 


jS-itire 'Jan.    21 1  Feb..  ZA  week.  22.r,.    ,Tuce.  2d  week.  \B. 

Sative Jjiue  10 June,  last  week.  19.  Sejtt..  Ist  wuek,  1C.5T. 

••  TlriTi.11»  "  5  ^I^^"  30,  16C5    <  June,  05  — wk.  18.   .S<p.  — w  k,  'C5. 14.29. 

^"^"••"^     ,  )  Sept.  2j,  li<66    Mnne.ieec.— week, 4.03. 

Siitive , April  15 June, 2d  week,  1T.71.  Sept..  1st  wk.  13.57. 

i  AJdemey.  J  Ayrshire '  Afar.  21 ;  June.  2d  we<k,  17.    Sept.,  2d  week,  13.5. 


So  statement,  I  ' 

JDuiham,  3  native {00?^'' ife?"   ^P*-~:  O^t.  (]SCC.)20.  June  (18G7,)  13. 

4  native  J  AjTshire May  24.. Jnne.  2d  week,  21.82.  Sept..  1st  w'k,  15^57. 

^C.ative " I  Mai-.  13 <  June.  2d  week.  18.    S»'pt..  Ist  week,  14. 

Grade  Ayrsliire 3lay  18 June,2dwetk,2!.71.  Stpt.  l.st  week,  13.29. 


JAJdenrt^y.  3  Dnrbam 1  ^lay  30 ;  Jnne.2d  week,  18.43.  i^ept..  1st  wk.  12.5. 

^  Alderuey.  *  native |  April  3 June,  2<1  week,  25.5.     .Sept.  1st  week.  15. 

i  Dutch Apnl  9 June.  Ist  week.  17.    Sept..  Ist  week,  11. 

"Grade" pklay    2 Jjjue,  (month.)  17.    Sej)!..  (montJj.)  17. 

Grade  Durham May  24 June.  2d  week.  14.5.     Sept..  Ist  week,  13. 


CURRENT   FACTS    IN    AGriiCULTi;PiE. 


4-il 


Tlio  fullowiiii;-  table  represents  tlie  averages  of  daiiy  yield,  at  the 
j)erioil  of  largest  product,  in  the  years  named.  In  1858  only  the  first 
])reminiu  ^vas  bestowed,  similar  premiiuns  having  been  withheld  on 
account  of  unsatisfactory  statements : 


Tear. 

Cow  No.  1. 

CowXo.2. 

Cow  Xo.  3. 

CowXo.4. 

CowXo.  5. 

Average. 

!R'>3 

Qllttl-tr. 
13.  Ul 
22 

14. 25 
22.0 

Quarts. 

Quarts. 

Quarts. 

Quarts. 

Quarts. 
.  13.  CI 

i,-;t;4 

lcH!5 

1SC6 

18(i7                    

17. 7!) 
IP.  57 
19 

■:■) 

25. 5 

10.11 
17.71 
18 
21.  ?2 

20 

15. 07 
17.71 

17 

11.  SI 
14.  13 

In 

14.5 

17.54 

16.01 

IS.  SG 

,        2J.  ^3 

l.^C8 

IS.  43 

ia49 

Inspection  of  yield  of  the  various  animals  at  the  second  i)eriod  oi 
report  in  each  respective  year,  which  is  generally  equivalent  to  the  first 
week  of  September,  shows  averages  the  relative  proportions  of  which 
are  similar  to  those  exhibited  at  the  period  of  lai'gest  yield. 

Comparison  of  statements,  as  to  the  feeding  of  the  cows,  indicates  an 
average  improvement,  during  later  years,  in  the  manner  of  lieeping.  So 
far  as  the  reports  show,  the  two  following  animals  a])pear  to  be  fair 
rei)fesentatives  of  the  best  feeding.  The  lii'st  premium  cow  of  ISGO, 
entered  by  J.  P.  Cummings,  of  Tyngsborough,  yielding  22.G  quarts  daily 
during  the  third  week  in  February,  and  one  month  after  calving;  twenty 
quarts  daily  during  one  week  in  April,  and  eighteen  quarts  daily  diu'icg 
the  second  week  in  June;  was  kept,  during  winter  and  spring,  on  ''run'- 
hay,  corn  fodder,  eight  quarts  of  shoits,  and  one  quart  of  meal  mixed, 
per  day;  in  summer  on  conmion  pasture.  Second  premium  cow  of 
1868,  entered  by  John  Higgins,  of  Lowell,  yielding  25.5  quarts  daily, 
during  the  second  week  in  June,  two  months  after  cahing,  and  fifteen 
quarts  daily  during  the  lirst  week  in  September;  was  kept  in  winter  on 
good  hay,  with  two  quarts  of  shoits,  and  one  quart  of  meal  per  day;  in 
summer,  on  grass  only. 

A:MEKIC.I^'  DAIlZYr.IEN  IX  SWITZEELA:?fD. 


American  enterprise  appears  to  be  looking  to  other  continents  for  new 
spheres  of  acti\'ity.  x\.  company  of  Americans  have  located  a  milk- 
condensing  establishment  at  Cham,  near  L;ike  Zug,  in  Switzerland, 
intended  to  contribute  to  English  consumption  particularly.  George 
n.  Page,  of  Dixon,  Illinois,  is  superintendent  of  the  "Anglo-Swiss  Con- 
densed 3Iilk  Company."  IMilk  from  the  ^Vlpine  region  is  celebrated  for 
its  richness  and  Havor.  About  40U  gallons  are  received  daily  from  the 
peasants  of  the  neighborhood,  and  manufactured  so  carefiilly  that  a 
specimen  kei>t  twelve  months,  as  reported  by  Baron  1 
churned  into  excellent  butter. 


iebig,  has  been 


:snXK  TRANSPOKTATIOX  IN  FEA2:CE. 


On  the  French  railways  the  miUv-can  is  tilled  full  of  nrilk.  and  so 
stoi^pered  down  tiiat  there  is  no  room  Ibr  the  least  motion  to  chm-n  the 
milk  and  separate  its  buttery  particles.  In  hot  weather  the  can  is  cov- 
ered with  a  textile  wrapper  which  is  watered  with  a  tine  sprinkler  before 
the  train  starts:  and  in  a  long  journey  the  watering  Ls  repeated  at  inter- 
vals. The  effect  of  tiie  whole  system,  as  carried  out  in  these  and  other 
particulars,  is  that  the  milk  is  conveyed  without  deterioration.     The 


442  AGRICULTUEAL   BEPOET. 

police  in  France  and  Belgium  are  emx>owered  to  test,  with  a  lactometer, 
aDT  milk  on  sale  in  dairy  or  street,  and  to  seize  snch  as  is  found  to  l>e 
diluted. 

PEESEEYATION  OF  3irLK. 

The  method  of  M.  ilabrmi  for  the  preeervation  c»f  milk  is  to  warai 
the  milk  to  a  moderate  temperature  in  a  tin  vessel  famished  -with  a 
leaden  tube,  for  the  expulsion  of  air ;  the  tube  is  then  compressed  and 
closed  ^th  solder.  A  committee  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
to  TThom  il.Mabrmi  subjected  his  process  fcr  examination,  reported  that 
the  milk  thus  preserved  possesse<l,  sis  months  after  }yemg  put  up,  aU 
the  properties  of  fresh  milk.  A  prize  of  1.50(»  firaiics  Tras  a\rarded  to 
M.  Mabrun. 

FKUIT  PEODUCTIOX. 

A  correspondent  of  the  Department  in  Niagara  Counr;.-,  Xew  York, 
speaking  of  the  fruit  crop  of  1SG7,  in  that  county,  says  that  one  man  in 
Lockport  vras  o^ered  .$l,oOO  for  the  pears  grown  on  one  acre.  He 
sent  them  to  2se\r  York,  where  they  were  overkept,  and  he  realized 
only  $l,fH)0  for  them.  Ona  school  distiict  in  Xewfane  received  over 
-$40,000  for  fruit.  The  sales  of  apples,  as  taken  from  the  books  of 
the  various  buyers  in  the  county,  foot  up  200.000  barrels,  at  an  average 
price  of  $2  CO.  making  probably  the  most  money  ever  received  for  anj 
one  CTOj)  of  any  kind  ever  gathered  in  the  county. 

Peers. — Mr.  P.  T.  Quinn,  of  ]!sew  Jersey,  gives  the  following  as  the 
amount  of  seven  years'  sales  of  the  product  of  a  row  of  thirty  Duchesse 
d'Angouleme  j>ears,  the  seven  years'  crops  being  the  yield  of  nine  years: 
The  first  crop,  the  trees  eight  years  old,  $120;  second,  $130  41 :  third, 
$15C  17  :  fourth.  $202  2S :  fifth.'  $267  49 :  sisth,  $310  20  :  seventh,  $705; 
total,  $1,1X»0  5.J.  The  row,  in  166S,  produced  ninety-four  bushels  ot 
marketable  fruit,  which  sold  at  higher  i>rices  on  account  of  the  sctircity 
of  peaches. 

Straicberrle^.— From.  Ulster  County,  :S^ew  York,  $100,000  worth  of 
strawberries  was  shipi>ed,  in  1S67,  to  Xew  York  markets,  and  at  least 
$200,000  worth  of  whortleberries  from  the  Sha  wan  gunk  mountains. 
From  $400  to  $1,000  worth  of  small  ftiiits  was  sold  from  an  acre. 

Bed  raspberries. — ^The  slaty  soil  of  Marlborough,  Orange  County, 
yew  York,  is  especially  adapted  to  the  j^roduction  of  the  Bed  Antweip 
raspberry.  Not  less  than  500  acres  are  cultivated  in  the  town,  giving  a 
gross  product  of  $300,000  per  annum.  An  acre  of  Antweri^s  in  full 
bearing  is  valued  at  $1,000.  Good  Antwerp  land  is  worth  $200  to  $500 
per  acre, 

Cranherriei. — An  experienced  eranbeiTy  cultivator  states  that  one 
improved  cranberry  bog  on  Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts,  has  yielded  a  pay- 
ing crop  nearly  every  season  for  fifty  years.  It  should  be  remarked  that 
the  continued  success  of  a  cranberry  field  depends  very  greatly  on  the 
readiness  with  which  water  can  be  fiowe<l  upon  the  surface  or  withdi-awn 
from  it.  Xcw  .Jersey  is  the  chief  cranberry-pmduciug  State,  and.  accord- 
ing to  the  o^cial  report,  its  bogs  and  ••  savannas^  supply  at  least  one- 
half  of  the  cranberries  raised  in  the  United  States.  The'  area  of  these 
fields  is  constantly  increasing.  Ocean  County,  in  1867,  sent  into  mar- 
ket about  4o,000  bushels,  mostly  the  product  of  cultivation.  It  is 
claimed  that  two  gentlemen  have,  by  their  operations  in  cranberry  cul- 
ture, doubled  the  taxable  property  of  one  township  in  this  county  dur- 
ing the  last  six  year.s. 

Small  fruiU  in  Xeic  Jersey. — In  the  western  part  of  Burlington  Comity, 


CUERENT   FACTS   IN    AGRICULTURE.  44d 

Ne^  Jersey,  there  were,  in  1867,  abont  1,400  acres  of  strawberries  in 
bearing-,  700  acres  of  blackberries,  and  150  acres  of  raspberries. 

Peaches. — A  correspondent  of  the  Department,  in  Newcastle  County, 
Delaware,  says :  '^  The  peach  iloiu-ishes  finely,  and  makes  oiu-  State 
noted  for  its  production.  It  is  stated  that  300,000  baskets  of  the  fruit 
were  shijiped  from  IMiddletown  alone  during-  the  last  season,  (1S07,)  all 
produced  in  the  lovrer  secMons  of  the  county."  "  Kent  coimty  is  ttimous 
for  its  tine  peaches,  immense  quantities  of  which  are  shipped  to  New 
Tork  and  Philadelphia  in  the  season.  Some  orchardists  have  as  many  as 
15,000  trees  in  bearing-,  and  one  claims  60,000.  The  average  yield  of  a 
healthy,  well-grown  orchard  is  about  two  and  a  half  baskets  of  five- 
eightli's  of  a  bushel,  to  a  ti-ee,  and  fifty  cents  per  basket  in  the  orchard 
is  considered  a  poying  i)rice." 

The  tScHjyj^ernonf/. — A  letter  received  by  the  Department  from  Louis 
Froelich,  of  Kenansvilie,  North  Carolina,  November  1,  1868,  says  the 
Scuppemoug-  gives  the  siu'est  crop  of  gTapes  he  has  ever  found  or  heard 
of  in  any  wine-growing  country,  and  adds :  •'  At  my  old  home  on  the 
Ehine  we  had,  in  each  five  years,  two  entire  foilures,  two  seasons  of 
inferior  wine,  and  only  ftne  perfect  crop ;  and  I  have  foimd  nearly  the 
same  results  in  Austria.  Hungary,  France,  and  Italy,  and  in  the 
northern  or  northwestern  part  of  the  United  States.  Indeed,  we 
have  not  in  this  country  a  single  variety  except  the  Scuppemong  which 
is  not  liable  to  injury  from  frost,  or  in  danger  of  not  ripening  through 
unfavorable  seasons  or  the  various  grape  diseases.  With  this  variety, 
however,  we  may  calculate  with  certainty  each  year,  as  to  both  quantity 
and  ciuality.  It  requires  only  one-fifth  the  labor  and  expense  attending 
the  cidrivation  of  other  varieties.  The  average  yield  for  a  three-year 
old  -sine  is  one  peck ;  five-year  old,  two  bushels ;  full  grown,  ten-year 
old  vine,  twenty-five  bushefs."  Mr.  Froelich  has  had  ten  years'  experi- 
ence in  the  culture  of  the  Scuppemong  gi'aj)e. 

Gardening  in  Florida. — A  correspondent  of  the  Department,  in  Put- 
nam Coimty,  Florida,  states  that  the  cultiu*e  of  vegetables  for  the  early 
northern  markets,  recently  initiated  in  that  State  by  northern  men,  is 
being  attended  with  very  flattering  success.  '•  But,"  he  adds,  '•  the  at- 
tention of  oirr  people  is  mainly  dh-ected  to  the  culture  of  fruits,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  orange  family,  embracing  the  orange  proper,  the 
lemon,  lime,  and  citron,  all  of  which  thrive  well  in  this  latitude.  As 
yet,  there  are  but  few  groves  that  have  begnn  to  bear,  but  the  young 
trees  of  one  or  two  yeai-s'  growth  promise  well;  and  the  number  of  those 
that  have  been  set  out  diuing  the  past  two  years,  between  this  place 
and  Jacksonvdle,  v^ill  not  fall  short  of  250,000." 

Michiran. — The  secretary  of  the  Lake  Shore  and  Western  Michi- 
gan Horticultiu-al  Association  writes  of  the  Grand  Haven  fniit  region: 
••  The  upward  tendency  of  inices  in  fruit  lands  is  a  sure  indication  of 
the  increasing  interest  attached  to  fruit-growing  in  this  vicinity.  Large 
ti-acts  of  laud  around  the  city,  purchased  less  than  a  year  ago  for  $5  to 
811  per  acre,  have  been  selling  rapidly,  in  ten  acre  lots,  for  825  to  $100 
per  acre  for  fruit  lands." 

Calif ornia  products. — The  southern  counties  of  California  are  pecu- 
liarily  suited  to  the  almond  crop.  In  this  portion  of  the  State,  also,  grows 
in  great  abundance  the  citron,  the  peel  of  which,  when  prepared,  is  so 
well  known  in  commerce.  According  to  a  statement  made  a  few  months 
ago,  nearly  the  Avhole  production  is  annually  aUowed  to  rot,  no  attempt 
ha%ing  been  made,  so  far  as  known,  toward  its  preservation  either  for 
general  domestic  use  or  for  export. 

Luscious  pears,  grapes,  figs,  peaches,  melons,  plums,  strawberries, 


444  AGRICULTUKAL    REPORT. 

lemons,  limes,  &c.,  Vvcre  mentioned  as  being  in  great  iibuudancc  in  Han 
Francisco  market,  October  15,  18G8.  Pears  were  three  to  six  cents  \)vv 
pound ;  jieaclies  live  to  twelve  cents ;  native  grapes  four  to  ten  cents. 

The  ibilowing  items  of  production,  in  18G7,  are  given  concerning  the 
farm  of  Gen.  John  Eidwel!,  Butte  County,  California:  Acres  sown  with 
wheat  2,000,  yielding  33,751  bushels,  the  season  having  been,  in  some 
respects,  unpropitious.  Xumber  of  bearing  tiuit  trees  on  the  farm  about 
3,000,  from  v.-hich  v/ere  sent  to  market,  during  the  year  mentioned,  a  luui- 
dred  tons  of  green  and  fifteen  tons  of  driedfruit. 

Eeturns  of  county  assessors  in  California  for  1867  give  the  following 
items  respecting  fruit  trees  in  that  State:  Apple  trees,  2,219,473;  peach, 
984,021;  lemon,  3,700,  (Malaga  and  also  Sicily  varieties,)  of  which  Los 
Angeles  has  2,300;  orange,  17,397,  of  which  Los  Angeles  has  15,000: 
olive,  14,812,  of  which  Santa  Barbara  has  12,000. 

The  foregoing  returns  allbrd  the  following  statistics  with  regard  to  Msc 
number  of  vines  cultivated  in  the  State,  and  the  product  of  wine  and 
brandy:  Amines,  21,372,334,  of  which  Los  Angeles  had  3,838,000 ;  wine. 
1,870,429  gallons,  of  which  Los  Angeles  gave  700,000  gallons;  brandy, 
105,300  gallons,  of  which  Los  Angeles  ga\e  77,000  gallons.  It  is  generally 
conceded,  however,  that  these  returns  fall  considerably  short  of  tlie 
actual  facts.  The  wine  crop  of  1808  is  thought  to  be  the  largest  ever 
made,  being  estimated  from  unoliicial  data  as  high  as  7,000,000  gallons, 
of  which  the  estimate  for  Los  Angeles  is  1,500,000,  and  for  Sououki. 
900,000  gallons. 

Large  grape  cluster. — Mr.  Fowler,  gardener  to  the  Earl  of  Stair, 
recently  exhibited  in  GlasgoAV  a  cluster  of  grapes  weigbing  seventeen 
pounds  two  and  a  half  ounces — a  fine  white  variety. 

Fruit  growliKj  i}h  Ohio. — A  special  committee  of  the  Ohio  Horticultural 
Society,  on  the  deterioration  or  failure  of  orchard  crops  in  that  State, 
report  that  the  de(;line  of  the  apple  crop  has  been  pretty  general  thi'ough- 
out  Ohio,  though  less  in  the  lake  region  on  the  north  and  among  the 
hills  of  the  coal  sections  of  the  southeast  than  in  other  portions. 
Causes  reported  are:  1,  exhaustion  of  the  soil;  2,  neglect  and  improper 
culture  and  ])runing;  3,  increasing  severity  of  summer  di-oughts;  4, 
deficiency  autl  variability  of  atmospheric  humidity,  consequent  on  the 
disappearance  of  Iprests;  5,  increase  of  injiuious  insects;  0,  increas(i  of 
fungous  diseases.  The  turning  of  hogs  and  sheep  into  orchards  av;is 
indicated  as  eli'ective  toward  the  prevention  of  insect  ravages. 

The  vineyard  products  for  1807,  in  the  region  around  Sandusky,  Ohio, 
and  including  the  neighboring  islands,  were  as  follows:  1,822,000  pounds 
of  table  gTapes;  4,800,000  ])ounds  of  wine  grapes.  The  average  price 
realized  from  the  table  grapes  was  tweh-e  and  a  half  cents  per  pound ; 
from  the  wine  grapes  six  cents  per  pound;  making  the  total  value  of  the 
grapes  $519,350.  The  average  yield  per  acre  of  bearing  vineyards  in 
fair  condition  was  two  tons,  value  $227. 

HIGH  PRICES   OF  FRENCH  "VINE  LANDS. 

Eoraana-Conti,  a  Burgundy  vineyard  of  three  acres,  producing  an 
unrivaled  quality  of  wine,  was  oflered  for  sale,  at  auction,  at  a  mini- 
mum limit  of  110,000  francs,  or  $20,025.  Also  Vouzeot,  a  vineyard 
of  about  134  of  our  acres,  yielding  a  superior  wine,  was  also  oflered 
at  a  limited  price  of  2,000,000  trancs,  or  $375,000.  The  celebrated 
Chambertin  vineyard  realized  for  1  hectare  92  ares  (4.74  acres)  80,000 
francs,  or  $15,000;  for  the  second  lot,  1  hectare  C8  ares  (4.15  acres) 
74,800  francs,  or  $13,925. 


CURRENT    FACTS    IN    AGRICULTURE.  445 

WOOL  AND   WOOL  MANUFACTURES. 

Wt>oJ  of  the  icoi'ld. — Eeceut  Germau  estimates  (approximate)  give  to 
G]?eat  Britain  an  annual  production  of  260,000,000  pounds  of  wool ;  Ger- 
many, 200,000,000;  France,  123,000,000;  Spain,  Italy,  and  Portugal, 
119,000,000;  European  Eussia,  125,000,000;  making  a  total  estimate  for 
Europe  of  !527,€00,000  i^ounds;  in  Australia,  South  America,  and  South 
Africa,  157,000,000 ;  the  United  States,  95,000,000  [too  low ;]  the  British 
IS'orth  American  Provinces,  12,000,000 ;  Asia,  at  a  very  general  estimate, 
470,000^000;  Northern  Africa,  49,000,000;  the  aggregate  production  of 
the.  world  being  put  at  1,010,000,000  pounds. 

Wool  (growing  in  Bussia. — As  evidence  of  the  vast  scale  of  sheep  hus- 
bandry in  Kussia,  the  following  items  are  given  from  statements  of 
Russian  exhibitors  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1807.  Mr.  Tilibert's  flock 
consists  of  70,000  merino  sheep.  In  1864  it  numbered  50,000  head,  which 
gave  470,496  pounds  of  wool.  Michel  Bernstein,  of  Odessa,  reports  a 
flock  consisting  of  400,000  sheex^.  The  last  shearing  produced  1,111,577 
pounds  washed,  and  sold  for  870,000  roubles,  approximately'  6558,000  in 
gold. 

EanJc  in  icool  maniifactwre. — Data  obtained  at  the  Paris  Exposition 
of  1807  appear  to  justify  the  following  classification  in  rank  of  the  lead- 
ing nations  in  card- wool  fabrics:  Ehenish  Prussia  first  for  men's  wear; 
France  first  for  women's  wear;  Austria  second  for  women's  wear;  France 
second  for  men's  wear;  Belgium  third  for  men's  and  women's  wear; 
Prussia  fourth  for  men's  and  women's  wear;  England  fifth  for  men's  and 
women's  wear;  the  United  States  sixth  for  men's  and  women's  wear; 
Eussia  seventh  for  men's  and  women's  wear.  Taken  as  a  whole,  France 
stands  at  the  head  of  all  nations  in  the  manufacture  of  wool. 

In  respect  to  products  of  card- wool  industry  generally,  practical  manu- 
facturers, tvho  have  recently  visited  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  study, 
concur  in  declaring  that  in  efficiency  of  system,  processes,  and  machinery 
for  fabrication,  the  United  States  are  on  an  equality  with  the  most 
advanced  nations. 

In  the  whole  range  of  fancy  cassimeres,  including  the  mixed  goods  of 
silk  and  wool,  in  style,  taste,  perfection  of  manufacture,  and  strength  of 
material,  the  United  States  excel  England,  and  nearly  approach  the 
manufacturers  of  France.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  whole  range  of 
flannels,  colored,  and  also  plaui,  and  of  the  Esquimaux  and  the  Moscow 
beavers,  imitated  from  the  Germans. 

The  United  States  commissioner  on  wool  and  manufactures,  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1807,  says  in  his  report:  "American  carpets  are 
fully  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  English  carpets  of  similar  gTades.  The 
American  retail  pui'chaser  is  invariably  compelled  to  pay  a  higher  price 
for  a  tbreign  carpet  of  the  same  gTade.  The  American  ingTain  carpet, 
which  is  much  more  largely  consumed,  is  xmquestionably  superior  to  the 
English." 

The  same  re})ort  states  that,  while  the  material  condition  of  the  English 
workman  is  vastly  superior  to  that  of  workmen  in  France,  Belgium, 
Prussia,  and  Austria,  it  is  freely  admitted  that  the  general  and  technical 
educatioMi  of  the  English  operative  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  v.orkmen 
of  the  nations  above  named.  The  Paris  Exposition  served  to  open  the 
eyes  of  England  to  the  startling  fact  that  she  had  been  making  but  little 
progress  in  manufacturing  and  mechanical  industry  since  1851,  compared 
with  that  made  in  many  other  Euroi)ean  countries.  The  i^esponses  of  emi- 
nent men  of  Great  Britain,  to  a  request  for  information  addressed  by  tlic 
Schools  Inquiry  Oommission  of  July  2, 1867,  as  touching  this  inferioriy  iu 


446  AGEICULTUKAL   REPORT. 

industrial  arts,  embody  the  following  facts :  That  England  has  made  Little 
progress  in  the  peaceful  arts  of  industry  since  18025  that  she  must,  at 
no  distant  diiy,  in  virtue  of  the  better  education  furnished  by  the  coDti- 
nental  nations,  find  herself  outstripped  by  them,  both  in  the  arts  of  peace 
and  ^var;  that,  notwitlistandiug  she  may  still  be  unsurpassed  in  many 
of  her  productions,  she  no  longer  holds  the  pre-eminence  accorded  to  her 
in  1851 ;  that  the  rapid  progress  being  made  by  continental  rivals  would 
daily  render  it  more  difficult  for  English  woolen  manufacturers  to  retain 
even  their  relative  position.  Furthermore,  that  the  great  want  among 
English  manuiucturers  is  a  proper  industrial  education  among  masters, 
foremen  and  woi'kmen  generally;  and  that  superior  continental  productions 
exhibit,  not  a  machine  working  a  machine,  but  brains  at  the  loom,  and 
intelligence  at  the  spinning-wheel.  The  Commissioner,  in  presenting 
these  statements,  cites  them  as  advisory  to  the  extension  in  the  United 
States  of  such  schools  as  the  Cooper  Institute,  of  Xew  York,  and  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  He  indicates,  however,  another 
cause  of  English  decline  than  that  already  mentioned,  A'iz.,  a  ruling, 
desire  for  "production  at  the  cheapest  possiblt;  rate  for  the  utmost  pos- 
sible consumption,"  causing  a  constantly  declining  standard  of  excellence, 
and  continued  depreciation  of  fabric.  He  characterizes  such  a  policy  as 
short-sighted,  and  points  out  the  false  economy  of  making  poor,  or, 
more  properly  speaking,  dishonest  fabrics. 

Manufacturing  in  the  Northicest. — At  the  exposition  of  the  woolen 
manufacturers  of  the  Northwest,  held  in  Chicago,  Hlincis,  in  August, 
1868,  it  was  stated  that  there  were,  at  that  time,  in  the  seven  States — 
Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota — 357 
woolen  mills  with  995  sets  of  machinery,  from  which  it  a])pears  that  the 
woolen  machinery  at  the  Korthwest  has  doubled  in  less  than  four  years. 

2fills  on  the  Paeijic  coast. — There  are  live  woolen  mills  in  California 
and  four  in  Oregon. 

Shoddy. — This  article  was  first  introduced  into  use  about  the  year  1813, 
at  Batley,  in  the  West  Eiding  district,  Yorkshire,  England,  and  now 
forms  one-fifth,  by  weight,  of  the  woolen  and  the  worsted  manufacture 
of  the  district,  which  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  trade  of  Great  Britain. 

FEETLLIZEES. 

Professor  Voelcker,  in  his  report  to  the  Chemical  Committee  of  the 
Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  read  December  2,  1868,  says  : 
"The  experiments  on  artificial  grasses,  on  the  whole,  are  confirmatory  of 
similar  ones  made  in  previous  years.  They  bring  out  strongly  the  bene- 
ficial effects  which  a  mixture  of  salts  of  potash  and  superphosphate  pro- 
duces on  seeds  grown  on  poor,  light,  sandy  soils,  and  show  the  inefficacy 
of  potash  for  seeds,  and,  I  may  add,  for  nearly  all  crops  on  land  in  a  high 
state  of  cultivation,  and  on  soils  containing  a  fair  proportion  of  clay." 

Coal-ashes. — Eecent  experiments  in  respect  to  the  use  of  coal-ashes  as 
a  fertilizer  are  apparently  contradictory  in  their  results.  One  cause  of 
this  is  readily  pei'ceivable,  viz.,  the  great  difference  in  the  proportion  of 
certain  chemical  elements  which  are  observable  in  these  ashes.  Some 
varieties  of  coal-ashes  for  instance  show  a  much  larger  percentage  of 
oxide  of  iron  than  do  others.  English  and  French  ex])eriments  refer  to 
the  use  of  bituminous  coal-ashes.  A  Chinese  yam  (Bioscorca  batatas,J 
planted  in  a  bed  of  anthracite  ashes,  grew  luxuriantly,  and  gave  excel- 
lent results.  •  The  bed  was  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  deep,  entirely  sep- 
arated from  common  eaith  by  boarding  under  the  bed. 

Cancerine. — At  a  mill  recently  erected  in  Goshen,  New  Jersey,  large 


CURRENT   FACTS   IN   AGRICULTURE.  447 

quantities  of  king-crabs,  or  liorse-feet,  are  prepared  for  use  as  fertilizers. 
They  are  ground  as  finely  as  possible,  put  up  in  bags,  and  sold  under  the 
name  of  canoeriue,  at  825  per  ton  at  the  works,  wbicli  manufactui^e  100 
to  2o0  tons  per  annum.  Another  mill  at  "West  Creek,  in  the  same  State, 
produces  about  the  same  quantity.  This  fertilizing  material  is  applied 
to  wheat  at  the  rate  of  800  pounds  per  acre,  which  quantity  the  State 
geologist  reports  is  fully  equal  in  value  to  400  pounds  of  guano,  costing 
818.  Compared  with  guano  at  $00  per  ton,  canccrinc  is  estimated  to 
be  worth,  for  use,  about  $39  50  per  ton. 

Marls. — During  the  year  18G8,  several  new  companies  have  been 
established  in  !New  Jersey  for  digging  and  transporting  the  marls  for 
u'hich  that  State  is  celebrated.  It  is  thought  that  the  trade  in  these 
valuable  fertihzers  will  in  18G9  be  double  vrhat  it  was  in  1867.  The 
amount  of  marl  used  in  the  State  is  estimated  at  vcrj-  near  one  million 
tons. 

FOKESTS  A2sD   TniBEE. 

The  following  abstract  is  from  a  communication  by  the  Hon.  J.  M. 
Edmonds,  late  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office,  on  the  waste 
of  forests,  their  preservation,  »S:c.  The  paper  appears  in  full  in  the 
monthly  report  of  this  Department  for  January,  1809 :  Except  in  the 
mountain  regions,  nearly  the  whole  surface,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Mississippi,  has  been  despoiled  of  its  primeval  gTOwth.  The  absolute 
waste  is  less  than  formerly,  but  the  waste  and  consumption  are  far 
greater  than  at  any  former  period.  No  considerable  effort  has  been  made 
toward  production.  *  *  *  Our  people  have  now  gone  through  and 
surrounded  the  great  primeval  timber  reserve,  and  have  abeady  entered 
on  the  margin  of  the  vast  treeless  plains  and  plateau,  with  three-fourths 
of  the  original  store  consumed,  the  demand  accelerated,  and  the  number 
of  consumers  rapidly  rising  from  38,000,000  to  50,000,000.  Look  forward 
fifty  years — oiu'  forests  will  be  exhausted,  the  demand  for  the  products 
quadrupled,  and  the  country  and  i^eople  be  suffering  for  the  protection 
v^hich  forests  would  afford. 

Maine,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  Florida  are  the  only 
States  east  of  tbe  Mississippi  which  now  export  any  appreciable  quan- 
tity of  timber  more  than  they  import,  and  the  reserve  in  these  States  is 
being  rapidly  cut  away.  *  *  *  The  mountain  and  plateau  region, 
occupying  the  interior  of  the  continent,  has  only  a  moderate  supply. 
*  *  *  No  supplies  can  be  di-awn  from  this  region  for  the  older 
States,  or  even  for  the  great  plains,  without  exhausting  a  reserve  which 
is  ak-eady  below  the  immediate  prospective  demand.  In  the  Pacific 
States  and  Territories  there  is  still  an  adequate  supply,  but  not  beyond 
the  early  prospective  wants  of  their  own  people.  The  States  bordering 
the  Mississippi  on  the  west  have  no  surplus,  and  most  of  them  are  at 
this  moment  importing  to  meet  the  demands  of  even  their  sparse  popu- 
lation. *  *  *  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana, 
Idaho,  and  Dakota  have  but  a  meager  supply,  not  sufficient  for  a  popu- 
lation as  dense  as  now  occupies  Ohio,  Indiana,  or  Illinois.  Only  the  newly 
acquired  territory  of  Alaska  remains  to  be  considered.  Very  little  is 
known  of  its  timber  resources,  but,  in  much  the  largest  portion,  it  is 
known  that  its  rigorous  climate  precludes  the  growth  of  valuable  forests, 
and  it  is  not  too  much  to  presume  that  the  timber  in  that  Territory  will 
be  insufficient  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  trade  now  opening  with  the 
great  populations  of  China  and  Japan.  Considering,  then,  the  present 
and  the  prospective  forest  products  in  this  country  in  the  light  of  their 


448  AGEICULTUKAL    REPORT. 

necessity  for  domestic  i)urposes,  and  for  the  protection  of  men,  animals, 
fruits,  and  graiu,  and  of  tbeii-  value  in  inducing-  moisture,  protecting  the 
soil,  and  tempering  the  climate,  it  is,  indeed,  important  that  every  sec- 
tion of  the  country  should  retain,  if  it  has  them,  and  if  it  does  not  have 
them,  should  immediately  engage  in  theii-  j)rodu('tion,  at  least  to  tlio 
extent  of  supplpng  local  use  iind  protection. 

Trees  as  rain  produccrn. — In  Upper  Egyiit  the  rains,  which  eighty  years 
ago  were  abimdant,  have  ceased  since  the  Arabs  cut  down  the  trees 
along  the  valley  of  the  Xile  toward  Lybia  and  Arabia.  A  contrar\ 
effect  has  been  produced  in  Lower  Egypt,  from  njc  extensive  ])lantiii', 
of  trees  by  the  Pasha.  In  Alexandria  and  Cairo,  where  rain  v/as  former]  v 
a  rarity,  it  has,  since  that  period,  become  more  frequent. 

Professor  K.  C.  Kedzie,  of  Michigan  State  AgricrJtural  College,  in  an 
address  on  "The  influence  of  forest  trees  on  agiiculture,*'  delivered  not 
long  since  before  one  of  the  county  societies  in  that  State,  gave  ii 
very  earnest  warning  agninst  the  wasteful  destruction  of  forests,  citing, 
at  the  same  time,  the  well-known  facts  of  current  history.  It  is  notice- 
able as  a  hopefid  fact,  that  prominent  agricultiu-al  societies,  in  various 
sections  of  the  country,  have  recently  been  emphatically  directing  public 
attention  to  this  matter. 

Forestry  in  India. — In  180-1  the  British  goverament  founded  an  im- 
proved general  system  of  forest  administration  for  the  whole  Indian 
empire,  ha\'ing  in  view  the  preservation  and  development  of  state 
forests.  All  superior  government  forests  are  reserved,  and  made  in- 
alienable, their  boundaries  marked,  and  forest  rules  and  penalties  defined. 
Surveys  have  been  made,  and  are  still  in  progTcss,  toward  establishing 
data  as  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  timber  resources.  Several  thou- 
sand mahogany  trees  have  been  raised  in  the  Terai.  Large  tracts  have 
been  ])lanted  to  v.ood  for  the  I)lu^JOse  of  supi)h-iug  the  railways,  which 
consume  immense  quantities  for  fuel. 

Lumber  in  Washington  Territory. — Puget  Sound,  Washington  Terri- 
tory, is  well  known  as  a  principal  source  of  the  liunber  export  of  the  Xorth 
Pacific  coast.  Besides  amounts  consumed  within  our  own  territories, 
many  cargoes  of  lumber  are  annually  shipped  from  thence  to  ])orts  in 
China,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Australia,  and  South  America.  The  fol- 
lowing statement  in  regard  to  the  resoiu'ces  of  Puget  Sound  is  on  the 
authority  of  Mr.  Jose})h  Cushman,  receiver  of  public  moneys  at  Olympia, 
sitii^ite  at  the  head  of  the  sound :  "  The  time  is  not  far  distant  Avhen  nearly 
all  the  ship-building  on  the  Pacific  coast  will  be  done  on  the  shores  of 
Puget  Sound.  From  the  Cascade  range  to  the  Pacific,  comprising  about 
one-half  of  "Washington  Territory,  the  surface  is  densely 'covered  with  the 
finest  forest  growth  in  the  world.  Some  of  the  trees,  straight  as  an 
arrow,  are  four  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  fourteen  feet  in  diameter 
near  the  ground.  Varieties  of  the  fir  predominate,  interspersed  with 
spi-uce,  hemlock,  tamarack,  white  cedar,  maj)le,  ash,  white  oak,  and,  on 
some  of  the  mountain  slopes,  white  i>ine.  The  yellow  fir  f  Abies  Dowj- 
lasiij  is  a  tree  peculiar  to  the  Xorth  Pacific  coast  from  the  forty-second 
parallel  to  Alaska,  and  is  found  only  east  of  the  Cascade  range,  north 
of  the  boundary  of  forty-nine  degTces.  This  is  the  timber  ])rincipaLly 
used  at  the  saw-mills  on  the  Sound,  and  is  both  strong  and  durable ;  in 
fact  it  is  the  strongest  timber  on  the  coast,  both  in  perpendicidar  pressure 
and  horizontal  strain.  *  *  *  The  abundance  of  timber,  coal,  water- 
power,  and  iron  ore  in  the  vicinity  of  navigable  vraters,  together  with 
fine  harbors,  large  saw-mills,  temperate  climate,  and  natural  facilities 
for  manufacturing  cordage,  all  clearly  indicate  that  the  Paget  Sound 
country  vaJJ  soon  occupy  a  proiniisont  iiosition  in  sliip-bnilding.     Exjieri- 


CUERENT   FACTS   IN   AGRICULTURE.  449 

meuts  made  by  the  French  authorities  in  the  imperiiil  dock-yard  at 
Toulon  are  cited  as  showing  that  masts  from  Yancouvers  Island,  and, 
by  similarity  of  circumstances,  those  from  Puget  Sound,  are  superior 
to  the  best  class  of  Kiga  spars. 

Lumber  in  California. — The  report  of  the  surveyor  general  of  Cali- 
fornia for  18G7  makes  exhibit  for  that  State  of  220^991,213  feet  of  lum- 
ber sawed,  and  108,007,000  shingles  made,  of  which  Mendocino  sawed 
50,000,000  feet  of  lumber  and  made  1,000,000  shingles.  The  report,  how- 
ever, is  imperfect,  on  account  of  deficiencies  in  county  returns. 

Frcmiums  for  irce  planting . — Among  the  premiiuus  for  ISGS,  oflered 
by  the  Worcester  Xorth  Agricultm-al  Society,  Massachusetts,  lU'e  three: 
$25,  $15,  and  $10,  for  the  best  plantations  of  any  kind  of  forest  trees, 
suitable  for  fuel  or  timber,  raised  fi-om  seed,  not  less  than  five  himdrecl 
in  number,  which  shaU  be  in  the  most  floiuishiug  condition  in  the  fall 
of  1S6S.  The  Plymouth  County  (Massachusetts)  Agricidtiu'al  Society 
offer  two  premiums,  $10  and  $20,  for  a  simihir  purpose;  the  trees  to  be 
over  three  years  old  in  September,  1872.  The  society  also  offer  premi- 
ums for  the  planting  and  cultivation  of  ornamental  trees  on  or  near  the 
highways  and  pubhc  squares  of  the  coimty  towns. 

Profit  of  planting. — Mr.  T.  B.  Coiu'sey,  writing  on  the  propriety  of 
growing  timber,  speaks  of  a  man  who  bought  a  poor  farm  in  Delaware, 
about  twenty  years  ago,  and  concluded  to  plant  j^ine-seed  and  chestnut 
on  one  side  of  his  farm  near  the  banks  of  a  creek,  where  his  land  was 
gulUed  by  heavy-  rains.  The  outlay  did  not  amount  to  twenty  doUars, 
and  he  now  has  hundreds  of  cords  of  wood,  and  abundance  of  logs  from 
which  to  make  boards  for  temporary  uses. 

The  government  of  Greece  is  now  spending  about  £3,570  annually  for 
the  preservation  of  forests,  and  derives  from  them  an  annual  revenue  of 
about  £13,100. 

FLOEIDA  ITEMS. 

A  committee  of  one  of  the  Florida  ''Boards  of  Trade'' remarks  in 
respect  to  Duval  county  in  that  State :  '*  Potatoes  and  cucumbers  can 
be  made  ready  for  transportation  by  the  fii'st  of  May,  and,  with  proper 
care,  tomatoes  can  be  easUy  made  ready  for  shipment  by  the  first  of 
June,  and  thus  placed  in  the  northern  markets  before  they  can  be  fur- 
nished by  the  hot-beds  of  the  larm  gardeners  of  Virginia,  Maryland, 
Delaware.  Zs'ew  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  or  Long  Island." 

An  abridged  statement  of  the  values  of  exports  from  the  port  of 
Jacksonville,  Florida,  from  January  1,  1868,  to  Jime  30,  1808 :  Foreign 
exports,  $23,919  87:  of  which  amount  $22,938  were  in  pitch-pine  lum- 
ber, the  remainder  being  chiefly  in  cypress  shingles  and  spmts  of  tur- 
pentine. Coastwise  exports,  $609,721;  in  which  are  included  cotton  to 
the  value  of  $116,192,  pitch-pine  limiber  to  the  value  of  $165,165  78, 
vegetables,  &c.,  $21,900,  oranges  $10,925. 

ILLUSTEATIYE  FACTS. 

From  a  volume  by  T.  F.  Cronise,  on  the  "Xataral  Wealth  of  Cali- 
fornia," published  in  San  Francisco  during  the  present  year,  the  followiug 
statement  is  abstracted:  The  village  of  Anaheim,  in  Los  Angeles  County, 
California,  situated  on  a  level  plain  eight  miles  from  the  sea-coast,  was 
origiuated  by  a  company  of  Germans,  acquainted  with  the  culture  of  the 
grape  in  the  ''Fatherland."  The  site  of  the  Aillage  was,  in  1857,  a 
banen,  dry,  sandy  plain.  In  the  summer  of  that  vear  the  foregoing 
29 


450  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

company  purchased  the  land,  amounting  to  1,265  acres,  at  82  per  acre. 
This  vras  divided  into  lots,  which  were  fenced  with  willows,  sycamores, 
and  x>oplars.  A  large  proportion  of  the  area  was  planted  with  vines. 
A  ditch,  seven  miles  in  length,  was  cut  to  bring  water  from  the  Santa 
Ana  Eiver.  The  land  was  cultivated  for  tvro  years,  at  the  expense  of 
the  company,  by  hired  labor.  At  the  end  of  that  time  the  lots  were 
distributed  to  the  shareholders.  After  all  the  expenses  were  paid,  each 
share  of  twentA*  acres  fenced,  partly  planted  in  vines  two  years  old, 
together  with  a  building  lot  one  hundied  by  two  hundred  feet^  situated 
in  the  center  of  the  village  and  appertaining  to  the  share,  cost  $1,400. 
There  are.  at  the  present  time,  near  1.000,000  vines  growing  in  the 
village,  of  which  about  750.000  l>ear  fruit.  There  are  also  10.000  ii-uit 
trees  of  various  kinds.  The  whole  place  resembles  a  forest  and  flower 
garden,  divided  into  squares  with  fences  of  willow,  poplar,  and  sycamore, 
which  shelter  the  \ines  from  every  wind. 

In  striking  contrast  with  the  prosperitj*  of  Anaheim  is  exhibited  the 
condition  of  the  town  of  San  Juan  Capistrano,  situated  about  thirtj* 
miles  distant  from  the  preceding  village,  on  the  main  road  between  Los 
Angeles  and  San  Diego.  The  vaUey  in  which  the  town  of  San  Juan 
Capistrano  is  placed  is  about  nine  miles  in  length,  and  nesirly  a  mile 
wide.  The  San  Juan,  a  never-failing  stream,  passes  through  its  entire 
length,  furnishing  an  abundant  supply  of  water.  The  soil  Is  rich,  but 
almost  whoUy  uncultivated.  The  population  of  the  town  nimibers 
about  six  hundred,  of  whom  four  hundred  are  Mexicans  and  native 
Califomians.  and  about  two  hundred  Indians.  There  are  not  more  than 
half  a  dozen  .Americans  or  Europeans  in  the  place,  but  these  are  gen- 
erally thrifty  and  prosperoiLS.  This  is  the  most  thoroughly  Mexican 
town  in  the  State.  *  *  The  only  apparent  employment  of  the  men  is 
horse-racing  or  practicing  with  the  reata.  The  women  are  rarely  seen, 
except  at  the  fandango  or  church.  The  children  literally  swarm  in  the 
streets,  and  are  of  all  hues  except  that  of  the  Idy;  they  wear  little  or 
no  clothing. 

Until  alwut  1833  the  agriculture  of  North  Germany  was  in  a  decidedly 
backward  state.  But  since  that  time  a  very  great  advance  has  taken 
place.  The  amount  of  live  stock  has  enormously  increased,  and  the 
soil  has  grown  more  productive.  M.  de  Laveleye,  in  an  article  in  the 
Heme  des  Dexur  Mondejs.  speaking  on  these  points,  sho^s  that,  reducing 
the  live  stock  to  equivalents  of  homed  cattle,  in  1865  Prussia  had  lOO 
head  for  every  138  of  the  population;  France,  only  100  for  every  185  of 
the  population.  Forty  years  ago,  these  proportions  were  reversed.  JI. 
de  Laveleye  states  as  the  chief  causes  of  this  great  advance,  first,  the 
complete  extension  of  general  education  throughout  the  rural  districts 
of  Prussian  Germany ;  second,  the  wide  spread  difFasion  of  technical 
agricultural  instruction.  Prussia  maintains  four  Eoyal  Agricultural 
Societies,  and  nineteen  provincial  schools  of  agriculture,  subsidized  by 
the  state.  There  are  also  numerous  special  schools  for  instruction  in 
particular  branches,  such  as  market-gardpning,  &c.  The  system  of 
paid  instruction  is  completed  by  the  curious  institution  of  itinerating 
teachers,  who  travel  from  village  to  village,  criticising  '^he  cultiva- 
tion, and  giving  advice  about  rotation  of  crops,  and  the  most  suitable 
kinds  of  manure.  Institutions  of  organic  and  agricultural  chemistrj- 
are  also  maintained  by  the  state.  There  are.  besides  these,  more  than 
five  hundred  voluntary  agricultural  associations  contributing  to  the 
general  advancement  by  conferences,  exhibitions,  and  prizes. 

The  actual  territory  of  the  Papal  states  includes  an  area  of  4,247 
English  square  miles.    This  area,  now  so  impoverished  by  long  ages  of 


CUEEENT   FACTS   IN   AC^RICULTUKE.  451 

desolation  and  Tvasteful  exliaiistiou,  was  in  ancient  times  especially 
celebrated  for  its  mineral  wealth  and  productive  soil.  The  elaborate 
memoir  of  Signor  David  Silvapii,  of  Rome,  pieseuted  at  the  sixth 
session  of  the  International  Statistical  Congress,  at  Florence,  shows 
that  the  industry  of  the  country  has  made  very  little  progTCSS  dui'ing 
the  last  half  centiuy.  The  woolen,  cotton,  and  silk  manufactures, 
remain  in  the  same  state  as  in  1826.  Agriculture  languishes.  Xo 
improvement  takes  place  in  methods  of  cidtivatiou.  The  exports  are 
insignificant  when  compared  "with  the  imports.  The  latter  are  valued  at 
38,000.000  francs;  the  former  at  less  than  9,000,000  francs.  Says  the 
memorialist :  '•  Our  only  export  of  importance  is  that  of  objects  of  the 
fine  arts,  which  increases  yearly ;  but  the  fine  arts  have  gained  nothing  by 
becoming  a  branch  of  trade.  Eoman  art  is  reduced  to  a  mean  condition 
of  mere  mechanical  labor,  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  distinguished 
artists."  And  he  adds  that  this  country,  capable  of  being  transformed 
into  a  garden,  and  which  might  be  the  richest  in  the  world,  would  see 
its  popidation  die  of  hunger,  were  it  not  for  the  visits  of  multitudes  of 
travelers,  and  for  the  pOgiimages  of  fervent  Catholics  who  resort  there 
to  receive  the  benediction  of  the  Pope. 

The  State  geologist  of  !N^ew  Jersey,  in  his  report  for  1868,  after  speak- 
ing of  the  considerable  increase  of  po])ulation  since  ISGO.  taking  the  State 
as  a  whole,  says :  "'It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that,  in  the  older 
settled  counties,  there  is  a  rapid  increase  in  taxable  property  and  in  the 
value  of  agricultural  products,  and  not  much  increase  in  ])opulation. 
This  is  undoubtetUy  due  to  the  improvements  in  management,  to 
the  use  of  fertilizers  in  larger  (juautity.  and  to  the  introduction  of  labor- 
saving  implements.  Farms  without  number  can  be  shown  which  pro- 
duce ti'om  two  to  foiu'  times  as  much  as  formerly,  and  on  which  there  is 
no  increase  in  the  amount  of  labor  employed.*' 

A  Sacramento  paper  states  that  in  the  counties  of  Santa  Clara,  Xapa, 
and  Solano,  comprising  the  oldest  wheat-raiMog  distiicts  of  California, 
the  average  yield  of  this  crop  has  declined  fi-om  thirty-five  bushels  per 
acre,  as  in  the  early  years  of  wheat  culture,  to  eighteen  bushels  per  acre, 
at  the  present  time. 

Mr,  Latham,  the  English  ci\il  engineer,  states  that  since  the  con- 
struction of  sanitary  v.orks,  as  sewerage,  &c.,  at  Croydon,  England,  the 
average  mortality  of  the  town  has  decreased  twenty-two  per  cent. ;  and 
exhibits  figures  as  proving  that  the  town  has,  in  the  space  of  thirteen 
years,  received,  in  consequence  of  the  construction,  a  pecuniary  benefit 
amounting  to  an  excess  of  tAventy-five  per  cent,  over  the  total  expendi- 
ture incurred  upon  the  works. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

On  one  of  the  islands  within  the  limits  of  St.  Mary's  Parish.  Louisiana, 
Petit  Anse  or  Salt  Island,  there  exists  an  immense  bed  of  salt.  By 
boring,  parties  have  proved  that  the  bed  is  half  a  mile  square,  and  it 
may  extend  a  mile  or  more.  They  have  gone  thiity-eight  feet  into  the 
solid  salt,  and  find  no  signs  of  the  bottom  of  the  stl'at^un.  The  surface 
of  the  salt  is  on  a  level,with  the  surface  of  the  Gidf  water,  and  is  covered 
by  earth  to  the  depth  of  thirty  feet. 

The  president  of  the  Oregon  State  Agricultural  Society,  in  his  address 
before  the  society  in  September,  1868,  says,  speaking  with  special  refer- 
ence to  wheat  culture,  that  during  the  careful  observation  of  almost  ten 
years'  residence,  "  not  in  one  instance  have  I  known  a  failure  in  any 
crops  in  Oregon  where  the  crop  has  been  well  prepared,  judiciously 


452  AGRICULTURAIi   REPORT. 

planted  or  sowu,  and  properly  cared  for.  And  iu  many  instances  I 
have  seen  fields  of  wheat  in  Oregon  that,  for  quality  and  quantity,  far 
surpassed  an;\-  crops  I  ever  knew  raised  in  Northern  Wisconsin  or  on 
the  fertile  fields  of  the  Genesee  Valley.  Oregon  is  pre-eminently  a  grain- 
growing  State,  and  for  the  sure  production  of  wheat  is  not  suri^assed 
%  any  country  inhabited  by  civihzed  man." 

San  Francisco  receipts  and  exports  of  the  articles  named  for  the  year 
ending  December  31,  1808,  were  as  follows : 


Wheat,  lOO-pound  sacks. 

Floixr,  bills 

Bailey.  lOO-poiiml  sncks. 
Oats,  lOO-pound  sacks... 


Keceipta. 


5,  728, 652 
308, 27G 
657,887 
232,285 


Eii>orts. 


4,099,115 

461,  808 

78.  422 

6,479 


In  the  year  ending  Jidy  1,  1863,  the  exports  of  wheat  and  flour  were: 
flour,  144,883  barrels;  wheat,  1,043,05:^  sacks. 

The  report  of  J.  Eoss  Browne  on  the  mineral  resources  of  States  and 
Territories  west  of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  says  that  "  Camus,  as  an  ar- 
ticle of  food  for  the  Indians,  is  probably  the  most  important  of  aU  the 
wild  plants,  and  is  abundant  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  Pacific 
coast.  It  is  a  bulbous  root,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and 
gTOws  in  low,  swampy  lands,  ha^'ing  a  sweet,  gummy  taste,  and  is  very 
nutritious.  Besides  using  it  largely  when  fi"esh,  the  Indians  boil  and 
afterward  dry  it,  so  as  to  preserve  it  for  years.  If  cultivated,  it  might 
become  a  valuable  culinary  vegetable."'  The  plant  is  otherwise  kno-wu 
as  the  eastern  quamash,  or  wild  hyacinth,  and  in  botanical  nomenclature 
is  Scilla  Fraseri. 

In  England,  as  well  as  in  this  country,  the  adulteration  of  seeds,  espe- 
cially the  mixiug  of  old  with  new,  is  carried  on  to  a  very  great  and 
injurious  extent.  In  France  any  one  guilty  of  the  adulteration  of  agri- 
cultui'al  seeds  is  liable  to  punishment  as  a  criminal. 

In  respect  to  the  eflects  of  stormy  autumn  weather  on  cattle  fattening 
for  market,  Mr.  McCombie,  the  celebrated  Aberdeenshire  cattle-feeder, 
states  that  he  Las  found  a  diflerence  of  £5  per  head  between  cattle  put 
up  on  the  first  of  September  and  others  put  up  exactly  a  month  later, 
although  the  ;inimals  originally  formed  one  lot  equal  in  all  respects,  and 
those  left  out  were  kept  ''  on  fine  laud  and  beautifid  gTass."' 

An  ox  slaughtered  near  London  weighed,  when  alive,  2,588  pounds ; 
slaughtered  and  dressed,  1,003  pounds.  As  it  was  sold  at  one  shilling 
per  pound,  the  amount  realized  was  about  8490.  The  ox  was  bred  by 
Mr.  McCombie. 

In  India,  the  use  of  American  cotton-seed  for  jilanting  is  gaining 
increased  favor.  The  Bombay  authorities  report  that  the  is'ew  Orleans 
variety  is  much  more  productive  than  the  Liidia  cotton. 

The  secretary  of  the  Michigan  State  Board  of  Agricidture,  in  referring 
to  the  gTcat  damage  done  by  the  midge  to  the  wheat  crop  of  1867  in 
that  State,  indicates  the  probability  that  millions  of  dollars  might  have 
been  saved  to  the  farmers  had  the  Treadwell  and  the  Diehl  variety  of 
wheat  been  so^ni  instead  of  the  Soide. 

The  number  of  mulberry  trees  iu  California,  in  1868,  is  imofiicially  esti- 
mated at  about  1,175,000,  of  which  425,000  are  allotted  to  Sacramento 
County.  There  appears  to  have  been  a  very  rapid  increase  of  the  number 
of  trees  in  the  State  since  the  previous  year,  only  350,053  having  then  been 
reported  by  the  assessors  for  the  entire  State.  The  sale  of  silk-worm 
eggs  promises  to  become  a  large  business  for  Caliibrnia. 


CURRENT   FACTS    IX    AGRICULTURE. 


453 


The  "  Canada  Farmer "  mentions  a  horse  owned  by  M.  Yoder,  of 
Springfield,  Ontario,  which  is  believed  to  be  over  thirty  years  old,  and  is 
still  fat.  plump,  and  handsome.  The  same  jom-nal  suggests  that  prizes 
should  be  given  at  agiieultural  fairs  for  the  best  old  horses,  as  only  a 
good,  kind  horseman  can  show  an  active  old  horse. 

It  has  until  recently  been  a  generally  accepted  doctrine  among  ento- 
mologftts,  that  the  females  of  the  Cicada  scptemdcclm  never  deposit  their 
eggs  in  evergi'eens.  But  E.  H.  Warder  has  recently  proved  by  actual 
exhibition  that  they  do  deposit  in  three  of  our  most  common  evergreens. 
Thvja  occidentalis,  Junipcrus  Yirginiana,  nnd  Ahies  Canadensis. 

In  Hudson  County,  Xew  Jersey,  a  rent  of  8100  per  acre  has  been 
paid  for  land  for  market  gardening. 

The  subjoined  table  indicates  the  variations  in  the  value  of  hops,  in 
Xew  Yoi'k,  during  a  course  of  nine  years.  First,  is  presented  the  cui'- 
rency  value  of  gold  in  January  of  each  year  from  1801  to  1SG9  inclusive; 
second,  the  wholesale  currency  price  of  hops  per  j^ound ;  third,  the 
wholesale  price  converted  into  gold  rates : 


Xew  York. 

ISCl.  1S62. 

1S63. 

1864. 

I860. ;  1S66. 

i 

1867. 

1868. 

1869. 

Tar.    Par.  133J 
25    20    2:1 

25  '   20  '   17 

152 
Xi 

227  144i 
50  1   60 
00  '   40 

133 

4o 

133i 
60 
45 

1351 
SO 

15 

Mr.  J.  J.  ^lechi.  the  English  agTiculturist,  keeps  three  hundred  head 
of  poultry,  which  have  free  access  to  the  fields  near  the  homestead.  He 
says :  "  Poultry  are  the  farmers'  best  friends,  consuming  no  end  of  insects, 
and  utilizing  and  economizing  all  waste  gTain.  It  costs  no  more  to  pro- 
duce one  pound  of  poultry  than  one  pound  of  beef.*' 

Mr.  George  Manning,  in  his  statements  before  the  food  committee  of 
the  Society  of  Arts  (England.)  gave  the  following,  among  other  reasons, 
accounting  for  the  frequent  failures  to  make  poultry-keeping  profitable: 
want  of  attention  to  choice  and  management  of  stock,  irregular  and 
wasteful  administration  of  food,  want  of  attention  to  the  roosting,  and 
particularly  to  the  laying-place  of  hens.  He  also  remarks :  '•  Our  system 
of  leaving  chickens  to  shift  for  themselves  until  such  time  as  they  are 
ready  or  wanted  for  the  coop  is  all  wrong.  Xo  attempt  at  after-fatten- 
ing will  increase  the  frame,  if  the  feeding  of  infancy  has  been  neglected.^ 
Chickens  and  weaker  birds  should  not  be  suffered  to  starve  while  the 
powerful  are  gorged. 


THE  PUBLIC  DOMAIN, 


The  public  domain  of  the  United  States  has  embraced  an  area  amount- 
ing in  the  aggregate  to  1,440,710,072  acres,  exclusive  of  the  recent  pur- 
chases from  Eussia.  estimated  to  contain  309,520,000  acres.  The  lands 
constitutujg  this  domain  Tvere  acquii'ed  by  treaties  "^th  foreign  powers 
and  by  grants  from  several  of  the  original  thirteen  States.  Out  of  this 
vast  estate,  from  time  to  time,  powerfiil  States  and  flourishing  Territories 
have  been  created. 

In  some  of  the  acquired  tenitories  large  private  claims  have  been  con- 
firmed to  parties  holding  under  other  governments  at  the  time  of  cession ; 
the  aggregate  amount  of  such  claims  segi^egated  from  the  public  domain, 
dowTD  to  June  30. 1S08,  being  10,943,458.51  acres.  Up  to  the  same  date, 
105,001,359  acres  have  been  disposed  of  to  purchasers  and  homestead 
settlers ;  00,027.142.03  acres  have  been  granted  for  military  services ; 
6,300,475.91  to  found  agricultural  colleges;  38,515,005.32  to  promote 
the  construction  of  wagon  roads  and  raib'oads,  and  for  other  internal 
improvements ;  09,000,802  to  aid  schools  and  universities :  47,423.950.02 
approved  to  States  as  swam])  lands ;  13,280,099.94  reserved  for  the  ben- 
efit of  Indians ;  and  12,400.707.23  acres  for  all  other  purposes,  including 
lands  located  by  Indian  and  other  scrip,  salines,  for  government  build- 
ings, grants  and  reservations  for  iudi\iduals  and  cori^orations. 

Notwithstanding  these  munificent  donations,  and  the  giving  away  and 
disposiil  at  merely  nominal  rates  of  so  great  an  area  to  actual  settlers, 
there  remained,  on  the  30th  of  June.  1808,  1.405,300,078  acres,  equal  to 
eighteen  times  the  area  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  or  the  whole  of 
Eussia  in  Europe  and  Germany  proper.  Of  the  1,834,998,400  acres  ac- 
quired by  the  government  at  diftereut  times,  and  known  as  the  jJubUc 
domain,  there  have  been  sm-veyed  a  total  of  400,884,754  acres,  lea\'ing 
unsurveyed  1.338,113,040  acres.  Of  suiweyed  lands  stdl  belonging  to 
the  government  and  subject  to  pre-emption  and  homestead  entry,  there 
is  an  aggi-egate  of  07,253,032  acres.  The  disposal  of  public  lands  by 
cash  sales,  pre-emption,  homestead  entries,  location  of  military  warrants, 
college  scrip,  selections  in  aid  of  the  reclamation  of  inundated  lands, 
&c.,  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1808,  amounted  to  0.053,742 
acres,  of  which  more  than  2,500,000  acres  were  taken  up  under  the  pre- 
emption and  homestead  laws ;  that  is,  by  bona  fide  settlers,  who  have 
thus  opened  up  within  one  year  more  than  20,000  new  and  productive 
farms.  Of  the  quantity  entered  as  stated,  520,077  acres  were  taken  in 
the  southern  States  under  the  homestead  act  of  June  21,  1800,  and  the 
residue  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  States  and  Territories  of  the 
Pacific  slope.  In  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  there  are  only  a  few  isolated 
tracts  undisposed  of.  In  the  States  of  Arkansas,  Alabama,  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  and  Florida,  under  the  act  of  Congress  approved  June  21, 
1866,  no  public  lands  can  be  entered  except  for  actual  settlement  and 
cultivation  as  homesteads. 

Surveyed  lands  in  considerable  quantities  may  still  be  had  in  Mich- 
igan. Missouri,  AVisconsin,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska.  Minnesota,  Cali- 
fornia, Oregon,  and  Washington  Territory.  The  first  public  sale  of  lands 
in  Colorado  was  made  in  September  of  the  current  year  by  proclamation 


THE   PUBLIC   DOilAIK.  455 

of  tlie  President,  about  one  limicked  townsliips  being  thus  brouglit  into 
market.  In  the  Territories  of  Xew  Mexico,  Dakota,  Idaho,  Montana, 
Arizona,  and  Utah,  district  offices  have  been  organized  and  siu'veys  are 
being  prosecuted,  but  no  government  lands  iu  any  of  them  have  been 
offered  at  public  sale.  Settlements  have  thus  far  been  made  under  the 
provisions  of  the  pre-emption  and  homestead  acts. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  fields  as  rich  and  inviting  as  any  the  govern- 
ment has  disposed  of  still  await  the  settler,  literally  without  price. 
MiUions  of  acres  heretofore  little  in  demand  on  account  of  remoteness 
from  market  centers,  are  being  made  valuable  and  desirable  by  prox- 
imity to  lines  of  railway.  The  Pacific  railways,  complete  and  projected, 
promise  a  rapid  development  of  our  more  distant  territory,  and  the  cre- 
ation of  a  demand  for  the  public  lands,  which  wiU,  within  a  few  years, 
absorb  the  most  desii-able  for  agTicultural  and  herding  puri)oses.  The 
time  to  secure  the  best  lands  is  obviously  now. 

That  great  enter[irise  of  the  age,  the  Pacific  railroad,  connecting  the 
two  oceans,  was  completed  in  May  of  the  present  year,  and  traverses 
three  of  the  public  land  States  and  thi'ee  Territories — Xebraska,  Xevada 
and  California,  Wyoming,  Montana  and  Utah.  The  eastern  division  of 
the  road,  starting  from  Kansas  City,  iu  Missoim,  is  fast  approaching  Den- 
ver, passing  through  the  center  of  Kansas,  and  to  the  heart  of  Colorado. 
A  detiection  of  this  road  in  a  southwesterly  direction  to  the  Pacific  is 
proposed,  which  will  pass  through  southeastern  Colorado,  and  span  the 
richest  portions  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  southern  California.  A 
com])any  has  been  incorporated  for  the  purpose  of  constructiug  a  North- 
ern Pacific  railroad,  which,  starting  from  the  head  of  Lake  Superior, 
is  designed  to  pass  through  Minnesota.  Dakota,  Idaho,  and  Washington, 
and  terminate  at  a  point  on  Puget's  Sound,  in  Oregon.  It  is  claimed  by  the 
projectors  of  this  route  that  it  possesses  veiy  important  advantages  over 
routes  further  south :  that  it  is  the  shortest  and  most  central  Une,  cross- 
ing the  continent  at  a  point  where  the  waters  of  the  great  lakes  approach 
neaj^est  the  Pacific ;  that  it  is  the  best  practicable  route,  the  mountain 
ranges  being  here  most  depressed.  It  is  fm-thermore  stated  that  there 
are  no  deserts  along  this  line,  which  traverses  everywhere  ti'acts  of 
great  agricultural  and  mineral  wealth.  The  climate  of  this  region  is  of 
a  mildness  far  beyond  what  might  be  expected  in  such  a  latitude,  as  is 
shown  in  the  gTeat  northern  deflection  of  isothermals.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  local  business  of  this  route  will  support  each  successive  section 
as  it  is  placed  in  running  order.  With  all  these  advantages,  the  state- 
ment of  which  does  not  seem  to  be  controverted,  it  has  been  found 
hitherto  impracticable  to  enlist  the  capital  essential  to  its  prosecution. 
In  this  exigency  Congress  has  been  asked  for  a  loan  of  its  credit  on 
terms  similar  to  those  accorded  to  the  Union  Pacific  railroad.  We  may 
reasonably  expect  that  the  rapid  development  of  the  industrial  and 
commercial  value  of  the  routes  contemplated  by  the  Northern  Pacific 
railway,  and  the  Union  Pacific,  eastern  division,  will  cause  their  construc- 
tion in  any  event. 

The  public  domain  extends  over  twenty-three  degrees  of  latitude  and 
forty-five  degi'ces  of  longitude,  comprising  large  tracts  of  arable  land, 
and  embracing  every  variety  of  soil  and  climate  afforded  by  the  conti- 
nent. The  stock-raiser,  the  dairyman,  the  grower  of  cereals  or  of  fniits, 
and  the  gardener  may  choose  in  these  proffered  fields  a  climate  and 
soil  adapted  to  the  most  successful  prosecution  of  their  respective  hus- 
bandries. 

The  following  brief  references  to  States  and  Territories  in  which  the 
largest  amounts  of  public  lands  are  situated  may  be  of  serN'ice  to  those 


456  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

^rho  coutemplate  taking  up  lands  under  the  homestead  or  pre-emption 
laws.  Our  purpose  being  to  speak  particularly  of  tlie  agricaltural  and 
pastoral  advantages  of  the  respective  public  land  States  and  Territories, 
no  especial  note  is  made  of  mineral  resources.  For  mucb  valuable  infor- 
mation on  these  subjects  we  are  indebted  to  late  reports  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  the  General  Land  OflSce. 


Missoinii. 

There  are  remaining  unsold  in  this  State  about  one  million  and  a  half 
acres  of  public  lands.  These  are  located  for  the  most  part  in  the  western 
and  southwestern  parts  of  the  State — the  larger  portion  in  the  latter. 
In  a  State  so  long  settled  as  Missouri  has  been,  and,  by  reason  of  its 
climate,  soil  and  giTat  mineral  wealth,  holding  out  the  highest  induce- 
ments for  occupancy,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  choice  and  most  desi- 
rable of  the  public  lands  have  been  taken  up.  Nevertheless,  in  the 
large  tracts  still  undisposed  of,  very  good  farming  lands  may  be  found. 
The  new  system  of  labor  which  has  obtained  in  the  State  since  the  close 
of  the  war  of  the  rebellion  has  tended  to  develoi?  its  great  natural  re- 
sources, and  induce  a  large  immigration  to  its  open  fields.  Dui^ing  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30.  1S6S.  as  shown  by  the  Keport  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  the  General  Laud  Office,  over  300,000  acres  were  located 
under  the  difi^'erent  acts  of  Congress.  The  warm  and  genial  climate  of 
Missoui'i  is  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  fruits,  corn,  tobacco,  and 
hemp.  In  the  production  of  the  latter  staple  the  State  has  yielded  only 
to  Kentucky  among  the  States  of  the  L'nion.  ^Missouri  is  well  watered, 
and  affords  a  great  diversity  of  surface — mountain,  valley,  prairie,  for- 
est and  low-laud,  Nearly  every  part  of  the  State  furnishes  excellent 
water-powers,  Conl  is  abundant,  the  State  Board  of  Geological  Survey 
estimating  the  workable  coal  area  at  26,SS7  square  miles,  exclusive  of 
outlying  and  local  deposits — equal  to  an  annual  supply  of  1.000,000  tons 
for  at  least  thirteen  hundred  years  to  come, 

wiscoxsm. 

The  principal  pait  of  the  unsold  government  lauds  in  Wisconsin  are 
situated  in  the  northern  jiortiou  of  the  State,  and  are  more  especially 
important  on  account  of  theu'  timber,  which  has  become  a  valuable  ele- 
ment of  public  wealth.  In  tbe  laud  districts  of  Eau  Claire  and  Bayfield, 
however,  good  agricitltiu^al  lands  may  be  entered.  A  large  portion  of 
the  soil  in  the  region  of  the  unsold  lands  is  not  generally  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  agricultm-e,  being  wet  and  marshy,  or  a  dry  drift  sand. 
Some  localities  around  the  margins  of  lakes  or  along  the  hill-sides  are 
well  suited  to  stock-raising.  Good  government  lands  may  be  tbimd 
in  the  vicinity  of  some  of  the  smaller  lakes,  of  which  there  may  be 
said  to  be  hundreds  in  the  State,  varying  from  one  acre  to  several 
square  miles  in  extent.  These  lakes  frequently  form  chains  linked 
together  by  inlets,  and  abound  in  a  variety  of  fish.  The  climate  of  the 
northern  portion  of  the  State  is  cold,  yet  equable,  the  average  tempera- 
tiu-e  on  the  Lake  ^Michigan  shore  being  Gp  Fahrenheit  higher  than  on 
the  ]Misissippi  Kiver,  The  number  of  acres  undisposed  of  in  Yv'isconsin 
is  0,258,027. 

MICHIGrAN. 

The  State  of  Michigan  is  divided  into  two  peninsulas  by  the  Straits 


THE   PUBLIC   DOMAIN.  457 

of  Mackinaw,  whicli  unite  Lakes  MicMgan  and  Huron.  The  north- 
ern peninsula  jircsents  a  rugged  surface ;  the  climate  is  rigorous,  and 
the  soil,  for  the  most  part,  not  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  agriculture. 
The  central  portion  of  this  peninsula  is  rolling  table  land,  well  timbered. 
The  southern  peninsula  is  remarkable  for  its  fertility.  The  surface  is 
generally  level  and  elevated,  rising  gradually  from  the  lakes  to  a  i^lain 
in  the  interior,  which  is  well  wooded.  The  climate  of  southern  Michigan 
is  milder  than  the  same  parallel  in  the  eastern  States.  That  part  of 
the  southern  peninsula  known  as  the  "Grand  Traverse  Country"  is 
attracting  the  attention  of  actual  settlers  and  parties  speculating  in 
lands.  In  this  district  the  ^Lichigau  State  Agricultural  College  has 
located  over  100,000  acres.  The  climate  and  soil  are  favorable  to  the 
growing  of  peaches,  pears,  gTai^es,  and  other  fruits.  Wheat  of  the  best 
quality,  comparing  favorably  with  any  raised  in  other  parts  of  the 
State,  is  successfully  cultivated.  Its  sheep-walks  are  highly  spoken  of. 
The  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  AgTiculture  says  concerning  the 
timber  of  this  region:  '•  The  iDre  vailing  growth  over  a  large  jjortion  of 
the  country,  embracing  the  best  soil  for  cultivation,  is  the  sugar  maple. 
Having  considerable  acquaintance  with  this  species  of  tree,  from  the 
Penobscot  to  the  Potomac  and  Ohio,  the  writer  can  safely  say  that  he 
never  saw  such  grand  specimens  as  are  to  be  met  with  in  countless 
numbers  in  the  Grand  Traverse  Country.  They  are  frequently  fotmd  of 
a  height  of  sixty  to  seventy  feet,  without  a  limb,  of  a  diameter  of  three 
feet  or  more  at  the  gTOund,  and  very  straight.  Of  course,  such  large 
ti-ees  cannot  stand  as  closely  together  as  smaller  ones ;  they  hold  pos- 
session of  the  gTOimd,  however,  which  is  in  many  cases  free  from  under- 
growth, so  that  the  forest  presents  the  appearance  of  an  artificial  plan- 
tation or  park,  through  which  people  on  horseback  may  readily  pass  in 
any  direction."  Of  government  lands  undisposed  of  in  the  State  there 
are  4,014,008  acres. 

mixnt:sota. 

In  this  flourishing  State  35,534,000  acres  are  open  to  settlement,  of 
which  13,510,575  acres  have  been  surveyed.  The  surface  of  the  State  is 
diversified  by  undulating  prairie,  belts  of  timber,  "  oak  openings,"  lakes 
in  great  number,  and  nmnerous  streams.  In  the  northern  and  western 
parts  of  the  State  what  are  known  as  the  Highlands  constitute  an  ex- 
ception to  the  general  evenness  of  surface.  This  district,  10.000  square 
miles  in  extent,  occupies  an  elevation  of  about  450  feet  above  the  gen- 
eral level  of  the  country,  and  is  covered  with  a  dense  forest  gTowth,  for 
which  it  is  chiefly  valuable.  Eed  Eiver  Valley,  covering  an  area  of 
18,000  square  miles,  with  its  rich  alluvial  soil,  produces  immense  grain 
crops.  This  district  is  sparsely  timbered,  and  has  few  lakes  or  streams. 
The  Mississippi  Valley,  embraced  within  the  limits  of  the  State,  is 
nowhere  surpassed  in  fertility.  A  rolling  prau'ie  predominates,  which 
is  well  drained  by  the  lakes  and  streams  that  form  a  network  in  this 
favored  regiAi.  Groves  and  belts  of  timber  are  numerous.  Minnesota 
is  justly  celebrated  for  a  superior  quality  and  abundant  yield  of  wheat. 
On  account  of  its  high  latittide  the  winters  are  somewhat  severe,  but 
less  changeable  in  temperatiu-e  than  the  lower  latitudes.  Superior  ad- 
vantages are  claimed  for  Minnesota  as  a  stock-growing  State.  Xearly 
the  entire  upper  half,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  southwestern 
section  of  the  State  have  not  yet  been  stu-veyed  by  the  government. 
Within  the  State  there  are  35,534,000  acres  of  public  lands  subject  to 
pre-emption  and  homestead  entry. 


458  AGRICULTURAL  REPORT 

IOWA. 

The  biilk  of  tlie  public  lauds  in  Iowa,  still  subject  to  sale  aud  homestead 
entry,  are  located  in  what  is  known  as  the  Sioux  City  land  district,  em- 
braclDg  the  counties  of  Sioux,  Lyon,  Osceola,  O'Brien,  Cherokee,  Ida, 
Sac,  Buena  Vista,  Clay,  Dickenson,  Woodbury,  Plymouth,  and  the  west- 
ern parts  of  Emmet,  Palo  Alto,  Pocahontas,  aud  Calhoun.  In  most  ol 
these,  public  lands  are  to  be  had,  amounting,  in  the  aggregate,  to  over 
1,500,000  acres.  This  section  of  the  State  is  sup])lied  abundantly  with 
running  streams,  many  of  which  furnish  admirable  water-powers.  In 
several  of  the  counties  named  there  are  beautiful  lakes,  varying  in  size 
and  depth — Spirit  Lake,  in  Dickenson  County,  being  the  largest.  Springs 
are  common,  aud  in  their  absence  pure  water  may  be  obtaiued  at  almost 
any  point  by  siidcing  wells  ten  to  twenty  feet  in  depth.  The  surface  is 
undulating  prairie,  generally  well  drained.  Hon.  A.  Iv.  Fulton,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislatiue  of  Iowa,  who  recently  made  a  personal  inspection 
of  the  lands  of  this  district,  says  the  upland  prairies  are  more  rolling 
than  the  valleys,  and  have  in  some  places  the  appearance  of  waves  or 
billows  of  the  sea,  especially  in  the  summer  season,  when  their  green 
covering  of  grass  is  touched  by  the  gentle  winds  that  pass  over  them. 
The  soil  is  somewhat  different  from  that  in  the  valleys,  but  is  rich,  aud 
well  adapted  to  the  raising  of  wheat.  The  vaUey  land  is  nearly  all 
above  high-water  mark,  and,  although  apparently  nearly  level,  is  dry, 
and  susceptible  of  easy  cultivation.  The  soil  is  a  deep  loam,  with  an 
admixture  of  sand,  which  has  the  efiect  of  making  it  retentive  of  moist- 
ure, while  it  seldom  remains  for  any  length  of  time  so  wet  as  to  prevent 
farming  operations.  The  Missoui'i  River  bottom  is  from  ten  to  twenty 
miles  wide  ;  the  valleys  of  the  Big  Sioux,  Little  Sioux,  Floyd  Eiver,  and 
their  several  tributaries,  vary  from  a  half  to  two  miles  in  -^idth.  The 
bottom  lauds  are  especially  adapted  to  corn  and  vegetables,  while 
wheat,  oats,  aud  rye  will  tloimsh  alike  on  both  the  upland  and  bottom 
prairies.  Timber  is  found  in  greater  or  less  abundance  on  the  margins 
of  streams.  The  climate  of  this  portion  of  Iowa  is  conceded  to  be 
healthful ;  the  atmosi)here,  while  it  is  somewhat  severe  in  winter,  with 
high  winds,  being  clear,  piu^e,  and  dry. 

The  rai)id  development  of  the  raih'oad  system  in  the  State,  crossing 
over  the  public  lands,  is  opening  up  increasingly  large  tracts  to  settle- 
ment. In  no  other  State  are  lands  being  taken  up  more  rapidly.  The 
Iowa  Falls  and  Sioux  City  railroad,  whose  route  traverses  from  east  to 
west  valuable  portions  of  the  public  area  within  the  Sioux  City  and 
Fort  Dodge  districts,  will  be  completed,  it;  is  believed,  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  187  L  The  St.  Paid  and  Pacilic  railroad,  to  which  a 
muniticent  grant  of  lands  was  given  by  Congress,  is  now  in  process  of 
construction,  and  will  connect,  when  completed,  the  northwestern  couu- 
ties  of  Iowa  with  the  limiber  regions  of  Minnesota. 

KANSAS. 

Over  forty-two  and  a  half  million  acres  of  land  are  subject  to  sale  and 
entry  in  this  young  and  growing  State.  The  general  suiface  is  i)raLiie, 
with  a  soil  from  two  to  three  feet  in  dei)th,  lestiug  on  a  fortifying  sub-soil. 
There  are  no  mountain  ranges  or  lakes  aud  but  few  swami)s  in  the  State. 
Water-courses  are  abundant,  most  of  the  streams  having  a  gentle  cur- 
rent, and  flowing  over  rocky  or  gravelly  beds,  with  high  banks.  The 
Neosho  River  VaUey  is  considered  the  garden  spot  of  Kansas.  The 
southern  portion  of  the  State,  including  the  Osage  pui'chase,  is  well 


THE   PUBLIC    DOilAIX.  459 

adapted  to  gTazing.  The  climate  is  temperate  and  liealtirfiil,  and  esi^e- 
cially  favorable  to  stock-raising:.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  State  the 
temperatm-e  is  so  mild  that  little  provision  for  the  Arintering  of  cattle  is 
necessary.  All  kinds  of  grain  and  vegetables  common  to  its  latitude  are 
gTOTTn  successfally.  Fruit-gTowiug  has  not  been  tested  to  any  consid- 
erable extent,  but  nurserjineu  express  the  belief  that  fruit  will  do  well. 
The  climate  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  grape.  Excel- 
lent wine  fi'om  the  Kansas  grape  has  been  manufactured.  The  various 
kinds  of  small  berries  gi'ow  in  great  jirofusion. 

The  population  of  Kansas,  which  in  ISGO  was  107.20(3,  is  now  esti- 
mated at  over  440,000,  and  the  State  is  filling  up  with  gTcat  rapidity. 
In  the  year  1867  nearly  2,900,000  acres  were  surveyed  in  the  Cherokee 
neutral  and  Osage  reservations,  situated  near  the  southern  boundary  of 
Kansas,  As  Indian  reserves,  these  lands  had  been  kept  out  of  the 
market,  and  are  reported  as  among  the  most  desirable  in  the  State.  They 
are  now  open  for  homestead  entry.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  nearly 
ten  million  acres  of  alluvial  lands  in  the  State  undisposed  of. 

KEBEASKA. 

The  surface  is  gently  roUuig,  gradually  rising  toward  the  west,  and 
is  almost  entirely  free  from  low  marshes.  The  river  valleys  are  rich  and 
productive ;  vast  prairies  extend  in  aU  directions,  with  a  diversity  of 
soil,  from  the  best  alluvial  and  good  upland  to  the  gTavelly  ridges  and 
baiTcn  sand-hills.  There  is  no  scarcity  of  water.  Timber  is  somewhat 
scarce  in  localities,  but  numerous  gToves  of  cottonwood,  oak,  walnut, 
&:c.,  gTOw  along  the  rivers.  The  climate  is  mild,  and  the  summers  are  of 
a  high  temperatiu^e.  Stock  is  easily  subsisted  and  provided  for  on  the 
prairies,  where  a  rich  native  grass  grows  in  great  abundance.  The  State 
is  traversed  from  east  to  west  by  that  gTeat  national  highway  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad.  There  are  yet  of  pubUc  lands  undisposed  of  in  the 
State  41,624,000  acres.  The  feilile  lands  in  the  valleys  of  the  Eepubli- 
can,  Nebraska,  and  Platte  are  being  taken  up  rapitUy  by  actual  settlers. 

COLORADO. 

In  his  report  of  July,  1868,  to  the  General  Land  Ofiice,  the  surveyor 
general  of  Colorado  says  that  Territory  has  some  of  the  finest  pastoral 
and  agTicultui'al  lands  in  the  world,  and  fine  food  for  cattle.  Already 
large  herds  of  cattle  and  horses  are  raised  on  its  rich  moun- 
tain and  valley  pastui'es,  and  in  a  few  years  stock-raising  will  be 
of  immense  value  to  the  country.  The  lands  susceptible  of  irrigation 
produce  wheat  finely,  the  product  reaching  forty  to  sixty  bushels 
per  acre.  The  A-alleys,  or  distinctly  agricultural  regions  of  Colorado, 
embrace  30,000,000  acres,  one-sixth  of  which  admits  of  cultivation, 
the  remainder  being  admirably  adapted  to  pui-poses  of  herding.  On  ac- 
count of  the  scarcity  of  rains,  iiTigation  is  necessary,  andlandsare  selected 
with  reference  to  the  ease  with  which  iii-igation  may  be  accomphshed, 
farmers  uniting  in  constmcting  irrigating  canals  at  comparatively  small 
cost.  On  these  lauds,  formerly  considered  valueless,  wheat  has  yielded 
eighty  bushels  to  the  acre,  oats  a  hunch-ed  Tjushels,  corn  over  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  bushels  in  the  ear,  potatoes  five  hundred  bushels,  whde 
''abbages  have  been  gTown  weighing  thirty  pounds,  and  turnips  weighing 
fifteen  pounds.  Onions  are  a  very  successful  crop.  Plimis,  chemes, 
grapes,  raspberries,  and  other  small  fruits  grow  profusely  in  a  wild  state. 
Some  of  the  parks,  or  basins,  protected  on  all  sides  by  mountains,  afford 


460  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

an  excellent  soil  and  salubrious  climate.  San  Luis  Park,  with  an  area 
of  eighteen  thousand  square  miles,  is  watered  by  thirty-five  streams, 
and  contains  a  population  of  twenty-five  thousand,  principally  engaged 
in  agriculture  and  stock-raising.  Timber  is  scanty  on  the  i^lains.  but 
may  be  obtained  in  the  mountains  in  the  greatest  abundance.  Inex- 
haustible beds  of  coal  have  been  found,  and  the  Territory  furnishes  alum, 
salt,  gypsum,  soda,  lime,  lead,  copper,  antimony,  ziuc.  silver,  and  gold. 

DAKOTA. 

The  eastern  portion  of  Dakota  is  well  adapted  to  agricultural  pursuits 
and  wool-growing,  aftbrding  a  large  area  of  natural  liieadow  land  and 
pastures  well  watered.  Much  arable  land  is  found  also  in  the  north 
western  part  of  the  Temtory.  Settlers  are  locating  along  the  Eed  Eiver 
of  the  Xorth.  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Missouri  Eiver  between  Fort  Ean- 
dall  and  Fort  Sully.  The  surface  is  generally  elevated  and  weD  watered 
by  large  rivers  and  their  affluents.  The  excellent  land  of  tliis  Territory 
and  its  valuable  miaeral  resources  give  promise  of  rapid  settlement, 
yearly  91.000,000  acres  are  subject  to  pre-emption  and  homestead  entry. 

^'EW  3IEXIC0. 

The  lands  in  Xew  Mexico  susceptible  of  cultivation  are  confined  exclu- 
sively to  the  valleys  of  streams.  The  Eio  Grande,  the  Gila,  and  the 
Colorado  aftbrd  facilities  for  a  system  of  extensive  and  efficacious  irriga- 
tion. "  Properly  so  called,"  says  Surveyor  General  Clark.  '•  there  are 
neither  barren  nor  desert  lands  to  any  great  extent  in  Xew  Mexico.  The 
Territory  is  properly  divided  between  valleys,  which  can  be  irrigated  by 
the  streams  lio^ving  thi'ough  them,  mesas  or  table  lands,  (under  which 
designation  I  would  class  all  the  lands  not  mountain  or  iiTigable  valleys.) 
and  mountains.''  He  estimates  the  arable  lands  of  the  Santa  Fe  district 
at  1.000,000  acres ;  the  term  arable  being  used  as  synonymous  with  irri- 
gable, as  no  lands  can  be  cultivated  with  any  certainty  of  raising  a  crop 
without  irrigation.  There  is  a  considerable  rain-fall  during  the  months 
of  July  and  Argjust,  but  so  little  during  April.  ]NIay.  and  June  that, 
without  irrigation,  crops  will  ordinarily  perish. 

It  is  further  stated  by  the  surveyor  general  that  the  amount  of  irri- 
gable lands  is  only  limited  by  the  amount  of  water  in  the  streams ;  even 
the  Rio  Grande  might  all  be  used  in  the  irrigation  of  the  lands  in  its 
valley.  The  water  supplied  by  irrigation  not  only  alfords  the  necessary 
moisture  for  the  growth  of  vegetation,  but  also  enriches  the  soil  by 
depositing  the  sedimentary  matter  held  in  solution,  and  thus  lands 
which  have  been  under  cultivation  for  more  than  two  -hundred  years 
still  produce  exceUept  crops  without  ever  having  been  manured  or  fer- 
tiUzed  by  other  means. 

The  table  lands  and  mountain  sides  produce  the  most  nutritious 
grasses  which  afibrd  excellent  grazing  throughout  the  entire  year.  Xo 
Hies  or  mosquitoes  annoy  the  herds,  and  disease  among  sheep  and  cattle 
Ls  comparatively  unknown.  Peaches,  apples,  apricots,  grapes,  and,  in 
the  more  southern  portions  of  the  Tenitory,  quinces,  pomegranates,  and 
figs,  grow  abundantly. 

AKIZONA. 

The  son  of  Arizona  and  its  general  surface  are  not  dissimilar  in 
general  characteristics  to  those  of  Xew  Mexico,  of  which  political  divi 


THE    PUBLIC    DOMAIN.  461 

sion  it  at  one  time  was  a  part.  The  acreage  susceptible  of  irrigation  is 
estimated  at  5,000,000 ;  the  grazing  lands  at  55,000,000.  The  residue, 
12,906,304  acres,  is  covered  by  water,  or  consists  of  plains  not  irrigable, 
and  mountains.  Evidences  of  a  very  old  civilization  exist  in  i>re"W"  Mexico 
and  Arizona,  among  them  ruins  of  cities  and  temples,  and  appliances  for 
cultivating  the  soil.  Traces  of  irrigating  canals  are  discernible  in  many 
sections.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  may  be  i)astured  on  plain  and  moun- 
tain during  the  whole  year.  The  country  is  well  adapted  to  the  culture 
of  wine  and  silk. 

The  survey  of  the  Territory  has  been  undertaken  by  the  government. 
However,  parties  who  may  have  settled  in  good  faith  upon  the  unoc- 
cupied lands  will,  when  the  lines  of  the  i)ublic  siu'veys  are  extended  over 
their  claims,  be  protected  in  their  pre-emption  or  homestead  rights. 

CALIPOENIA. 

It  is  estimated  that  there  are  not  less  than  50,000,000  acres  of  land  in 
California  suited  to  some  kind  of  husbandry.  Of  this  amount  over 
40,000,000  are  tillable,  and  the  remainder  adapted  to  stock-raising,  fruit- 
growing, &c.  The  southern  portion  of  the  State  is  more  particularly 
devoted  to  horticulture.  It  is  said  that  no  better  soil  and  climate  are 
afforded  in  any  country  for  the  cultivation  of  the  grape  than  in  this  part 
of  CaUfornia.  The  yield  exceeds  that  of  the  most  celebrated  European 
vineyards.  Three  hundred  varieties  have  been  introduced.  The  acreage 
in  vines  is  about  45,000,  with  an  average  of  nine  hundred  ^aues  to  the 
acre.  The  ^intage  of  1SG7  was  estimated  at  over  4,000,000  gallons  of 
wine  and  about  the  same  quantity  of  brandy.  One  thousand  pounds  of 
grapes  to  the  acre  is  the  minimum  yield,  while  as  high  as  20,000  pounds 
have  been  produced.  The  orange,  lemon,  fig,  lime,  olive,  apricot,  necta- 
rine, pine-apple,  pomegranate,  and  other  tropical  and  sub-tropical  fruits 
grow  in  great  abundance.  Frmt  trees  gTow  more  rapidly  and  produce 
larger  varieties  than  in  almost  any  other  part  of  the  world.  The  pear 
thrives  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  In  the  markets  of  San  Francisco  straw- 
beiTies  are  sold  every  month  in  the  year. 

The  cereals,  i^otatoes,  tobacco,  sorghum,  and  in  some  localities  cotton 
and  the  sugar  cane,  are  successfidly  and  very  profitably  gTOwn.  Sixty 
bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  is  not  an  unusual  yield.  The  cultivation  of 
the  midbeiTy  tree  and  the  rearing  of  silk- worms  promise  to  become  an 
important  source  of  wealth  in  the  State.  The  worms  seem  to  be  exempt 
from  the  diseases  which  for  twenty  years  have  prevailed  in  many  of  the 
cocooneries  of  Europe,  threatening  the  destruction  of  the  native  spe- 
cies. The  California  silk- worm  eggs  are  in  great  request  among  Euro- 
pean breeders.  The  State  has  imdertaken  to  foster  this  important 
branch  of  industry  by  ofiermg  liberal  premiums  for  the  planting  of  mul- 
berry trees  and  the  production  of  cocoons.  Silk  factories  are  being 
erected  in  the  State. 

Stock  and  sheep-raising  is  a  leading  branch  of  husbandry.  The  mild 
winters  and  perpetual  pastures  enable  stock  to  graze  throughout  the 
year.  In  the  year  1SG7  there  were  2,000,000  sheep  in  the  State,  yielding 
a  wool  product  of  9,000,000  pounds. 

CaUfornia  has  an  abundance  and  great  variety  of  timber.  The  red 
wood,  found  only  here  and  in  the  southern  part  of  Oregon,  is  a  valued 
commercial  wood.  It  grows  in  dense  forests,  which  are  estimated  to 
cover  in  the  aggregate  10,000  square  miles.  The  trees  frequently  reach 
a  height  of  two  hundred  and  seventy  feet  and  a  diameter  of  eighteen  to 
twenty  feet. 


■462  AGEICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

Good  public  lands  in  ample  quantity  are  subject  to  purchase  and 
homestead  entry  in  almost  any  quarter  of  the  State. 

OREGON. 

A  larg:e  portion  of  the  "Willamette  Valley  is  well  adapted  to  agricul- 
ture. This  beautiful  and  highly  fertile  valley,  lying  upon  both  sides  of 
the  river  of  its  name,  con  tarns  an  area  of  2,000,000  acres.  The  botton 
lauds  produce  an  almost  unbroken  line  of  forests,  varying  from  one-eighth 
to  half  a  mile  in  width,  consisting  of  fir,  oak,  maple,  cotton  wood,  and  alder. 
The  prairie  lands  possess  a  deep,  rich  soil.  All  theproductious  common 
to  the  field,  garden,  and  orchard  of  temperate  regions  are  here  success- 
fully grown. 

The  majority  of  the  valleys  aflbrd  rich  and  easily  cultivable  lands, 
among  which  may  be  named  the  Umpqua  and  the  Eogue's  River  on  the 
west  of  the  Cascade  range.  The  rich  agricultiu-al  valleys  of  northern 
and  eastern  Oregon  are  attracting  the  attention  of  settlers.  By  many 
the  climate  east  of  the  Cascade  I\Iouutains  is  prefeiTcd  to  that  of  the 
Willamette  Valley.  This  portion  of  the  State  is  as  yet  sparsely  settled, 
notwithstanding  its  conceded  advantages  as  an  agricultiu-al  and  pastoral 
region. 

iN'orthem  Oregon,  east  of  the  Cascades,  includes  the  attractive  valleys 
of  the  Umatilla.  John  Day,  Falls,  Deschutes,  and  Crooked  Rivers.  What 
is  kno'^Ti  as  East  Oregon,  east  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  includes  the  valleys 
of  the  Grande  Roude,  Powder  River,  Harney's  Lake,  Alvord,  Owyhee, 
&c.  Good  farming  and  gi'aziug  lands,  abundant  timber  and  water  may 
be  found  in  these  valleys.  Settlements  in  several  of  them  are  just  begin- 
ning to  be  made.  The  producing  interests  of  the  State  are  greatly  on 
the  increase. 

WASHINGTON  TERRITORY. 

A  large  portion  of  the  Territory-  is  mountainous,  but  there  are  vast 
prairies  and  good  gi'azing  lands  adapted  to  herding  on  a  large  scale. 
The  Territoiy  is  divided  into  two  sections  by  the  Cascade  Moimtains, 
known  as  Eastern  and  Western  Washington.  In  the  former,  a  region 
embracing  an  area  of  40,000  squrjre  mOes,  agricultui'e  cannot  be  followed 
with  success,  except  at  rare  intervals,  on  account  of  the  scanty  rain-fall 
and  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  irrigation.  To  use  the  language  of  the 
surveyor  general  of  the  Territory  :  "  Notwithstanding  present  appear- 
ances and  olnious  difiBculties,  it  is  impossible  for  any  one  who  has  trav- 
eled over  this  vast  and  magnificent  region,  rich  in  soil  and  possessed  of 
a  most  salubrious  climate,  to  believe  that  the  greater  portion  of  it  was 
destined  to  remain  forever  uninhabited, avast  and  unreclaimable  wilder- 
ness in  the  midst  of  popidation,  wealth,  civilization,  and  material  pro- 
gress." Exception  must  be  made,  however,  in  favor  of  the  Walla- Walla 
district,  where  stock  raising  and  the  culture  of  wheat  have  been  carried 
on  with  great  success. 

West  of  the  Cascade  Mountiuus  there  are  immense  tracts  of  arable 
lands  inviting  settlement.  The  valleys  of  the  Chehalis  and  the  Willopah 
contain  the  best  lands  of  this  section  of  the  Territoiy,  and  are  rapidly 
being  filled  up  by  a  thiifty  population.  The  valley  of  Puget  Sound, 
with  an  area  of  12,000  square  miles,  aflbrds  rich  farming  lands  along  the 
numerous  water  courses.  Quoting  again  from  the  surveyor  general : 
'•  Western  Wa shin ?^on  points  to  commerce,  manufactures,  and  mines  as 
tlie  main  sources  of  her  present  prosperity  and  future  gTeatness :  while 


THE   PrBLIC   DOMAm.  463 

these  indnstries,  stimulated  as  tliey  mnst  be  in  tlie  future,  will  consume 
tlie  products  of  additional  thousands  of  farms,  giving  the  producers 
home  markets  aud  remunerative  prices.''  The  seasons  of  Western 
Washington  are  really  only  two,  vret  and  di\v,  influenced  by  the  semi- 
annual monsoons.  From  November  to  May  the  southwest  winds  prevail, 
bringing  heavy  showers,  from  May  to  November  the  cool  and  di-y  north- 
west winds  give  slight  rain-falls  and  a  moderate  temperature.  The 
winters  are  never  severe;  only  on  one  occasion  during  the  last  twelve 
years  snow  fell  to  the  depth  of  two  feet. 

The  population  of  the  Territory  does  not  much  f^xcced  twcnt\-  thou- 
sand. 

^'ETADA. 

The  arable  lands  of  Nevada,  of  which  there  are  considerable  quanti- 
ties not  taken  up,  are  principally  in  the  river  valleys,  some  of  which  are 
very  extensive  and  extremely  fertile.  The  valleys  of  the  Humboldt, 
Carson,  and  Walker  rivers  contain  in  the  aggregate  about  three-quar- 
ters of  a  million  acres  of  good  tillable  land.  This  amount  may  be  largely 
increased  by  iirigation,  for  which  ample  and  convenient  facilities  exist. 
Like  the  mountain  coimtiy  in*several  others  of  the  States  and  Territories, 
Nevada  contains  large  gi-azing  tracts  on  the  hills  and  mountain  sides. 
The  chief  crops  are  gram,  hay,  and  vegetables.  Springs  are  numerous 
and  water  is  abundant  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  The  climate  is  mild 
in  summer,  cold,  but  not  severe  in  winter,  the  atmosphere  being  dry  and 
salubrious.  The  route  of  the  Pacific  railroad  traverses  the  valley  of  the 
Humboldt  for  more  than  two  hundi'ed  miles. 

It  is  not  probable  that  an  opportunity  will  long  exist  of  taking  up  the 
best  agricultiu'al  and  gTazing  lands  which  may  be  now  had  in  this  pros- 
perous and  wealthy  State. 

IDAHO. 

The  siuface  of  the  Territory  consists  of  mountain  and  table  land,  and 
nver  valleys  of  gTeat  producing  capacity.  In  the  sheltered  vidleys, 
which  are  munerous,  the  climate  is  mild  »ind  aflbrds  sustenance  and 
protection  for  cattle  and  sheep  at  all  seasons.  The  gi-eater  niunb^r  o± 
these  valleys  are  still  unoccupied  except  by  inconsiderable  settlements. 

The  TeiTitory  is  well  watered.  Good  water-powers  are  numerous.  In 
the  vicinity  of  the  arable  lands  timber  is  scarce.  Large  tracts  are  sus- 
ceptible of  iiTigation  by  means  of  canals  aud  ditches,  and  imder  such 
cii'cumstances  produce  the  finest  crops  belonging  to  that  latitude. 

The  present  population  is  over  25,000^  generally  distributed  in  the 
neighborhoods  of  the  more  promising  mining  districts. 

MONTANA. 

The  cultivable  lauds  of  Montana,  like  the  other  portions  of  the  moim- 
tain  countiy,  consist  of  table  lands,  mountain  slopes,  and  rich  aUuvial 
bottom  or  nver  valleys.  The  tablelands,  which  are  very  extensive, 
requii*e  inigation  in  order  to  realize  their  utmost  production,  and  water 
for  this  purpose  is  convenient  and  plentifid.  Wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley, 
&c.,  yield  abundantly.  Cattle  and  slj^ep  can  be  kept  nearly  all  winter 
without  other  feed  than  they  can  obt'ain  fi'om  the  natm-al  pastm^age. 

The  siuxeyor  general  of  the  Territory  estimates  that  fiiUy  one-thkd 
of  the  territorial  area  is  susceptible  of  cultivation,  .5,700,000  of  which 


464  AGEICULTUEAL   EEPOET. 

are  valley  lauds.  He  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  Jesuits,  in  commencing 
to  cultivate  the  soil  in  the  Bitter  Eoot  Valley,  about  twenty-five  years 
ago,  could  raise  scarcely  anything ;  but  continued  experiment  developed 
the  proper  course  to  be  pursued,  and  the  grounds  in  that  region,  which 
at  one  time  refttsed  to  yield,  are  now  prolific  with  splendid  crops,  the 
incoming  settlers  having  profited  by  the  exx>erience  of  their  predecessors. 
The  yield  of  wheat  throughout  the  Territory-  is  up  to  the  average  per 
acre  of  any  other  State  or  Territory. 

Timber  is  abundant  on  the  mountains.  Wood  sufficient  for  fencing 
purposes  and  for  fuel  may  be  obtained  on  much  of  the  tillable  lands. 
Granite,  limestone,  slate,  and  fire-clay  exist  in  aljundance  Brown  coal, 
or  hgnite,  is  found  in  great  quantity  on  the  banks  of  the  Missouri  and 
Yellowstone  Kivers. 

WTOMDvG. 

This  Territory-  is  a  rectangular  tract  recently  detached  from  the  Terri- 
tory of  Dakota.  It  extends  from  the  forty-first  to  the  forty-fifth  degree 
of  latitude  north  and  south,  and  from  the  twentj-seventh  to  the  thirty- 
third  meridian  of  longitude  east  and  west,  with  a  sort  of  pan-handle  pro- 
jecting from  its  northwest  comer  and  e:?tending  along  .the  mountain 
ranges  almost  to  the  thirty-sixth  degree  of  longitude. 

The  public  surveys  have  not  been  commenced  in  the  Territory,  and 
rehable  information  in  regard  to  the  character  of  its  public  lands  is  lim- 
ited. The  general  features  of  the  Territory  will  doubtless  be  found  to 
correspond  in  the  main  with  those  of  Montana  and  Colorado. 

UTAH. 

The  Territory  of  Utah  was  not  created  a  laud  district  until  July  16, 
1S68.  and  no  public  lands  therefore  have  been  sold.  The  surveyed  lands, 
however,  amount  to  something  over  two  millions  and  a  half  acres,  and 
surveying  operations  have  been  resumed,  including  the  regions  where 
actual  settlements  have  been  made. 

The  completion  of  the  Union  Pacific  railroad,  which  i^asses  through 
the  Territory,  has  given  an  y.nwonted  impetus  to  settlement  here  as  in 
the  other  new  States  and  Territories  which  it  traverses.  Utah,  then  a 
much  larger  political  division  than  at  present,  was  first  settled  in 
the  year  1S47  by  the  Monnons.  who  have  demonstrated  that  agriculture 
can  be  made  in  that  region  a  xery  remunerative  pursuit,  and  that  the 
Inarched  mountain  vaUeys  may  be  made  by  artificial  means  to  "blossom 
us  the  rose.^  By  means  of  irrigating  canals,  the  cereals,  especiaUj- 
wheat,  oats,  and  barley,  jield  from  fifty  to  sixty  bushels  per  acre;  wheat 
has  produced  even  as  high  as  ninetA*  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  a  case  is 
given  where,  in  the  vicinity  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  thi'ee^nd  a  half  acres 
of  land  produced  a  hundred  and  eighty  bushels  of  wheat  from  a  single 
bushel  of  seed.  In  the  southwestern  valleys  of  the  Territory,  cotton, 
sorghum,  and  com  are  raised  with  success.  Garden  vegetables  and  a 
great  variety  of  large  and  small  fruits  yield  abundantly.  The  settle- 
ments for  the  most  pait  are  along  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  on  the  west- 
em  slope,  from  the  northern  to  the  southern  limits  of  the  Territory-, 
wherever  water  is  easily  obtainable  for  purjwses  of  irrigation  along  the 
alluvial  belt,  which  varies  in  width  from  one  mile  to  ten. 

Large  quantities  of  cotton  are  raised  on  the  Eio  Yirgen  and  Colorado, 
and  grazing  and  wool-growing  are  successfully  carried  on  along  the 
headwaters  of  the  Green  Eiver.    Tliere  are  cotton,  woolen,  grist,  and 


THE    PUBLIC   DOMAIN.  465 

sawmills  m  the  Territory.  It  is  stated  that  experiments  in  raising  flax, 
and  the  mulberry  tree,  and  in  rearing  the  silii-worm,  have  been  suc- 
cessful. 

The  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office,  in  his  report  for  1S6S, 
says  that  valuable  tracts,  either  for  gTazing  or  farming  purposes,  remain 
unoccupied,  and  calls  attention  to  the  advantages  of  settlement  here: 
*' Aside  from  centrahty  of  position,  may  be  mentioned  the  existence  of 
flouring  mills,  manutactiiring  establishments,  shops,  stores,  and  markets 
in  every  important  locaht^',  with  supphes  of  horses,  mules,  and  improved 
breeds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  thus  furnishing  to  immigrants  many 
facilities  not  found  in  less  popitlous  sections."' 

The  population  of  the  Territory  is  estimated  at  120,000. 

HOMESTEADS  r^T)EE  ACT  OF  CONGEESS. 

By  act  of  Congress,  approved  June  21,  1S66,  the  public  lands  lyin^  m 
the  States  of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  Florida, 
are  oi>en  only  to  settlement  as  homesteads  according  to  provisions  of 
former  enactments  relating  thereto ;  with  the  restriction,  however,  that 
until  the  expiration  of  two  years  from  and  after  the  passage  of  the  act 
no  entry  should  be  made  for  more  than  a  half-quarter  of  a  section,  or 
eighty  acres.  The  object  in  the  main,  perhaps,  was  to  encourage  the 
freedmen  to  occupy  these  vacant  lands.  During  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30.  ISGS.  52(3,077  acres  were  taken  up  under  the  provisions  of  the 
act,  and  in  the  year  preceding  an  aggregate  of  201.180  acres.  There 
yet  remain  undisposed  of  in  those  States  0.790.09(3  acres  in  Alabama, 
11.571,130  in  Ai'kansas,  17,121,138  in  Florida,  0,582,811  in  Louisiana, 
and  1.828,009  in  Mississippi. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  because  these  are  comparatively  old 
States,  the  best  lands  have  been  taken  up.  WTiile  it  is  perhaps  difficrdt, 
if  not  altogether  impossible,  to  secure  lauds  in  the  vicinity  of  cities  or 
large  towns,  or  in  near  proxioiity  to  present  lines  of  commercial  commu- 
nication, very  desirable  tracts  may  be  obtained  in  sections  not  remote. 
Moreover,  the  construction  of  radroads  in  that  part  of  the  country  prom- 
ises to  be  undertaken  with  an  energy  commensurate  with  their  miport- 
ance  in  the  development  of  the  rich  regions  now  lying  fallow  on  account 
of  distance  from  leading  markets.  What  the  iron  rail  has  done  for  the 
plains  and  prairies  and  outlying  regions  of  the  West  and  further  Xorth,  it 
may  confidently  be  expected  to  do  for  the  South,  with  its  wealth  of  sod, 
salubrious  climate,  inviting  natm^al  scenery,  and  affluent  products.  The 
era  of  substantial  progxt^ss  for  the  South  may  indeed  be  said  to  have 
commenced  with  the  termination  of  the  war!  which,  obliterating  the 
system  of  comjndsory  labor,  and  the  monopoly  of  production  by  great 
landed  proprietors,  opened  up  the  avenues  of  competition  to  all  dasses 
of  citizens.  The  division  of  lands  into  smaller  tracts  has  promoted  a 
more  systematic  and  thorough,  and  consequently  more  profitable  mode 
of  farming  and  planting.  Evidences  of  a  highly  remunerative  produc- 
tion must  atti-act  that  immigTation  which  is  the  invigorating  lite  of 
States.  The  characteristics  of  sod,  chmate,  and  productions  of  the 
homestead  land  States  of  the  South  are  so  nearly  similar,  and  are  so 
generally  understood,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  speak  of  them  resi^ect- 
ively  at  any  length. 

Mississippi,  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  Lomsiana  are  the  leading  cotton- 
producing  States  of  the  L'niun.  They  each  possess  remarkable  agpri- 
cultural  and  economic  advantages.  The  sod,  fertde  and  varied,  pro- 
duces the  principal  cereals  and  a  varietv  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  in 
30 


466  AGRICULTURAL   Ki^l'OKT. 

addition  to  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  rice,  i^umcrons  streams,  lakes, 
and  bayous  aflbrd  easy  means  of  intercommunication.  Timber  of  a 
superior  kind  for  building  purposes  and  for  fuel  is  abundant.  The  great 
success  wliicli  has  attended  experiments  in  the  growing  of  mulberry 
trees  and  the  rearing  of  siJk-worms  augurs  the  introduction  into  those 
States  of  that  important  branch  of  industry. 

Alabama  furnishes  superior  grazing  lauds  in  the  northern  districts, 
and,  in  that  section,  a  soil  Avell  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  maize, 
rye,  oats,  «S:c.  In  this  Stiite  coal,  iron,  and  valuable  minerals  exist  in 
considerable  quantities.  During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  18C8, 
124,083  acres  were  taken  up  under  the  homestead  act  of  18GG.  In  the 
same  time  102,824  acres  "^ere  entered  by  homestead  settlers  in  Missis- 
sippi. 

In  the  lower  portion  of  Louisiana  there  are  fertile  prairies  "which  yield 
good  crops  of  wheat,  barley,  and  ludian  corn,  some  cereals  yielding  two 
crops  annually.  There  are  50,000  acres  of  swamp  land  in  this  State  which 
may  be  reclaimed  by  drainage  and  embankments,  accounted  as  produc- 
tive as  any  within  its  boundaries.  There  are  0,500,000  acres  of  railroad 
lands  in  Louisiana,  which  may  be  bought  at  low  rates. 

The  fruits  of  the  ti'opics  tioimsh  luxuriantly  on  the  soil  of  Florida.  Its 
rich  alluvial  bottoms  produce  large  crops  of  sugar  and  rice.  It  has  been 
said  that  the  area  in  this  State  suitable  for  the  culture  of  cotton  is  amply 
sufficient  to  supi>ly  the  demands  of  the  United  States  for  that  commodiry. 
Possessing  a  coast  line  of  one  thousand  miles,  it  fui^nishcs  from  its  dense 
forests  ship- building  timber  of  good  quality.  Public  land  in  great  abun- 
dance may  be  had  in  the  State.  Papid  settlement  along  the  coast  is 
being  made  by  i)ersons  iutent  upon  the  culture  of  fruits.  Florida,  with 
an  area  of  over  59,000  square  miles,  has  a  pojiidation  estimated  at  a 
little  over  100,000. 

Arkansas  Is  divided  into  two  sections  by  the  Ozark  Mountains.  Wliile 
that  region  l.nug  upon  the  north  possesses  a  climate  and  furnishes  pro- 
ductions analogous  to  those  of  the  northern  States,  that  l\ing  ujmn  the 
south  displays  the  general  characteristics  of  the  cotton  States.  The  staple 
productions  of  the  State  are  Indian  corn,  cotton,  and  live  stock,  and  con- 
siderable crops  of  wheat,  oats,  and  tobacco.  The  White  River  Valley  is 
sought  by  those  who  cultivate  the  cereals  and  raise  herds.  To  the  west 
of  the  great  forests  of  the  Arkansas  is  *'  one  of  the  most  productive  re- 
gions on  the  continent  for  corn,  cotton,  and  tobacco.*'  In  the  valley  of 
the  Red  River  cotton  is  the  staple  product.  The  vtiUey  of  the  Ouachita 
is  extremely  fertile  and  inviting.  The  valley  of,the  Mississi]i]r;  is,  for  the 
most  part,  low  and'mai'shy,  and  subject  in'places  to  immdaticu.  These 
lauds,  howe\er,  -vnll  be  eventually  reclaimed  by  drainage,  and  the  pro- 
tection of  levees,  since  Congi-ess  has  given  to  States  the  conti'ol  of  such 
tracts. 

MANTiHER  OF  ACQIJIRrN'G  TITLE  TO  PUBLIC  LA:\DS. 

The  following  directions  for  acquiring  title  to  the  public  lands  are 
communicated  by  the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office : 

There  are  two  classes  of  public  lands  ;  the  one  class  at  61  25  per  acre, 
which  is  designated  as  mininutm,  and  the  other  at  $2  50  i>er  acre,  oi 
double  minimum. 

Title  may  be  acquired  by  ]>iu'chase,  at  public  sale,  or  by  ordinary 
''private  entry,''  and  by  virtue  of  the  pre-em])tion  and  homestead  laws. 

1.  At  public  sale,  where  lands  arc  "  offered"  at  public  auction  to  the 
highest  bidder,  either  pursuant  to  proclamation  by  the  President  or 


THE   PUBLIC   DOilAIN.  467 

pnblic  notice  given  in  accordance  witli  directions  from  the  General  Land 
Oiiice. 

2.  By  private  eutiy  or  location.  The  lands  of  this  class  liable  to  dis- 
posal are  those  which  have  been  offered  at  pnblic  sale,  and  thereafter 
reniaiu  unsold,  and  which  have  not  been  subsequently  reserved,  or  other- 
wise withcb'awn  from  market.  In  this  class  of  offered  and  imreserved 
public  lands  the  following:  steps  may  be  taken  to  acquire  title  : 

Ccxsh  purcha.'ics. — The  applicant  must  present  a  wi-itten  application  to 
the  register  for  the  district  in  which  the  land  desned  is  situated,  describ- 
ing the  tract  he  -svishes  to  purchase,  giving  its  area.  Thereupon  the 
register,  if  the  tract  is  vacant,  will  so  certify  to  the  receiver,  stating  the 
price ;  and  the  applicant  must  then  pay  the  amount  of  the  purchase 
money.  The  receiver  will  then  issue  to  the  purchaser  a  duplicate  receipt, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  month  the  register  and  receiver -uill  make  returns 
of  the  sale  to  the  General  Land  Office,  fiom  whence,  when  the  proceed- 
iugs  are  foimd  regular,  a  patent,  or  complete  title,  will  be  issued  ;  and 
on  surrender  of  the  dajjlicate  receipt  such  patent  will  be  delivered,  at 
the  option  of  the  patentee,  either  by  the  Commissioner  at  WashingtoE 
or  by  the  register  at  the  district  land  office. 

Location  icith  icarmnts. — Application  must  be  made  as  in  cash  cases, 
but  must  be  accompanied  by  a  warrant  duly  assigned  as  the  considera- 
tion for  the  land  ;  yet  where  the  tract  is  82  50  per  acre,  the  party,  in 
addition  to  the  siuTcndered  warrant,  must  pay  in  cash  $1  25  per  acre,  as 
the  warrant  is  in  satisfaction  of  only  so  many  acres  at  SI  25  per  acre  as 
are  contained  in  the  tract  located.  A  duplicate  certificate  of  location 
will  then  be  furnished  the  party,  to  be  held  imtil  the  patent  is  delivered, 
as  in  cases  of  cash  sales. 

Agricultural  College  Scrip. — This  scrip  is  applicable  to  lands  not  min- 
eral^ which  may  be  subject  to  private  entry  at  81  25  per  acre,  yet  is  re- 
stricted to  a  technical  "  quarter  section ;"  that  is,  lands  embraced  by  the 
quarter  section  lines  iutbcated  on  the  official  plats  of  survey,  or  it  may 
be  located  on  a  part  of  a  "  quarter  section,"'  where  such  part  is  taken  as  in 
full  for  a  quarter;  but  it  cannot  be  applied  to  different  subdivisions  to 
make  an  area  equivalent  to  a  quarter  section.  The  manner  of  proceed- 
ing to  acquire  title  with  this  class  of  paper  is  the  same  as  in  cash  and 
warrant  cases,  the  fees  to  be  paid  being  the  same  as  on  warrants.  The 
location  of  this  scrip  is  restricted  to  thi-ee  sections  in  each  township  of 
land. 

Precmptionsto  the  extent  of  one  quarter  section. — These  may  be  made 
under  the  general  pre-emption  laws,  upon  ''  offered "'  and  "  nnoftered  " 
laud ;  and  iu  certahi  States  and  Temtories  west  of  the  Mississippi,  in- 
cluding that  part  of  Minnesota  east  of  the  river,  may  have  legal  incep- 
tion by  actual  settlement  upon  xinsurveyed  land,  although  in  such  cases 
no  definitive  proceedings  can  be  had  as  to  the  completion  of  title  until 
after  the  surveys  are  officially  returned  to  the  district  laud  office. 

The  act  of  3Iarch  3,  1853,  extends  the  pre-emption  for  one  quarter,  or 
one  hundred  and  sixty  acres,  at  82  50  per  acre  to  every  "  alternate" 
United  States  or  re^scrveS  section  along  the  line  of  railroads. 

The  act  of  March  27,  1854,  protects  the  right  of  settlers  on  sections 
along  the  line  of  railroads  Avhere  settlement  existed  prior  to  withdrawal, 
and  in  such  cases  allows  the  tract  to  be  taken  by  pre-emption  at  81  25 
per  acre. 

Where  the  tract  is  ^'offcrccV^  the  party  must  file  with  the  district  land 
office  his  declaratory  statement  as  to  the  fact  of  his  settlement  within 
thirty  days  froiti  the  date  of  said  settlement,  and  within  one  year  trom 
that  date,  must  appear  before  the  register  and  receiver  and  make  proof  of 


468  AGEICULTCEAL   REPORT.  ' 

bis  actual  residence  on  and  cultivation  of  the  tract,  and  secure  the  same 
by  paying  cash,  or  by  filing  vran-ant  duly  assigned  to  the  pre-emptor. 

Where  the  tract  has  been  surveyed  and  not  offered  at  public  sale,  the 
claimant  must  file  vrithin  three  months  from  date  of  settlement,  and  make 
proof  and  payment  before  the  day  designated  in  the  President's  procla- 
mation for  offering  the  lands  at  public  sale.  Shoidd  the  settler  in  either 
of  the  aforesaid  cases  die  before  establishing  his  claim  within  the  period 
limited  by  law.  the  title  may  be  perfected  by  the  executor,  administrator, 
or  one  of  the  heirs,  by  making  the  requisite  proof  of  settlement  and  pay- 
ing for  the  land;  the  entry  to  be  made  in  the  name  of  "the  heirs"  of 
the  deceased  settler,  and  the  patent  will  be  issued  accordingly. 

In  those  States  and  Territories  in  which  settlements  are  authorized  by 
law  on  unsurveyed  land,  the  claimant  must  file  notice  of  settlement  within 
three  months  after  the  receipt  of  the  township  plat  of  survey  at  the  dis- 
trict land  office,  and  make  proof  and  j)ayment  as  required  in  the  case  of 
tracts  which  have  been  surveyed  and  not  offered  at  public  sale. 

Homestead  lands. — The  original  homestead  act  of  3Iay  20,  1862,  gives 
to  every  citizen,  and  to  those  who  have  declared  their  intentions  to 
become  such,  the  right  to  a  homestead  on  surveyed  lands.  This  is  con- 
ceded to  the  extent  of  one  quarter  section,  or  IGO  acres,  held  at  $1  25 
per  acre,  or  eighty  acres  at  82  50  per  acre,  in  any  organized  district  em- 
bracing surveyed  public  lands.  To  obtain  homesteads  the  party  must, 
in  connection  with  his  application,  make  an  affidavit  before  the  register 
or  receiver  that  he  is  over  the  age  of  twenty-one,  or  the  head  of  a 
family ;  that  he  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  has  declared  his 
intention  to  become  such,  and  that  the  entry  is  made  for  his  exclusive 
use  and  benefit,  and  for  actual  settlement  and  cultivation.  Where  the 
applicant  is  prevented  by  reason  of  bodily  infirmity,  distance,  or  other 
good  cause,  fi"om  personal  attendance  at  the  district  land  office,  the  affi- 
da^■it  may  be  made  before  the  clerk  of  the  court  for  the  county  within 
which  the  party  is  an  actual  resident. 

The  amendatory  act  of  March,  1804,  relaxes  the  requirements  of  per- 
sonal attendance  at  the  district  office  to  persons  in  the  mihtary  or 
naval  service,  vrhere  the  party's  family  or  some  member  is  residing  on 
the  laud  that  it  is  desired  to  enter,  and  upon  which  a  bona  fide  improve- 
ment and  cidtivatiou  has  been  made.  In  such  cases  the  said  act  of  1804 
allows  the  beneficiary  to  make  the  affidavit  before  the  officer  command- 
ing in  the  branch  of  service  in  which  he  may  be  engaged,  and  the  same 
may  be  filed  by  the  wife  or  other  representative  of  the  absentee  with  the 
register,  together  with  the  homestead  application.  His  claim  in  that 
case  uill  become  effective  from  the  date  of  filing,  provided  the  required 
fee  and  commissions  accompany  the  same ;  but  immediately  upon  his 
discharge  he  must  enter  upon  the  land  and  make  it  his  bona  fide  home, 
as  required  by  the  original  act  of  May  20,  1802. 

For  homestead  entries  on  surveyed  lands  in  Michigan,  "Wisconsin, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  jS'ebraska,  Dakota,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  Florida,  the  total  commissions  and  fees 
to  be  paid  on  minimum  lands  are  as  follows:  On  100  acres,  818;  on  80 
acres,  $9;  on  40  acres,  87;  on  double  minimum  lands,  80  acres,  818;  40 
acres,  89.  On  surveyed  lands  in  CalLtbrnia,  Xevada,  Oregon,  Colorado, 
New  Mexico,  Washington,  Arizona,  Idaho,  and  Montana,  the  commis- 
sions and  fees  are  as  follows:  On  minimum  lands,  IGO  acres,  822;  80 
acres,  811:  40  acres,  ^^'.,  on  double  minimum  lands,  80  acres,  822;  40 
acres,  811.  By  the  act  of  21st  June,  18GG,  the  j^ublic  lands  of  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  Florida,  are  subject  to  disposal 
under  the  provisions  of  the  homestead  laws  only. 


THE    PUBLIC    DOMAIN.  469 

Upon  faitliliil  observaucc  of  the  law  iii  rejcard  to  settlem^Lit  aud  ciilti 
vation  for  the  coutiuiious  term  of  live  years,  and  at  the  expmitiou  oi 
that  time,  or  within  two  years  thereafter,  upon  proper  i)roof  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  hiud  officers,  and  payment  to  the  receiver,  the  register  will 
issne  his  certificate  and  make  proper  retiu'n  to  the  General  Land  Office 
as  the  basis  of  a  patent  or  complete  title  for  the  homestead.  In  making 
final  proof  it  is  indispensable,  under  the  statute,  that  the  homestead 
party  shall  appear  in  person  at  the  district  land  office,  aud  there  make 
the  affidavit  required  of  hiir^  by  law  in  support  of  his  claim.  Where, 
from  physical  disability,  tlistance,  or  other  good  cause,  the  witnesses  of 
said  iiarty  cannot  attend  in  person  at  the  district  land  office,  their  testi- 
mony in  support  of  the  claim  may  be  taken  where  they  reside  before  an 
officer  authorized  by  law  to  administer  oaths.  Their  testimony  must 
state  satisfactorily  the  reason  of  inability  to  attend  the  district  office: 
and  the  credibility  and  responsibility  of  the  witnesses  must  be  certified 
by  the  officiating  magistrate,  whose  official  character  must  be  certified 
under  seal.  "Where  a  homestead  settler  dies  before  the  consummation 
of  his  claim,  the  heirs  may  continue  the  settlement  and  cidtivation,  and 
obtain  title  upon  requisite  proof  at  the  proper  time.  Where  both  pa- 
rents die,  leaving  infant  heirs,  the  homestead  may  be  sold  for  cash  for  the 
benefit  of  such  heirs,  aud  the  purchaser  will  receive  title  from  the  United 
States, 

The  sale  of  a  homestead  claim  by  the  settler  to  another  party  before 
completion  of  title  is  not  recognized  by  the  General  Land  Office,  and  not 
only  vests  no  title  or  equities  in  the  i^urchaser.  but  is  prima  facie  evi- 
dence of  abandonment,  and  gives  cause  for  the  cancellation  of  the  claim. 
To  the  govermuent  only  may  a  claim  be  relinquished ;  and  in  such  case 
the  duplicate  receipt  of  the  settler  should  be  surrendered  with  the 
relinquishment  indorsed  thereon ;  or  if  the  duplicate  has  been  lost,  that 
fact  should  be  stated  in  the  relinquishment,  duly  signed  and  acknowl- 
edged. 

When  application  is  made  for  the  cancellation  of  a  homestead  entrj' 
on  the  ground  of  abandonment,  the  party  must  file  his  affidavit  with 
the  local  land  officers,  settuig  forth  the  facts  on  which  his  allegations 
are  founded,  describing  the  tracts  and  giving  the  name  of  the  settler. 
Upon  this  the  officers  will  set  apart  a  day  for  a  hearing,  giving  all  the 
parties  in  interest  due  notice  of  the  time  and  place  of  trial. 

The  expenses  incident  to  such  contest  must  be  defrayed  by  the  con- 
testant, and  no  entry  of  the  laud  can  be  made  until  the  local  officers  have 
received  notice  from  the  General  Laud  Office  of  the  cancellation  of  the 
entry  covering  the  same.  As  the  law  allows  but  one  homestead  ]irivilege, 
a  settler  relinquishing  or  abandoning  his  claim  cannot  thereafter  make 
a  second  entry.  ^Vhere  an  individual  has  made  settlement  on  a  sui'- 
veyed  tract  and  tiled  his  pre-emption  declaration  therefor,  he  may  change 
his  filing  into  homestead,  yet  such  change  is  inadmissible  where  an 
adverse  right  has  intervened,  but  in  such  cases  the  settler  has  the  privi- 
lege of  porfecting  his  title  under  the  pre-emption  laws.  If  the  home- 
stead settler  does  not  wish  to  remain  five  year^  on  his  tract,  the  law  jier- 
mits  him  to  pay  for  it  with  cash  or  warrants,  upon  making  proof  of  set- 
tlement and  cultivation  from  the  date  of  entry  to  the  time  of  payment. 
There  is  another  class  of  homesteads,  designated  as  "adjoining  farm  home- 
steads." In  these  cases  the  law  allows  an  applicant,  owning  aud  residingon 
an  original  farm,  to  enter  other  land  lying  contiguous  thereto,  which  shall 
not,  with  such  farm,  exceed  in  the  aggregate  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres. 
Thus,  for  example,  a  party  owning  or  occupying  eighty  acres  may  enter 
eighty  additional  graded  at  ^1  25,  or  forty  acres  at  $2  50.    Or  suppose  the 


470  AGEICULTUEAL   EEPOET. 

applicant  to  ovni  forty  acres,  tlien  lie  may  enter  one  hundred  and  twenty 
acres  frraded  at  81 25,  or  forty  at  $1 1'5  and  forty  at  $2  50,  if  both  chisses 
of  laud  !!;hould  be  found  coutifnious  to  his  original  farm.  In  entries  of 
"adjoining  farms"  the  settler  must  describe,  in  his  affidavit,  the  tract  he 
owns  and  is  settled  upon  as  his  ori.2;iual  farm.  Actual  residence  on  the 
tract  entered  as  an  adjoining  farm  is  not  required,  bat  ^om^  _^^i^  improve- 
ment and  cultivation  of  it  must  be  shown  for  the  period  required  by  the 
statute. 

Lauds  obtained  under  the  homestead  laws  are  exempted  from  liability 
for  debts  contracted  prior  to  the  issuing  of  patents  therefor. 

Pre-emptors,  in  all  organized  districts  where  surveys  have  been  made, 
can  pay  for  their  tracts  either  in  cash  or  with  warrants,  except  as  to 
double  miuimum  or  $i>  50  lands,  within  the  lateral  limits  of  railroad 
grants,  it  being  required  for  the  double  minimimi  tracts  that  the  war- 
rant shall  be  taken  as  half  the  consideration,  and  the  residue  be  paid  in 
money. 

t^lTED   STATES    LA^T)   OFFICES. 

The  following  list  shows  the  location  of  the  land  offices  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  respective  irablic  land  States  and  Territories : 

Oh  10. — Chillicothe. 

Indiana. — Indianapolis. 

Illinois. — Spruigfield. 

Missouri. — Boonville,  Ironton,  Springfield. 

Alabama. — Mobile,  Iluntsville.  3Iontgomer\. 

Mississ  ippi. — Jackson . 

Louisiana. — New  Orleans,  Monroe,  Xatchitoches. 

Florida. — Tallahassee. 

Arkansas. — Little  Eock,  Washington,  Claiksville. 

Michigan. — Detroit,  East  Saginaw,  Ionia,  Marquette,  Traverse  City. 

loica. — Des  Moines,  Council  Bluffs,  Fort  Dodge,  Sioux  City. 

Wisconsin. — Menasha,  Falls  of  St.  Croix,  Stevens's  Point,  La  Crosse. 
Baylield,  Eau  Claire. 

Kevada. — Carson  City,  Austin,  Belmont,  Aurora. 

California. — San  Francisco,  MarysAlUe,  Humboldt,  Stockton,  Visalia. 
Sacramento. 

'Washington  Territory. — Olympia,  Vancouver. 

2fi)inesota. — Taylor's  Falls,  St.  Cloud.  Trinne])ago  City,  St.  Peters. 
Greenleaf,  Duluth,  Alexandria. 

'Oregon. — Oregon  City,  Eoseburg,  Le  Grand. 

Kansas. — Topeka,  Junction  City,  Humboldt. 

Xehrajil-a. — Omaha  City,  Beatrice,  Lincoln,  Dakota  City. 

Xcic  Mexico  Territory. — Santa  F^. 

Dahota  Territory. — Vermilhon . 

Colorado  Territory. — Denver  City,  Fair  Play,  Central  City. 

Idaho  Territory. — Boise  City,  Lewiston. 

Montana  Territory. — Helena. 

Arizona  Territory. — Prescott. 

Utah  Territory.— Salt  Lake  City. 


THE   PrELIC   DOilAIN. 


471 


EXTENT   OF  THE  PUULIC  LA]N'DS. 

Statement  shoicing  the  area  in  acres  of  tlie  neveral  puiJic  lav.d  States  and   Territories,  the 
quantitif  sold  and  entend  under  homestead  laics,  and  the  number  of  acres  disposed  of  in  each. 


State  ami  Territories. 


Alabama 

Arkaii^KS 

California 

Fl..ii.hi 

IIliiiDis 

indiaua 

Ii'wa 

Kausas 

Liiuisiaua 

^I  icliijTHU 

ilimiestota 

iiissis.sijjpi 

^ii.sMuuri 

^Nebraska 

Jt'eva  Ja 

Ohio 

Orejron 

AViscousin 

Alaska  i>iirchase 

Arizona  TeniUiry 

Colorado  Ti-n-itory 

l>ai<ota  Tei-ritorj' 

liialio  Tt-rri  tory 

Iiiiliaji  Ti-rritory 

iMoutiina  TeiTitory 

Kew  Mexico 

TTtah  Ten  itory 

"Washin^jton  Territory 
"Wyoiiiiug  TeiTitory. . . 

Total 


i 

Snrveved  and 

1 

nu.survi'ved,  i"e- 

Area  in  acres. 

Qnantity  sold. 

Entered  under 
homestead  laws. 

ntainiiig  un.sold 
and  unapiiropri- 
ated,  Jime  30th, 
1868. 

32,  4G2,  080.  00 

17,  7S3,  6fKi.  12 

171, 944.  24 

6, 790, 996. 17 

3;i.  -lOti.  'riO.  00 

b.  2;:5.  0.">9.  {« 

2.J6.  446. 20 

11,574,430.18 

iSJO.  947.  e-50.  00 

1,  19S,i:74.  41 

365.321.76 

104,  538,  420.  30 

37,  9:il.5--'0.  UO 

l,8:«,43l.49 

228,128.67 

17,4<4,  4:J8.  19 

35.  4t>2,  400.  00 

19,  C!79,  40rt.  Zi 

272. 03 

424.  67 

•     2l,t>.17,  7(iO.  00 

16,  122,244.  Te 

1.920.00 

35,  'M^,  800.  00 

n,  5f=7,  240.  35 

362. 9.54.  05 

2.  902.  528.  06 

5-2, 043,  5-20.  00 

244.  97(i.  .32 

7e8.  452. 87 

42,  795.  5<s9.  84 

2i),  401,440.  00 

5,  7--:0.  309.  75 

4,  6.J9.  52 

6,5^2.841.54 

30.  1-28.  044).  00 

12,  26.'.,  5<U).  12 

1.17l,7.a  11 

4,  614.  07a  26 

53,  4.-.9,  tmi.  00 

2.  127,314.  18 

2,  439.  759.  r,4 

35.  .534.  1 18.  75 

30,  170,^411.00 

12,201,037.03 

121.710.15 

4,  828. «  69.  1 1 

4l,fiy4.tMHt.  00 

a.',890,26;J.  15 

mi.  922.  83 

1.483,71.5.22 

4S,  Ult),  f  IM).  (JO 

2.55,  e3^i.  5f 

1.033,  171.98 

41,624,  126.40 

71,737.  i;uo.  00 

60,  403.  35 

ll,6.>4.54 

67.  035,  697.  12 

25,  576  900.  00 

12,8  5,&j2.  19 

5,  777.  57 

500.00 

fi  1,  975. 36  I.  00 

2:12, 064. 39 

307,  289.  98 

52,  .51 .5,  01 4. ;« 

34,  51 1,  360. 00 

9,  819, 225. 39 

779,  372. 10 

9. 2-.8,  627.  3J 

369,  .V29.  COO.  00 
7-2,  906,  24-1.  00 

3C9,  520,  600.  0 1 

..   .   ■" 

68.  855,  8:»0.  CO 

G!i,  etO,  0.10.  00 

69,191.65 

12.-.,T58.49 

62,814,2.54,86 

96,  596,  12S.  00 

18, 292.  44 

191,  l:«.04 

90,  986,  449.  .52 

5.1,228,  liiO.OO 

2,  784.  61 

6, 337. 90 

52.  15J,  806,  49 

44,  l,>4  240.00 

44,  1.54. 24  J.  00 

92.016.64,1.10 



35.93 

86.904  569.07 

77,  5(ia  640.  00 

70,70.5,518.00 

54.  OCw),  043.  20 

.         -.             1 

48,976,310,20 

44,796.  16(1.00 

178, 29*  92 

iM6, 553. 39 

41,56.5,717.53 

f2  045  0G6.  60 

59   164  787.80 

1, 634, 90e,  400.  00 

155, 530,  0j4.  45 

9,  465. 355.  00 

1,  405,  366,  678. 93 

THE  STATE  REPORTS  bP  AGRICULTURE. 


Anuual  reports  of  agriculture  for  the  year  18G7,  have  been  received 
from  the  States  of  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Xew  York,  Michigan,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Iowa,  and  Missoiui,  embracing  all  the  volumes  issued  by  State 
agricultural  societies  or  State  boards  of  agriculture,  during  the  year, 
so  far  as  known  to  this  Department.  While  it  is  impracticable  to  repro- 
duce, even  in  the  most  concise  form,  the  entii'e  contents  of  these  local 
publications,  a  brief  digest  of  the  more  importaht  featui'es  of  each  is 
herewith  presented,  though  in  some  instances  the  suggestions  of  indi- 
vidual contributors  may  not  merit  the  fullest  indorsement.  Practical 
results  are  of  more  value  to  the  farmer  than  detailed  theories  or  specu- 
lations ;  hence,  in  gleaning  from  these  several  volumes,  more  attention 
has  been  given  to  the  statements  of  facts — the  results  of  actual  experi- 
ment— than  to  the  lengthy  essays ;  while  the  reproductions  from  home 
and  from  foreign  periodicals  have  been  jDassed  over  entirely. 

M  A  I  X  E . 

THE  APPLE  OECHATIDS  OF  KEVT  EXGLAKD. 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  by  Calvin 
Chamberlain,  it  is  stated  that  Xew  England  soil  once  sustained  the  apple 
tree  to  a  vigorous  old  age,  but  that  farmers,  relying  too  much  on  the 
permanence  of  existing  orchards,  and  takmg  no  note  of  climatic  changes 
induced  by  the  removal  of  forests,  have  suffered  this  interest  to  waste 
away  to  an  alarmiug  degree.  A  few  individuals  saw  the  error  in  time, 
and  gave  the  note  of  warning,  which  had  some  effect;  but  the  hard 
winter  ten  years  ago,  by  laying  waste  the  labors  of  many  orchardists, 
discouraged  general  effort  and  caused  a  rapid  decline  in  production. 
,That  the  climate  has  changed  siuce  the  first  orchards  were  planted  in 
the  narrow  clearings  of  the  forest  is  understood,  and  also  that  the  soils 
of  the  orchard  farms  differ  in  their  constituent  elements  from  their 
primitive  condition;  and  that  destructive  insects  have  gi-eatly  multiplied 
is  equally  certain;  but,  with  a  growing  conception  of  these  negative  influ- 
ences, there  now  appears  to  be  an  increasing  inquiry  for  nursery  trees. 
Nurseries  seem  to  have  declined  as  raioidly  as  orchards,  however,  and  in 
many  sections  none  exist. 

The  writer  advises  farmers  to  return  to  the  practice  of  raising  their 
own  apple  trees,  as  worth  much  more  than  when  grown  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  farm.  yVny  family  may  save  seeds  enough  fr'om  good 
apples  to  plant  thickly  in  the  garden,  in  the  spring,  at  least  one  row  a 
rod  long.  When  grown  one  or  two  years  these  trees  should  be  trans- 
l)lanted,  at  intervals  of  one  foot,  in  rows  three  feet  apart.  The  trans- 
Ijlanting  is  best  done  by  taking  them  up  in  the  autumn,  and  packing  the 
roots  in  earth  in  the  cellar.  They  may  be  grafted  at  any  time  during 
the  winter,  and  reset  in  the  spring,  or  they  may  be  reset  when  lifted,  in 
fall  or  spring,  and  budded  or  gTufted  the  following  year ;  or  they  may 
be  allowed  to  go  to  the  orchard  as  seedlings,  and  such  only  be  gTafted 
subsequently  in  the  branches  as  produce  inierior  fruit.  No  one  should 
attempt  to  raise  an  orchard  until  he  is  ready  to  give  his  trees  such  care 


STATE    EEPORTS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  47  d 

as  is  requisite  for  tlie  production  of  a  crop  of  corn  or  potatoes,  as  the 
apple  tree  must  liave  care  iu  all  its  stages  from  the  seed  to  the  mature 
tree. 

The  successfid  efforts  of  a  geutleman  iu  one  of  the  eastern  counties 
of  Maine,  in  apple  tree  culture,  practically  illustrates  the  possibility  of 
reviving  the  ^irlier  interest  and  results  in  orchards  in  that  section  of 
the  Union.  The  soil  of  the  orchard  referred  to  was  natiu-ally  very  poor 
and  thin,  being  composed  of  a  coarse,  cold,  and  loamy  gravel,  lying  on 
a  hght  pan  inclined  to  clay,  and  full  of  schistose  stones.  Six  or  seven 
acres  were  underdrained.  ibur  and  a  half  feet  deep.  Three  exiierimeuts 
were  ti'ied  in  planting  the  trees.  In  2so.  1  the  holes  were  dug  eight  feet 
in  diameter  and  twenty  inches  deep,  and  tilled  with  allu\ial  soil  taken 
from  a  low  island  in  the  river.  In  the  holes  thus  prepared  one  hundred 
ti'ees  were  planted,  tweut^"  feet  apart.  In  Xo.  2  the  land  was  plowed  in 
ridges  twenty  feet  wide,  the  dead  furrow  coming  where  the  rows  were 
to  stand.  An  ox-scraper  eight  feet  long  was  passed  across  these  ridges, 
and  the  contents  di'opped  in  each  dead  furrow,  retiuning  in  the  same 
line,  tlrawing  the  other  side  in.  These  ca^ities  were  then  plowed  and 
scraped  a  second  time,  and  an  os-cait  load  of  black-ash  swamp  mud  and 
about  one  bushel  of  slacked  lime,  well  mixed,  put  into  the  holes.  Some 
rich  top  sod  was  mixed  with  this  deposit,  and  one  huucked  trees  planted 
in  the  soil,  when  the  field  was  plowed  level.  In  Xo.  3  an  acre  was  se- 
lected which  had  been  cultivated  with  potatoes,  corn.  &c..  and  about  one 
huudi'ed  ox-cait  loads  of  muck  and  lime  and  about  thirty  loads  of 
manure  were  spread  upon  it.  A  road-plow  was  then  drawn  through  the 
land  tvrenty  inches  deep.  The  following  spring,  the  stones  having  been 
removed,  the  land  was  again  manured,  and  plowed  six  inches  deep,  and 
one  hundred  trees  planted  upon  it,  not  in  it,  the  holes  being  not  more 
than  three  or  four  inches  deep.  The  land  has  since  been  di'essed  with 
muck,  three-fourths  of  a  cord  to  each  twenty  feet  square,  though  not  aU 
at  once,  and  the  soil  has  been  kept  under  cultivation.  The  other  trees 
were  planted  in  the  ordinary  method.  The  best  ti'ees  are  on  field  Xo.  3, 
on  the  deep  plowing.  ]Most  of  them  have  been  planted  since  18o7,  many 
of  them  since  the  spring  of  ISGO.  This  season  more  than  150  baiTcls  of 
apples  were  gathered  by  hand,  and  100  bushels  of  cider  apples  picked 
up.  the  laud  at  the  same  time  yielding  a  large  quantity  of  small  crops — 
50  bushels  of  barley  and  about  SOO"  bushels  of  potatoes.  The  gentle- 
man refen-ed  to  concludes  that  the  same  variety  of  scions  wOl  not  grow 
in  all  trees :  that  a  ti-ee  may  be  planted  upon  any  soil,  even  a  stiff  blue 
clay,  and  be  made  to  gi'ow  and  do  well :  that  all  sods  holding  or  retain- 
ing water  must  be  undertlrained,  and  if  clay  the  dizains  must  be  under 
the  trees ;  that  a  ti-ee  must  be  fed  with  those  elements  constituting  its 
substance,  and  that  such  are  contained  lai-gely  in  the  muck  upon  which 
hard  wood  is  growing,  mixed  with  ashes :  that  the  grexit  enemy  in  our 
orchards  is  grass,  which  must  not  be  iiermitted  to  grow  in  the  same  field 
wy:h  the  trees:  and  that  the  orchard,  at  least  in  the  region  referred  to, 
should  be  kept  in  constant  cultivation.  These  observations  do  not  applt 
to  trees  standing  upon  rock  maple  land. 

PRODUCTS  A^^)  T^UZIETIES  OF  FRUIT. 

Ajyples. — Joseph  H.  Smiley,  of  Yassalborough.  has  about  one  and 
five-eighths  acre  iu  orchard,  raised  from  the  seed  and  giafted  principally 
with  the  Baldwin.  Greening,  and  Tolman's  Sweeting.  About  110  trees 
have  been  in  beariug  several  yeai"s,  the  remainder  just  commencing  to 
bear.    His  crop  in  1663  was  106  baireLs,  sold  for  ^2\j6  ;  in  1S64,  50  bar- 


474  AGBICULTURAL   REPORT. 

rels,  sold  for  8102 ;  in  I8G0,  104  barrels,  sold  for  861G ;  in  18GG,  IGO  bar- 
rels, sold  lor  8GG7 :  each  year  reserving  six  or  ei^'bt  barrels  for  family 
use,  not  iuchidod  above.  Laud  formerly  pasture;  brokeu  up  iu  1.S48, 
and  plauted  with  coru  and  potatoes,  the  trees  being  set  the  foUowing 
spring.  The  orchard  was  planted  aud  sown  to  grain  alteniately  for  six 
or  seven  years,  aud  then  seeded  to  elover ;  since  that  time  it  has  been  j)as- 
tm-ed  with  shee}),  the  trees  beiug  i)rotectcd  with  stakes  and  laths. 

Jacob  Pope,  of  ilaiichester,  sold  from  his  orchard  of  sixteen  acres 
250  barrels  of  first  quality  of  api»les  at  $4  to  84  30  per  barrel ;  thus 
harvesting  over  $1,000  worth  from  a  rough  piece  of  laud,  portions  of 
which  had  never  been  i)lowed,  but  used  for  sheep-graziug.  The  trees 
were  mostly  the  Baldwin,  Roxbury  Russet,  and  llhode  Island  Greeniug. 

o^athan  Foster,  of  Gardiner,  recommends  the  following  list  for  general 
cultivation  iu  that  locality:  Apples — Red  Astrachau,  Sidney  Sweet, 
Moses  Wood,  American  Summer  Pearmain,  Winthrop  Greening,  Som- 
erset, Holmes's  Sweet,  Graveustein.  Fameuse,  Tolman's  Sweeting,  Bell- 
flower,  Rhode  Island  Greeniug,  Northern  Spy.  Pears — Doyenne  d'fite, 
Rostiezer,  Beune  d'Amaulis,  Flemish  BeautV,  Xickerson,  Fulton,  Nou- 
veau  Poiteau,  Belle  Lucrative,  Urbaniste,  Winter  Nelis,  and  Lawrence. 

S.  N.  Taber,  of  Vassal  borough,  recommends  the  following  ajiples  for  a 
family  orchard:  Early  Harvest,  Early  Sweet  Bough,  Sops  of  Wine,  Wd- 
liams's  Favorite,  Graveustein,  Somerset,  Porter,  Queeu's,  Sta^rkey,  Hurl- 
but,  Rhode  Lsland  Greening,  Franklin  Sweet,  Sawyer  Sweet,  Baldwin, 
Golden  Russet,  Xortheru  Spy,  Tolmau's  Sweeting,  and  BellHower. 

TITE  USE  OF  FRUITS  AXD  TEGETAELES. 

'Mr.  Chamberlain,  iu  a  report  11  pon  this  subject,nrgues  that  health  and 
economy  require  more  attention,  on  the  part  of  our  farmers,  to  the  pro- 
duction and  use  of  garden  vegetables  and  fniits:  and  urges  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  consumption  of  meat,  aud  a  greater  reliance  upon  the  former 
for  the  table,  especially  in  tlie  warm  season,  not  only  as  a  matter  of 
health,  but  of  economy.  The  kitchen  garden  shoidd  become  a  general 
and  an  impoitant  appendage  to  the  farm,  being  made  an  object  ot 
annual  and  daily  care.  Iu  support  of  the  economical  view  it  is  stated 
that  a  growing  animal,  or  a  cow  in  milk,  consiuues  daily  of  good  hay  about 
three  per  cent,  of  its  own  weight;  that  it  takes  11  "pounds  of  milk  to 
increase  the  weight  of  a  calf  one  pound ;  that  315  pounds  of  potatoes, 
648  pounds  of  beets,  G7G  pounds  of  tiu"nips,  and  38G  pounds  of  caiTots 
are  each  equivalent  to  100  poiuids  of  hay ;  that  an  ox  weighing  1.300 
pounds  will  keep  up  his  weight  upon  about  22  pounds  of  good  hay  pai' 
day ;  but,  put  uj)  to  fatten,  he  will  require  44  pounds,  upon  which  he 
will  gain  about  two  pounds  per  day.  Substituting  equivaleuts  for  one- 
half  the  nay,  we  have  G0.3  pounds  of  potatoes,  120.4  jjoiuids  of  beets, 
148.7  i)ounds  of  tttrnips,  or  84  jmunds  of  carrots,  added  to  22  pounds  of 
hay  for  daily  feed,  to  produce  two  i)Ounds  of  beef,  live  weight.  An  ex- 
periment in  feeding  hogs,  from  Boussingault's  Rural  Economy,  is  given: 
Four  animals,  each  nine  mouths  old,  weight  458.2  pounds;  \\t  the  end 
of  twenty-one  days  they  weighed  G20.8  i)ounds,  increase  1G2.G  pounds; 
to  attain  which  they  consumed,  of  barley  151  pounds,  beans  140.8 
pounds,  malt  grains  440  pounds,  equivalent  in  nutrition  to  1,220  pounds 
of  hay,  or  3,871  pounds  of  jwtatoes,  so  that  the  quantity  of  nutiitive  mat- 
ter, represented  by  100  pounds  of  hay,  producf d  13.21  pounds  of  live 
weight.  Otherwise  expresstjd,  C4J  bushels  of  potatoes  produced  1G2.G 
poiinds  of  live  hog.  In  another  experiment,  seven  hogs,  fifteen  months 
old  aud  iu  good  condition,  were  put  up  to  fatten,  their  weight  being 


STATE    REPORTS    OF   AGEICULTUEE.  475 

1,G91.8  pounds ;  at  tlie  end  of  104  days  they  had  gamed  400.2  pounds ; 
they  cousnraed  772  pounds  of  barley ,'^  1,042.8  pounds  of  peas,  and  9.504 
pounds  of  potatoes;  gi%ing  equivalents,  we  have  2i3.243  i)ounds  of  pota- 
toes ;  the  provender  equivalent  to  100  pounds  of  hay  gave  4.01  pounds 
live  weight,  or  450  bushels  of  potatoes  made  400  pounds  of  li  ve  pvuk.  Mut- 
ton is  fattened  at  a  cost  about  the  same  as  beef.  With  such  proof  of  ex- 
penditure of  vegetables  for  the  in-oduetion  of  animal  llesh,  the  writer  con- 
cludes that  course  to  be  true  economy  which  leads  us  to  support  oiu-selves 
on  the  products  of  the  garden,  the  orchard,  and  the  field  :  reduciug  our 
animal  food  to  its  mininium,  below  which  Wtal  energy  will  be  lessened, 
and  our  usefulness  abridged. 

SOLTl   KEOUT. 

A  letter  to  the  secretary  upon  the  manufacture  of  sour  Icront  gives 
the  following  as  the  popular  method  of  preparation  among  the  kiout- 
makers  of  Lincoln  County  : 

The  outside  and  loose  leaves  should  be  cut  off  and  the  heads  quartered 
and  thrown  into  a  tub  of  clear  water,  from  which  they  should  be  taken, 
one  piece  or  more  at  a  time,  and  placed  in  a  small  box,  open  at  top  and 
bottom,  and  running  in  the  grooves  of  the  krout  machine,  which  is 
about  four  feet  longTone  foot  wide,  and  six  inches  deep.  The  box  nms 
over  three  or  four  knives,  sometimes  made  of  old  scythes,  fixed  diago- 
nally across  the  bottom  of  the  machine.  The  edges  of  the  knives  are 
shgiitly  raised  above  the  level  of  the  bottom,  and  when  the  box  is  moved 
backward  and  forward  in  the  grooves,  and  pressure  made  with  a  small 
piece  of  board  on  the  cabbage,  the  latter  is  cut  into  thin,  small  slices, 
Avhich  drop  iuto  the  tub  beneath  the  cutter.  As  the  cabbage  is  cut,  it 
is  transferred  to  a  clean  barrel  (a  pork  barrel  is  preferable)  and  pounded 
with  a  heavy-  wooden  mallet.  The  more  closely  it  is  packed  the  better : 
and,  with  care,  from  250  to  300  pounds  of  cabbage  may  be  put  into  a 
barrel  of  40  gallons.  One  pint  of  fine  salt  to  the  barrel  is  sprinkled  with 
the  cabbage  as  it  is  packed  down.  Xo  addition  of  water  is  required. 
Fill  the  barrel  to  a  point  two  inches  from  the  top,  cover  the  krout  with 
large  cabbage  leaves,  and  place  over  the  whole  a  wooden  cover  small 
enough  to  be  inserted  within  the  baiTel,  where  it  must  be  kei)t  firmly, 
by  a  heavy  stone,  until  the  process  of  fermentation  is  past.  Place  the 
barrel  \nthin  five  or  six  feet  of  the  kitchen  fire,  and  in  a  few  days  fer- 
mentation will  commence,  which  may  be  hastened  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  blood- warm  water ;  a  frothy  scum  will  rise  and  run  off,  when  the 
krout  is  all  right  and  ready  for'  use,  and  the  barrel  may  be  set  in  the 
cellar,  porch,  or  shed.  Freezing  does  it  no  injury,  and  it  will  keep  in 
the  cellar  until  March  or  April  without  depreciating,  and  longer  in  a 
cooler  i)lace.  A  barrel  of  krout  can  be  made  in  two  hoinrs  by  two  men. 
Any  prejudice  existing  against  sour  krout,  for  want  of  cleanliness,  is  not 
well  founded  where  even  ordinary  care  is  exercised  in  its  preparation. 
There  are  various  modes  of  cooking  it,  while  some  prefer  it  raw,  eating  it 
as  a  salad.  It  is  frequently  boiled,  three  hours  or  more,  with  salt  poik 
cut  into  small  pieces.  Perhaps  the  nicest  st^le  is  to  fry  it  in  pork  fat 
or  with  the  gravy  from  roast  pork.  For  fiying,  it  should  be  boiled  two 
hom-s  to  make  it' tender.  It  is  a  wholesome,  heaity  food,  and  is  partic- 
ularly appreciated  by  men  requhing  a  substantial  diet,  while  it  is  also 
relished  by  many  of  more  fastidious  taste. 

CITLTniE  OF  BUCKWHEAT. 

The  report  of  :Mi'.  Harries,  on  the  culture  of  buck^^heat,  recommends 
increased  attention  to  the  production  of  this  gi-ain  in  Maine,  where  it 


476  AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

matures  in  about  uinety  days  from  sowing.  Tlie  writer  states  tliat  it 
can  be  raised  as  cheaply  as  oats,  while  one  bnshel  of  it  is  worth  two  of 
oats  for  making  beef,  pork,  or  mutton.  When  used  for  feeding  purposes 
the  flour  and  bran  are  not  separated,  and  thirty  to  thirty -three  pounds 
per  bushel  are  obtained;  in  separating,  the  bolt  divides  it  in  about 
equal  parts.  It  is  asserted  that  the  flour  is  Avorth  as  much  as  wheat 
flour  in  the  family.  If  sown  on  land  in  high  contlitiou  it  will  lodge,  and 
not  yield  so  much  as  on  land  in  a  lower  state  of  cultivation.  It  will 
grow  on  ijoor  soil,  and  yield  a  good  crop  for  several  successive  years 
without  seeming  to  make  the  soil  poorer,  as  it  is  thought  to  receive  a 
large  share  of  its  nutriment  from  the  atmosphere,  through  its  great 
amount  of  leaves.  The  best  way  to  harvest  is  to  cradle  it,  setting  it  up 
in  small  bunches  to  dry.  It  will  not  sprout  at  harvest  time,  and  the 
lx)or  man,  without  a  bam,  may  raise  it.  It  is  best  threshed  on  a  bed 
made  of  small  poles,  supported  at  suitable  height  from  the  gi'ouud,  the 
^ain  falling  beneath.  The  grain  is  ready  for  the  mill  at  any  time. 
Preference  is  given  to  the  rough  variety,  as  not  being  liable  to  blight, 
and  yielding  more,  while  making  as  good  flour  as  the  smooth  variety. 

CUTTING  HAT. 

Samuel  L.  Boardman  says,  in  a  paper  upon  the  agriculture  and  indus- 
try of  Kennebec  County,  that  farmers  do  not  cut  their  hay  soon  enough; 
that  hay,  by  the  present  mode  of  cutting  it,  loses  a  large  part  of  its 
most  valuable  constituents;  that  to  be  properly  cured,  it  should,  when 
this  or>eration  is  performed,  resemble  dried  grass  as  nuich  as  possible; 
and,  to  accomi^lisli  this,  it  needs  to  remain  ex^^osed  to  the  air,  after  cut- 
ting, only  long  enough  to  have  the  water  dried  out ;  and  that  the  right 
time  for  cutting  grass  is  when  it  contains  the  largest  amount  of  matter 
soluble  in  water,  and  not  after  this  has  changed  to  woody  matter,  as 
when  passing  into  seed. 

The  method  of  cxmng  hay  employed  by  AUen  Lambard,  of  Augusta, 
is  given  as  follows :  He  never  commences  cutting  grass  in  the  morning 
imtil  the  dew  is  all  off,  which  is  usually  about  9  o'clock.  It  then  lies 
until  afternoon,  when  it  is  put  up  in  bunches,  in  which  state  it  remains 
through  the  night  and  all  of  the  next  day,  without  being  disturbed. 
The  second  day  after  mowing,  the  bunches  are  aU  made  over  with  a 
fork,  commencing  at  the  top,  shaking  it  apart  somewhat  and  rebuilding, 
thus  bringing  the  bottom  of  one  bunch  to  the  top  of  the  other.  It  then 
remains  until  the  third  day,  when,  if  the  weather  is  good,  it  is  opened, 
has  the  sun  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  is  hauled  in.  If  the  weather  is  not 
good,  it  remains  untouched  until  the  next  day.  Hay  cured  in  this  way 
retains  its  sweetness,  brightness,  and  all  the  leaves  and  blossoms  until 
fed  out ;  and  not  having  been  burnt  up,  the  best  part  is  not  left  in 
the  field  when  it  is  harvested.  The  mixture  of  seed  used  in  seeding — 
.twenty  pounds  of  clover  and  half  a  bushel  each  of  herd's  gi'ass  and  red- 
top  to  the  acre — gives  pure  grass  of  an  excellent  quality. 

FARM  FENCING. 

In  a  report  upon  this  subject  2\Ir.  Prince  states  that  in  18C0  there  were 
in  Maine  53,950  fanns  of  more  than  twenty  acres,  upon  each  of  which 
it  is  estimated  there  are  500  rods  of  fence,  making  an  aggregate 
of  20,978.000  rods ;  that  at  least  two-thirds  of  this  is  of  wood,  and 
liable  to  need  repair  every  season,  which,  aj,  ten  cents  per  rod, 
will  make  an  annual  outlay  of  nearly  $2,000,000,  constantly  increasing 


STATE   KEPOETS    OF   AGKICULTUKE.  477 

with  the  cost  of  wood  and  timber;  and  that  this  expense  must  in  time 
become  burdensome  in  the  extreme,  unless  some  cheaper  and  more  sys- 
tematic n)ode  of  iuclosure  shall  be  devised.  It  is  stated  that  embank- 
ment fences  and  hedge  fence,  though  pretty  to  look  upon,  have  been  found 
impracticable  in  Maine.  Another  member  said  it  should  be  a  point  with 
farmers  to  build  fences  that  will  last  a  lifetime.  A  fence  made  of  pick- 
ets, with  an  iron  post  and  stone  foot,  is  becoming  common  in  open  fields 
devoid  of  stones,  making  an  excellent  fence,  and  one  which  will  last 
twenty-live  or  thirty  years.  The  most  substantial  fence  is  the  cheapest. 
Better  build  a  picket  fence  than  to  patch  up  a  fence  every  year  with  long, 
straight  sticks  from  the  forest,  that  in  a  few  years  would  make  valuable 
timber. 

SHEEP  IN  NEW  ENaLAND. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  State  board  it  was  resolved  that  the  interests  of 
]\Iaine  farmers  demand  that  more  attention  shall  be  given  to  the  produc- 
tion of  mutton,  both  for  sale  and  for  the  farmer's  table.  The  opinion 
-oas  expressed  that  the  keeping  of  sheep,  primarily  for  the  production  of 
wool,  cannot  be  profitably  i)ursued  for  any  length  of  time  in  Maine  or  in 
New  England ;  that  the  advantages  of  the  far  west  for  sheep  husbandry, 
and  the  portable  quabties  of  wool,  woidd  so  reduce  the  price  as  to  cause 
the  abandonment  of  the  pursuit  in  the  former  section.  An  increased  tariff 
on  wool  was  regarded  as  only  a  temporary  relief,  which  must  hasten  the 
time  of  its  cheap  production  at  home.  As  yet,  the  native  grazing  lands 
of  the  United  States  have  hardly  been  reached  by  civibzation.  The 
Indian,  the  buffalo,  the  elk,  and  the  wolf  have  had  undisputed  posses- 
sion. These  must  soon  give  place  to  the  shepherd  and  his  flocks  and 
herds,  producing  v»ool  for  theXew  England  manufacturers,  and  meat  for 
the  miners  in  the  mountains.  A  large  part  of  the  vast  territory  lying- 
west  of  the  Mississippi  is  admirably  adapted  to  sheep  husbandry,  and 
the  belief  was  expressed  that  the  time  would  soon  come  when  a  pound 
of  wool  Avould  be  produced  in  the  United  States  more  cheaply  than  a 
X^ound  of  cotton.  Yet  New  England  should  not  be  discouraged  in  sheep 
husbandry,  as  it  will  always  have  a  market  for  mutton  without  competi- 
tion. It  was  argued  that  the  East  can  alsojiroduce  finer  wool  than  the 
West,  the  climate  and  condition  of  the  new  Territories  not  being  favor- 
able to  the  production  of  very  fine  wool,  or  the  long  combing  wools  for 
lustrous  goods.  The  Merino  was  recommended  as  suitefl  to  the  situa- 
tion. It  was  stated  that  little  good  mutton  is  produced  in  New  England, 
and  no  special  pains  are  taken  to  raise  it,  though  the  section  is  possessed 
of  the  elements  requisite  to  the  production  of  mutton  sheep  in  perfection. 
Th3  farmer  can  produce  no  meat  so  cheap  and  convenient  for  his  table ; 
he  can  have  it  fresh  or  corned  at  any  time ;  and  it  woidd  be  a  cheap  and 
healthy  substitute  for  much  of  the  pork  now  used.  A  resolution  was 
also  adopted  by  the  board,  that  sheep  husban^lry  ought  to  be  encouraged 
not  only  as  a  direct  means  of  support,  but  also  as  indirectly  tending  to 
maintain  the  xiroductiveness  of  the  soil,  thus  enabUng  it  to  support  a 
larger  number  of  producers  under  conditions  more  desirable  than  n&^v 
enjoyed. 

USE  OF  AKTIFICIAL  FERTIEIZERS. 

A  report  by  Mr.  Wasson,  discussing  the  question,  "  Can  artificial 
manures  be  profitably  used  by  farmers;  if  so,  what  kinds  and  to  what 
extent?"  holds  that,  oiily  where  adequate  returns  cannot  be  made  to  the 


478  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

soil  \rithout  paying  out,  should  fertilizers  be  bought.  Plaster,  fish 
guano,  and  superphosi)liate  are  named,  as  occupying  positions  greatly 
elevated  above  other  artificial  fertilizers.  The  value  of  plaster  in  some 
localities  is  great,  in  others  it  appears  to  be  utterly  Tvorthless,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  ijredict,  with  any  certainty,  its  eflects  upon  any  given  crop ; 
but,  as  it  is  cheap,  every  one  can  test  its  influence  upon  i)articular  soils. 
Fish  guano,  the  dried  refuse  of  the  porgy  flsberies,  is  rich  in  nitrogen- 
ous matter,  which  is  readily  given  out  as  ammonia,  and  proves  an  active 
stimulant  to  nearly  all  cultivated  plants.  Tbe  superphosphate  is 
designated  the  great  agricultural  improvement  of  the  age,  and  for  the 
culture  of  corn  in  short  seasons  in  that  latitude  is  considered  almost 
iudipensable ;  nor  is  its  employment  less  successfid  in  the  culture  of 
roots,  especially  the  turnip,  the  licet,  and  the  carrot ;  while  upon  ex- 
hausted pasture  lands  it  proves  highly  satisfactory,  being  lu'ged  as  the 
only  means,  at  least  the  cheapest,  for  renovating  worn-out  pastm-es, 
inaccessible  to  cultivation  except  in  the  use  of  artificial  manures.  As 
to  the  extent  to  vrhich  these  fertilizers  should  be  used,  the  writer  thinks 
they  ought  not  to  be  used  in  place  of  farm-yard  manure,  nor  of  any  home 
resource  for  fertilization,  but  in  addition  to  tbeni,and  also  with  the  view 
of  thereby  increasing,  through  the  increase  of  crops  and  consumption 
at  home,  the  home  supply  of  manure. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed  the  reading  of  the  report,  several 
causes  were  given  for  the  failure  of  artificial  manures  to  possess  the 
virtues  expected  of  them.  Thus,  the  cheap  guanos  come  from  countries 
where  rain  falls,  and  the  soluble  portions  are  washed  out,  leaving  little 
of  value  except  insoluble  phosphates.  Poudrette  is  usually  made  of 
night  soil  which  has  [»arted  with  most  of  its  eflicacy.  Peruvian  guano 
is  sometimes  adulterated  largely  with"  sand  or  soil.  Superphosphate  is 
sometimes  made  of  inferior  nmterials,  and  not  unfrequently  mixed  with 
muck  and  dirt  and  other  cheap  stuff.  The  frequent  failures  attending 
the  use  of  fish  guano  arise  from  loss  by  reason  of  its  perishable  nature ; 
if  rapidly  and  immediately  dried,  however,  there  need  be  no  difficulty  in 
preserving  its  fertilizing  properties. 

Fish  guano  contains  a  coni]>aratively  small  amount  of  ])hosphate  of 
lime;  and,  when  freely  used  without  supplying  phosphates  and  other  ash 
constituents  of  plants,  there  is  liability  to  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  by 
reason  of  the  large  crops  obtained,  and  which  the  farmer  may  think  can 
be  repeated  for  years  in  succession  by  subsequent  additions  of  the  fish 
guano,  while  <n  fact  this  has  but  enabled  the  more  rapid  drawing  out 
from  the  soil  of  what  was  in  it.  The  chief  uses  of  fish  guano  are,  first, 
for  the  growth  of  grass ;  and  when  the  manure  yielded  by  the  consump- 
tion of  the  hay  giown  as  a  residt  of  the  use  of  the  guano  is  returned  to 
the  same  ground,  a  high  degree  of  fertility  may  not  only  be  estab- 
lished, bui:  also  fully  maintained;  second,  for  use  in  old  gardens,  where 
there  are  considerable  accumidations  of  plant  food  yet  in  an  inert  and 
unavailable  condition. 

THE  CO^'STKUCTION  OF  BARNS  WITH    REFERENCE  TO  THE    PRESERV- 
ATION OF  :\IANURES. 

A  report  by  Mr.  Farley  suggests  the  construction  of  barns,  with  close 
or  open  cellars,  so  that  the  solid  and  the  Ii(]uid  manures  made  in  them 
may  be  saved  from  waste,  evaporation,  or  washing  away,  and  so  depos- 
ited as  to  allow  of  an  admixtirre  of  muck,  top-soil,  rock  weeds,  leaves, 
straw,  or  other  substances  suitable  for  absorbents  and  compost.  It  is 
asserted  that  more  than  one-half  of  the  animal  manure  made  in  the 


STATE   REPORTS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  479 

State,  during^  tho  season  v^hen  farm  animals  are  housed,  is  lost  with  the 
baru  arrangements  now  existing.  With  barns  properly  constructed, 
this  enormous  waste  may  in  a  great  measure  be  obviated,  and  the  manure 
heap  may  be  largely  increased  by  the  addition  of  absorbents  and  com- 
post matter,  wbich  the  animal  umnnre  thus  saved  will  bear,  and  the 
increased  heap  possess  sufficient  strength  for  the  production  of  the  lead- 
ing crops  of  the  State.  The  compost  manure  is  jireferable  to  clear  manure 
for  t0i)-di'cssiug  with  reference  to  hay  crops,  for  the  reason  that  the  former 
operates  not  only  as  a  manure  but  as  an  addition  to  the  soil  itself,  which 
is  required  in  the  top-dressing  of  sandy,  gravelly  fields.  For  top-dress- 
ing purposes  live  times  the  quantity  of  com])ost  substances  may  be  added, 
if  of  good  quality.  Probabl}'  nine-tenths  of  all  their  farms  have  the 
materials — either  salt  or  fresh  muck,  top-soil,  or  rock  weed — required  for 
compost ;  and,  when  deposited,  spring  ami  fall,  in  suitable  pro])ortions 
to  the  solid  and  the  liquid  manures  dropped  in  the  barns,  the  hogs  will 
do  almost  everything  else  requisite  to  i)reijare  the  heap  for  use. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

The  report  of  the  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Agilculture,  ahd  editor  of 
the  annual  i[)ublication,  Charles  L.  Flint,  ])reseuts  returns  from  twenty- 
nine  local  agricidtural  societies,  which,  with  the  State  society,  acknow- 
ledge receipts  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  $130,712  92,  and  of  dis- 
bursements 8128,019  21 ;  of  which  $U3,-43o  05  were  for  current  ex])enses, 
and  $25,320  42  for  premiums.  Of  the  latter  amount  $15,245  10  was 
paid  on  Live  stock,  $4,905  71  on  farm  products,  81,552  90  on  farms, 
improvements,  manures,  &c.,  and  $o[)G  25  on  agricultural  im})lemeuts. 
Of  the  amount  paid  on  stock  80,401  45  was  on  horses,  $5,058  00  on  cat- 
tle, 8905  50  on  sheep,  $799  on  s.wine,  and  $497  75  on  poultry.  The 
premiums  were  awarded  to  0,491  jiersons.  The  aggregate  permanent 
fund  of  the  societies  is  8342,282  41,  and  the  value  of  their  real  and  per- 
sotial  property,  above  indebtedness,  8327,084  57.  From  the  secretary's 
absti'acts  of  county  reports  the  following  facts  and  experiments  are 
gleaned  : 

FARM  PROFITS. 

Richard  Webster,  of  Essex  County,  reports  his  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures on  a  iarm  of  forty  acres,  for  which  he  paid  $1,950  in  1859,  as  fol- 
lows: In  ISGO  sold  $873  31;  expenses,  8404  25.  In  1801  sold  8052  33; 
ex])enses,  8088  33.  In  1802  sold  $093  07;  expenses,  8834  10.  In  1803 
sold  81,115  80;  expenses,  $1,083  80.  Iti  1804  sold  $1,945  50;  expenses, 
$1,371.  In  1805  sold  82,274  10;  ex])enses,  $1,703.  In  1800  sold 
$2,595  83;  ex])enses,  81,047  70.  In  1S07  the  rcceii)ts  and  expenditures 
were  about  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  year.  When  purchased,  four- 
teen of  the  forty  acres  were  what  is  called  held  land  ;  the  remainder  bush 
pasture  with  alders,  bij-ches,  &c.,  and  would  pasture  three  head  of  cattle. 
In  18G0,  on  his  best  mowing  held  of  four  acres,  he. cut  only  three-quar- 
ters of  a  ton  of  poor  hay.  In  addition  to  other  improvements  made, 
buildings,  &c.,  have  been  added,  at  an  expense  of  about  $4,200.  The 
farm  is  now  estimated  to  be  worth  from  $5,000  to  $8,000. 

PROFITS  ON  FARIM  PRODUCTS. 

Corn. — O.  P.  Kellam,  of  Essex  County,  produced  on  three  and  three- 
quarter  acres,  COO  bushels  of  corn  in  the  ear,  valued  at  $450;  eight  tons 
butt  stalks,  valued  at  $04;  and  40  tons  toj^  stalks,  valued  at  $00;  total. 


480  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

$574.  Expenses,  $329  50,  including  $192  estimated  for  manure.  Net 
profits,  $244  50,  or  BGo  20  per  acre.  Tlie  land  was  plowed  eight  inches 
deep,  and  7G  loads  of  manure  turned  under;  harrowed,  and  furrowed, 
and  manured  in  the  hill  with  20  loads  of  compost ;  planted  three  and  a 
half  feet  apart  each  way.  with  37i  quarts  of  yellow  eight-rowed  corn; 
cultivated  three  times  each  way,  and  hoed  twice  before  haying,  and  the 
weeds  hoed  out  10th  of  August.  English  hay  preceding  crop.  Soil, 
dark  gTavelly  loam. 

Joseph  Goodrich,  of  Worcester,  produced  on  one  acre  llli  buslifls  of 
corn  and  two  tons  of  stover,  at  a  cost  of  870  75,  the  maniu'e  being  val- 
ued at  639  25.  Land  plowed  fall  and  spring;  15  loads  mauiu-e  plowed 
in.  and  250  pounds  superphofsi^hate  and  the  same  of  plaster  applied  to  the 
hill.  Six  quarts  of  seed  planted.  Carter  variety,  cultivated  twice  one 
way,  and  hand-hoed  twice.    Grass  the  preceding  crop. 

Luther  Page,  of  Worcester,  produced  on  one  acre  111^  bushels  of  corji 
and  three  tons  of  stover,  at  a  cost  of  849  50,  of  which  827  was  for  ma- 
nure. Laud  plowed  in  October  six  inches  deep :  IS  loads  of  compost  ap- 
plied in  the  spring;  harrowed  well,  fiUTOwed  lightly  one  way;  a  small 
handful  of  superphosphate  put  in  each  hill.  Xine  quarts  planted,  of 
eight-rowed  yellow  and  red  mixed  corn.  Cultivated  twice  the  same  way. 
Followed  grass. 

Albert  Stratton.  of  Worcester,  produced  on  one  acre  90^  bushels  of 
com,  at  an  expense  of  893  5S,  of  which  858  50  is  charged  to  manure. 
FoUowed  gTass.  Land  plowed  half  in  Xovember.  half  in  April,  seven 
inches  deep;  harrowed  and  furrowed  each  way;  20  loads  of  barn-yard 
maniu'e  spread,  and  250  pounds  superphosphate  applied  in  the  hill ;  seed 
put  in  with  a  planter,  12  quarts  of  Carter  corn;  cultivated  and  hand- 
hoed  twice.  In  o  diflerence  noticed  between  the  portion  plowed  in  the 
fall  and  that  plowed  in  the  spring. 

Oats. — Eugene  W.  Day,  of  Essex,  raised  on  three  acres  forty-one  rods, 
164  bushels  of  oats,  valued  at  8104,  and  two  and  a  half  tons  of  straw, 
valued  at  845;  total,  8209.  at  a  cost  of  850;  net  profit,  8150.  The  land 
was  plowed  seven  inches  deep,  sowed  upon  the  fiuTow,  and  then  har- 
rowed twice.  Xo  maniu'e  used.  Corn  and  potatoes  the  preceding  crops. 
Manured  with  40  cart-loads  of  barn-yard  maniue  each  year. 

Spring  reheat. — Luther  Page,  of  Worcester,  raised  on  one  acre  35J 
bushels  of  spring  wheat  and  814  worth  of  straw,  at  a  cost  of  844  S3,  of 
which  825  was  for  manure.  Land  plowed  six  inches  deep  in  September, 
and  15  loads  of  manm-e  spread  and  harrowed  in  well;  sowed  two  bush- 
els of  Canada  .wheat,  harrowed  and  rolled.    The  crop  followed  grass. 

S.  E.  Damon,  of  Worcester  North,  raised  on  one  acre  five  rods  and 
forty  feet,  34i  bushels  of  spring  wheat  and  34  cwt.  of  straw,  at  a  cost  of 
S59 — 830  for  manure.  Land  plowed  May  3,  seven  inches  deep;  culti- 
vated and  harrowed  three  times;  20  loads  of  manure  spread  broadcast 
after  plowing;  two  and  a  half  bushels  of  seed  sown.  Followed  corn, 
which  had  been  manured  with  25  loads  of  stable  manure. 

Winter  reheat. — Cyrus  Kilborn,  of  Worcester,  raised  on  one  acre  34 
bushels  of  winter  wheat  and  two  tons  of  straw,  at  a  cost  of  855,  $25  be- 
ing for  manure.  Land  plowed  in  August  six  to  seven  inches  deep;  16 
loads  of  compost  and  250  pounds  of  superphosphate  of  lime  harrowed  in 
with  the  seed;  two  bushels  of  Blue-stem  wheat  sown,  which  variety  Mr. 
K.  has  sown  for  the  past  twenty  years  without  deterioration.  The  pre- 
ceding crop  was  grass. 

Benjamin  Davis  raised,  on  five  acres  of  sandy  loam,  150  bushels  of 
wheat.  Clover  sod,  plowed  once  and  harrowed,  seed  being  sown  broad- 
cast on  the  5th  of  September. 


STATE    KEPORTS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  481 

Winter  rye. — Lutlier  Page,  of  Worcester,  raised  on  one  acre  42f  bush- 
els of  winter  rye  and  one  and  tliree-quarters  tons  of  straw,  at  a  cost  ot 
$40  75,  including  $24  for  manure.  Followed  grass.  Soil,  a  black  loam, 
clay  bottom.  Plowed  six  inches  deep  in  September,  and  harrowed  thor- 
oughly; IC  loads  manure  spread.  Half  bushel  of  white  rye  sown  last 
of  September;  seeded  down  to  grass  again;  harrowed  and  rolled  three 
times. 

Cyrus  Ejlborn,  of  Worcester,  raised  on  one  acre  (less  one  rod)  24  J  bush- 
els of  winter  rye  and  one  ton  of  straw,  at  a  cost  of  $21.  No  manure 
used  for  the  rye,  which  followed  corn  manured  with  12  loads  of  compost. 
Soil  sandy  loam ;  plowed  in  September  six  inches  deep ;  no  other  prep- 
aration. One  acre  of  winter  wheat  in  the  same  inclosure,  with  the  same 
treatment,  made  a  much  more  valuable  crop  than  the  rye. 

Beans. — The  same  gentleman  raised,  on  twenty  square  rods  planted 
with  three  quarts  of  early  white  pea-beans,  with  two  loads  of  compost 
and  40  pounds  of  superphosphate  applied,  183f  pounds  of  beans,  and 
400  to  500  pounds  straw,  at  a  cost  of  $11  50.  He  thinks  white  beans 
planted  on  light  sandy  loam  less  likely  to  blast  than  those  on  black, 
moist  land. 

Onions. — Martin  Johnson,  of  Worcester,  raised  on  thirty-five  rods  102 
bushels  of  sound  onions,  at  a  cost  of  $33  50,  of  which  $10  was  for  ma- 
nure, used  at  the  rate  of  25  loads  to  the  acre.  Soil,  sandy  loam;  not 
plowed,  but  cultivated  before  planting  in  the  spring;  harrowed  and  lev- 
eled with  the  back  of  the  harrow.  Variety,  Yellow  Danvers,  planted 
with  machine,  and  hoed  and  weeded  three  times.  The  two  preceding 
crops  were  onions. 

Buta-hagas. — Ebenezer  Bird,  of  Worcester  North,  raised  on  twenty 
square  rods  of  light,  gravelly  soil,  plowed  six  inches  deep,  with  90  bush- 
els of  mamrre  applied  in  the  drills,  2,745  pounds  of  ruta-bagas.  Four 
pounds  of  seed  used;  cultivated  and  hoed  twice.    Followed  grass. 

Potatoes. — Abel  Marshall,  of  Worcester  North,  raised  on  forty  square 
rods  of  black,  mellow  loam,  51^  bushels  of  "Garnet  Chili"  potatoes,  at  a 
cost  of  $47  50,  of  which  $25  was  for  manure.  Plowed  five  inches  deep, 
with  12  loads  of  manure  spread  on  the  sod  and  turned  under.  Nine 
bushels  of  seed  planted,  cut  and  dropped  in  between  the  furrows  as 
deep  as  plowed. 

Say. — Mr.  Hubbard's  report  on  hay  estimates  the  crop  of  1865  at 
$13,195,274,  and  the  value  of  neat  cattle,  horses,  mules,  and  sheep 
$19,854,580;  so  that,  for  every  dollar's  worth  of  stock  there  was  less 
than  sixty-seven  cents'  worth  of  hay  raised  in  the  State;  and  that  in 
1865  there  were  682,284  acres  of  gi-ass  land  mowed,  y.ith  a  product  of 
622,671  tons ;  or  about  1,825  pounds  per  acre.  An  instance  is  stated  of 
a  member  of  the  board  who  cut  from  four  acres  last  year  28  tons  of  hay. 
He  kept  15  horses,  and  put  all  their  manure  upon  this  piece  of  land, 
which  yielded  three  crops  d\iring  the  season. 

FRUIT   CULTURE. 

The  returns  of  industry  of  Massachusetts  for  1865  give  the  value  of 
fruits  at  $1,713,240,  which  does  not  include  small  fruits,  but  is  confined 
principally  to  apples  and  pears.  Estimating  for  the  small  fruits,  the 
whole  amount  would  probably  reach  $2,000,000  for  the  fruit  product  of 
the  State.  The  amount  consumed,  however,  is  largely  in  excess  of  the 
production,  particularly  of  apples,  peaches,  grapes,  and  strawberries,  most 
of  which  are  brought  from  other  States  to  supply  the  markets.  There 
has  been  a  partial  failure  of  crops  for  several  years. 
31 


482  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Apples. — ^IVIr.  Hyde,  iu  a  report  upon  apple  culture  in  New  England, 
recommends  the  cultivation  of  a  due  proportion  of  summer  apples  when 
near  market ;  and,  whether  near  or  remote,  enough  of  Early  Harvest, 
Re<l  Astrachan,  and  Early  Sweet  Bough  for  family  use.  For  autumn, 
the  Early  Strawberry,  Golden  Sweet,  Gravensteiu,  Fall  Pearmain,  Por- 
ter, Fameusc,  and  Fall  Pippiu ;  and,  for  cooking  apples,  the  Drap  d'Or 
and  Dutch  Mignonne.  For  winter  he  places  the  Ehode  Island  Greening 
at  the  head  ol  the  list,  but  names  the  iialdwin  for  dessert  and  cooking, 
the  Spit/XMiburg  for  cooking,  Hubbardston  Nonsuch,  Yellow  Belltlower 
on  sandy  soil,  Northern  Spy,  Eoxbury  Eusset,  and  Tolmau's  Sweeting, 

The  Martha's  Vineyard  committee  report  that  the  varieties  of  apples 
most  highly  regarded  by  the  iarmers  of  the  islaud  are  the  Baldwin, 
Bunch  Apple,  Hubbardston  Nonsuch,  Porter,  Ehode  Island  Greening, 
Pippin,  Eoxbury  Eusset,  the  old-fashioned  Eusset,  Pignose,  GiUiflower, 
Summer  Sweet,  Winter  Sweeting,  and  Tolmau's  Sweeting. 

George  Pierce,  of  Middlesex,  realized  from  an  acre  orchard  of  apples, 
containing  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  trees,  83,105  SI,  including  the 
proceeds  of  other  crops  raised  on  the  gi'ound.  The  orchard  has  yielded 
a  good  crop  annually  for  a  number  of  years.  About  sixty  of  the  trees 
are  thirty  years  old,  chiefly  Baldwins  and  Porters ;  the  remainder  have 
been  set  about  fifteen  years,  and  in  fruit  about  eight  years  5  thirty-eight 
of  the  trees  are  of  the  Williams  variety. 

Pears. — The  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Society  recommend  as  the 
best  six  pears  for  general  cultivation,  the  Bartlett,  Seckel,  Urbaniste, 
Merriam,  Sheldon,  and  Beurre  d'Anjou;  second  best,  Brand;>"svine, 
Doyenn6,  Boussock,  Swan's  Orange,  Howell,  Beurr6  Bosc,  and  Law- 
rence ;  third  best.  Belle  Lucrative,  Paradise  d'Automne,  Beurre  Superfin, 
Marie  Louise,  Beurre  Clairgeau,  and  Vicar  of  Winkfield. 

The  Martha's  Vineyard  committee  report  favorably  upon  the  following 
list  of  pears  :  Doyenne  d'Ii)te,  Jargonelle,  Dearborn's  Seedling,  Blood- 
good,  Tyson,  Bartlett,  Flemish  Beauty,  Trescott,  Buftuni,  Seckel,  Louise 
Bonne  de  Jersey,  Belle  Lucrative,  Beurre  Clairgeau,  Duchesse  d'Angou- 
leme,  Vicar  of  Winkfield,  Lewis,  and  Catillac. 

Grapes. — The  same  committee  approve  the  follovring  grapes :  The  Con- 
cord, Delaware,  lona,  Hartford  Prolific,  Dracut  Amber,  Diana,  Northern 
Muscadine,  Union  Village,  Catawba,  Isabella,  Sage,  Logan  and  Eogers's 
Hybrids  Nos.  15  and  19. 

The  following  varieties  suffered  from  mildew  last  year  iu  Massachu- 
setts, in  the  order  named,  commencing  with  those  affected  most :  Cre- 
veliug,  Delaware,  Diana,  lona,  Israella,  Eogers's  Hybrids  Nos.  3  and  15, 
Allen's  Hybrid,  Hartford  Prolific,  Concord,  Martha,  Blackhawk,  and 
Clinton,  the  latter  to  slight  extent. 

Cranhcrrics. — The  Plymouth  committee  on  this  crop  express  the  opin- 
ion that  the  cidture  of  cranberries  is  still  an  uncertain  business,  but 
that  success  is  more  than  possible,  and,  when  secured,  the  profits  are 
very  large.  The  conditions  necessary  to  success,  however,  are  so  imper- 
fectly understood  that,  at  the  outset  of  an  experiment,  it  is  a  matter  of 
chance  whether  success  or  failure  -uill  follow.  The  piece  of  meadow 
awarded  the  first  premium  by  the  committee  contains  about  seven- 
eighths  of  an  acre,  and  was  originally  a  huckleberry  swamp.  The  swamp 
was  cleared  in  18G1,  and  the  plants  were  set  in  18G2.  First  fruit  iu 
18G5.  Total  expense  of  land,  labor,  &c.,  S500,  the  receipts  for  fruit  in 
18C5-'GG-'07  were  $1,005,  for  120  barrels— profit,  $505,  with  the  plants  in 
fine  condition,  and  i^romising  well  for  the  future. 

Another  lot  of  three-fourths  of  an  acre  of  swamj)  and  salt  marsh  was 
prepared  and  cultivated  up  to  planting,  at  an  expense  of  $1G-1.    In  18G5 


STATE    EEPOETS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  483 

the  yield  ^as  95  bushels;  in  1866  oiily  11  bushels ;  and  in  1S67  about 
108  bushels.  In  1864  the  plants  looked  well,  but  were  much  damaged 
during-  the  followiug  winter — cause  unknown — and  the  fi"uit  was  "de 
stroyed  by  the  beri'y-worm  the  ensuing  summer. 

In  proof  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  crop  the  committee  state  that 
neitherof  the  two  experiments  for  which  premiums  were  awarded  in  1863, 
as  being  the  most  carefully  conducted  and  promising  the  best  results, 
has  proved  remunerative.  Both  these  meadows  were  prepared  at  con- 
siderable cost,  and  in  both,  owing  to  the  location,  the  cpiantity  of 
gravel  was  made  greatly  to  exceed  the  quantity  of  peat  accessible 
to  the  plants.  The  tirst  patch  above  named,  which  has  twice  jiaid 
for  itself  in  three  years,  on  the  contrary  received  only  a  thin  layer 
of  sajid  on  a  level  bed  of  clean  peat,  which  fact  seems  to  LiKlu.'ate  that 
the  presence  of  peat  in  considerable  quantities,  if  not  essential  to  the 
growth  of  the  plants,  is  at  least  conducive  to  the  perfecting  of  their  friut. 
A  few  days  spent  in  the  examination  of  meadows  already  prepared,  and 
in  acquiiing  a  knowledge  of  the  methods  pursued,  and  the  materials 
used  in  their  preparation,  woidd  enable  beginners  to  protit  by  the  exjje- 
rience  of  others,  and  to  avoid  many  mistakes  to  which  they  would  other- 
wise be  liable.  Notwithstanding  the  uncertainty  of  the  business,  the 
committee  deem  it  worthy  the  attention  of  those  ha^■iug  suitable  loca- 
tions and  sufficient  means  for  i^rosecnting  it  without  inteilering  with 
other  and  more  certain  vocations. 

Floicers. — The  committee  on  liowers  of  the  Plymouth  Society,  in  their 
report  urging  increased  attention  to  this  branch,  as  well  for  jirofit  as  for 
adornment,  state  that  the  yearly  sales  of  liowers  in  the  United  States 
amount  to  over  $3,000,000,  2s"ew  York  sales  exceeding  $400,000,  and 
Boston  $200,000  per  annum.  Plymouth  County,  Massachusetts,  pays 
over  $5,000  per  year  for  flowers. 

FAE3I  STOCK. 

Milch  coics. — 'Mr.  Johnson,  in  an  essay  on  farm  stock,  says  that  the 
valuation  of  cows  and  heifers  in  the  State  in  1855  was  84.892,291,  and 
in  1865,  $0,537.634 :  products  of  the  dairy  in  1855,  $2,898,696,  and  in 
1865,  $3,091,462.  Allowing  the  same  increase  in  beef  and  veal  as  in 
yield  of  dairy,  there  is  a  total  advance  of  $2,030,871.  For  beef  31r. 
Johnson  recommends  the  Shorthorns,  Devons  or  Hereford  according  to 
ability  to  feed  large  or  small  cattle  most  profitably  :  for  milk,  the  Ayr- 
shire, and  for  butter  the  Jerseys :  and  thinks  the  dairy,  either  for  the 
product  of  milk  or  butter,  by  far  the  most  profitable  department  for  the 
farmers  of  eastern  Massachusetts. 

The  Middlesex  committee  on  stock  report  that  for  beef  and  working 
oxen  to  be  gi'own  upon  the  broad  acres  and  rich  soil  of  the  West,  the 
Durham  should  take  the  lead,  but  for  rich  milk,  cream,  and  butter,  to 
be  produced  upon  Xew  England  soil,  the  Jersey  should  unquestionably 
be  ranked  the  highest. 

The  Worcester  South  committee  estimate  that  a  cow  giving  only 
1,500  quarts  of  milk  a  year,  will,  at  five  cents  per  quart,  yield  an  income 
of  $75,  leaving  little  profit  above  cost  of  keeping :  one  that  gives  3,000 
quarts  yields  an  income  of  $150  :  while  one  that  gives  4.000  quarts  yields 
an  income  of  $200.  Allowing  $25  for  extra  feedfor  the  latter,  there  are 
$100  lelt  above  the  profit  of  the  poor  cow.  Such  cows  the  committee 
think  may  be  raised  by  puttiug  the  best  cows  to  fidl-blood  Ayrshire 
bulls.  If  the  heifer  calf  has  a  smidl,  long  head ;  eyes  not  large  but  dark 
and  Lively ;  neck  long  and  slender,  taperiug  toward  the  head :  shoulders 


484  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

and  fore-quarters  light  and  thin;  hind-quarters  large  and  broad,  with 
skin  loose,  thin,  and  soft,  raise  it;  but  if  not  possessing  most  of  these 
points,  reject  it  and  try  again. 

Of  the  cows  offered  ibr  premium  in  Middlesex,  the  Jersey  cow,  Lady 
Mdton,  had  given  the  first  week  in  June  120  quarts  of  milk,  butter  15 
pounds ;  lirst  week  of  July,  milk  11-1  quarts,  butter,  IS  pounds ;  first 
week  in  August,  milk,  115  quarts,  butter,  IG  pounds ;  first  week  in 
September,  milk,  107  quarts,  butter  15  pounds.  Kept  in  pasture  diu'ing 
Juneaud  July,  and  in  August  and  September  received  green  corn  fodder 
at  night  in  addition.  Yield  in  butter  in  Jidy,  on  grass  alone,  79  pounds ; 
from  1st  of  June  to  7th  of  October,  on  green  feed  without  grain,  293i 
pounds,  or  an  average  of  nearly  10  pounds  per  week  for  eighteen  weeks 
and  three  days.  In  winter  the  owner  feeds  on  good  hay,  steamed  roots, 
and  corn  fodder,  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  shorts. 

Jersey  cow.  May  Day,  twelve  years  old,  gave  an  average  yield  of  20 
quarts  of  milk  per  day  during  June  and  July;  butter,  July  and  August, 
15  pounds  per  week,  from  sweet  cream.  Feed,  gi'ass,  with  one  quart 
each  of  meal  and  shorts  per  day. 

James  Thompson,  of  Nantucket,  states  that  from  a  Jersey  cow  tliree 
years  old  he  had  330  pounds  of  butter  in  one  year.  The  next  year  he 
iiad  900  pounds  3  ounces  from  three  Jersey  cows ;  and  last  year  he  had 
14  pounds  and  as  high  as  10  pounds  per  week  from  one  cow.  In  one 
week  in  November,  21  pounds  were  put  up  from  two  cows,  after  furnish- 
ing milk'for  three  families,  and  butter  for  two  families,  not  less  alto- 
gether than  28  pounds  for  the  two  cows.  They  ate  no  more  than  other 
cows,  and  were  fed  on  hay  and  roots,  and  allowed  to  do  their  own 
grinding. 

Sicine. — The  committee  on  swine  of  Middlesex  South  recommend  the 
feeding  of  milk  and  grain  to  swine,  to  be  transformed  into  manure, 
as  the  readiest  and  cheapest  means  of  supplying  to  the  soil  the  properties 
exhausted  by  feeding  milch  cows.  A  thrifty  hog,  furnished  with  the 
materials,  will  make  a  cord  of  first  quality  manui^e  in  a  season.  In 
fattening  swine,  the  committee  think  that,  so  far  as  money  profit  is 
concerned,  the  farmer  will  realize  the  greatest  net  gain  by  slaughtering 
his  hogs  at  the  age  of  eight  to  ten  months.  With  the  smaller  breeds 
and  thrifty  pigs  he  can  get  a  weight  of  250  to  300  pounds ;  while,  as 
commonly  managed,  the  additional  eight  months  add  only  about  100 
pounds :  and  experience  has  shown  that  it  costs  but  a  trifie  more  to 
grow  and  fatten  a  weaned  spring  pig  to  ten  months  old,  than  to  fatten 
a  ten  months'  store-hog  from  July  to  December ;  imder  favorable  cir- 
cumstances it  may  cost  less,  and  the  net  profit  be  in  favor  of  the  pigs. 

A  careful  feeder  put  three  shotes,  Suffolk  and  Mackay,  to  fattening 
July  1,  when  their  weight  was  200  jiounds  each.  They  were  fed  53 
bushels  mixed  grain,  two-thirds  corn  and  one-third  oat-meal,  costing 
$17  15.  After  five  months'  feeding,  their  dressed  weight  was  395,  380, 
and  343  pounds.  One  bushel  of  meal  made  nine  and  tJiree-quarters 
pounds  of  pork,  the  latter  costing  nine  cents  per  pound. 

One  of  the  committee  bought  three  six-weeks  pigs,  Mackay  and  Ches- 
ter, in  early  spring;  weight  30  pounds  each.  They  were  fed  10  bushels 
of  grain,  two-thirds  corn  and  one-third  oat-meal,  costing  843  78.  Then- 
dressed  weight,  at  eight  and  a  half  months  old,  was  321,  295,  and  271 
pounds.  One  bushel  of  meal  made  10  pounds  of  pork.  The  pork  cost 
five  and  a  half  cents  per  i^ound.  In  the  first  case  the  corn  cost  seven 
cents  and  the  oats  fifteen  cents  i)er  bushel  less  than  in  the  latter;  mak- 
ing the  advantage  still  more  decided  on  the  side  of  the  pigs. 

The  committee  also  favor  the  use  of  cooked  food  in  fattening.    Exi)eri- 


STATE    KEFOKTS    OF    AGlilCULTUKE.  485 

ments  quoted  show  that  fiekl  feeding  on  whole  corn  required  a  bushel  of 
corn  to  add  eight  pounds  of  flesh  to  the  animal;  cooked  corn  meal  mod- 
erately salted,  with  some  whole  corn  fed  after  it,  increased  12  hogs  over 
100  pounds  each  in  seven  weeks,  one  bushel  making  a  fraction  over  14 
pounds  of  flesh ;  foiu*  pigs,  bought  in  April,  at  six  weeks  old,  fed  on 
skim-millv  with  a  handful  of  whole  corn  to  each  pig  daily  till  July,  and 
afterwards  imcooked  meal,  two-thirds  corn  and  one-thu'd  oats,  as  they 
woidd  bear  it,  were  killed  at  nine  months  old,  and  weighed,  when 
dressed,  1,101  pounds,  average  270  pounds.  They  ate  01  bushels  of 
meal,  costing  $5S  37;  one  bushel  of  meal  making  18  pounds  of  pork; 
cost  of  pork,  including  first  cost  of  pigs,  seven  and  a  half  cents  per 
pound. 

Poultry. — The  Middlesex  South  committee  give  the  following  state- 
ments: 15  hens,-  mostly  Leghorns  and  Black  Hamburgs,  laid  in  ten 
months  191  dozen  eggs.  Profits  on  eggs  sold,  chickens  raised  and  sold, 
&c.,  $89  81;  expenses,  20  bushels  of  corn,  $21;  net  profit,  $05  81. 
Fowls  were  allowed  to  run  at  large,  and  were  fed  well  three  times  a  day. 
Another  lot  of  15  hens  and  one  cock,  mixture  of  Leghorn  and  nativa 
breed,  laid  181  dozen  eggs,  which,  with  10  chickens,  brought  $00  78; 
expenses,  nine  bushels  of  corn  and  six  bushels  of  barley,  $18  75 ;  net 
jn-ofit,  ^od>  03.  Fowls  run  at  large,  fed  twice  a  day  in  winter  and  once 
in  summer.  A  flock  of  113  Brahmas,  in  September,  1800,  increased  to 
103  in  one  year,  besides  supplying  eggs  to  the  amount  of  $232  SO;  fowls 
sold,  $75  28,  making,  with  the  50  increase  in  flock,  $108  08;  expenses, 
$145  03 ;  net  profit,  $203  05,  taking  no  account  of  the  droppings  of  the 
chickens.  The  Bristol  Central  committee  recommend  the  Brahmas 
and  Dorkings  for  the  table;  the  Leghorns  and  Hamburgs  for  eggs;  the 
Games  and  Dorkings,  where  all  qualities  are  required  of  a  high  degree 
of  excellence;  and  if  jnire  breeds  are  not  wanted,  at  least  a  game  cock 
to  improve  the  stock  of  every  yard. 

DRAINAGE. 

A  piece  of  rough  pasture  land  in  Essex  County,  two  and  seven-eighths 
acres,  overgrown  with  alders,  birches,  and  huckleberry  bushes,  and  more 
or  less  covered  with  stones,  was  cleared  up  and  underdrained  with  the 
following  results:  Debtor  account  from  1803  to  1807,  inclusive,  reached 
$1,500  iio^  including  cost  of  land,  $120,  draining,  plowing,  seeding,  har- 
vesting, &c.  Total  receipts  for  the  same  time,  counting  the  land  worth 
$350  in  1807,  $2,402.  Profit  $955  for  the  five  years,  leaving  the  land 
in  good  condition,  thoroughly  underdrained  three  and  a  half  feet  below 
the  surface. 

An  acre  of  swampland,  purchased  for  $17  in  180-1,  ditched  and  worked 
at  an  expense  of  $100  for  the  four  years  following,  for  ditching,  manur- 
ing, cultivating,  harvesting,  &c,,  produced  in  the  same  time  potatoes 
and  hay  to  the  amount  of  $132,  lea^"ing  the  acre  worth  $100  instead  of 
$17. 

In  a  discussion  upon  tkaiuage,  Henry  F.  French  expressed  the  opinion 
that  any  laud,  in  which  water  stands  at  any  season  stagnant  within  two 
or  three  feet  of  the  surface,  would  be  benefited  by  drainage;  that  tile 
drainage  will  be  found  cheaper  than  stone,  when  the  former  can  be 
obtained  at  $10  per  thousand,  delivered;  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  tiles 
slioidd  be  put  four  feet  deep  if  there  is  fall  sufficient  to  carry  the  water 
oil';  and  tbat,  on  ordinary  loamy  soil,  or  in  peat  swamps,  side  drains 
may  be  i)ut  thirty  to  forty  feet  apart,  and  be  pretty  sure  of  good  residts, 
if  four  feet  deep;  the  deeper  they  are,  the  farther  apart  they  may  be. 
Tan  is  recommended  for  covering  the  joints;  also  tui-f  and  saw-dust. 


486  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

In  reference  to  the  effects  of  drainage,  Mr.  Brown  remarked  that  it 
makes  cold  land  warmer,  wet  land  dryer,  diy  land  wetter,  heavy  land 
lighter,  and  in  some  cases  light  land  more  compact:  and  that  land  thor- 
oughly drained,  if  it  is  anything  like  hard  land,  can  be  cultivated  at 
about  one-half  the  cost  of  wet  land.  He  believed  that  all  lands  have 
inherent  powers  of  self-recuperation.  If  the  laud  is  skimmed  over  with  a 
crust,  it  may  remain  so  for  a  hundred  years,  and  not  become  fertile;  but 
remove  that  crast,  and  get  it  into  a  fine  tilled  surface,  and  it  will  imj)rove 
from  year  to  year;  vegetation  will  spring  up  and  gTOw  luxuriantly.  One 
of  the  effects  of  drainage  is  to  give  land  a  chance  to  do  something  for 
itself.  That  will  help  it  much,  without  tbe  aid  of  plowing,  manuring 
or  seeding.  He  knew  of  a  meadow  that  had  been  covered  with  hassocks 
from  three  to  ten  inches  high.  A  drain  Avas  run  through  the  entire 
length.  One  side  was  drained  by  lateral  drains,  twenty  feet  apart  and 
four  feet  deep.  In  two  or  three  years,  without  the  use  of  a  plow, 
manui'e,  or  seed,  every  hassock  disappeared  from  the  half  so  drained; 
the  ground  became  smooth  and  beautiful,  and  timothy  came  up  three  or 
four  feet  high,  and  some  of  the  heads  measured  nine  inches  in  length; 
while  on  the  other  side,  where  no  lateral  drains  were  made,  the  hassocks 
remain  to  this  day. 

IMAXUEES. 

The  Essex  committee  on  this  subject,  while  according  merit  to  guano 
and  other  high-priced  fertilizers,  say  they  are  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
practical  farmer,  who  must  rely  upon  the  barnyard,  the  stable,  the 
privy,  and  waste  animal  and  vegetable  material,  whether  grown  upon  the 
land  or  in  the  sea,  all  of  which  should  be  husbanded  with  the  utmost 
care,  and  theii^  volume  and  power  be  multiplied  by  forming  comj^ost  with 
peat,  loam,  and,  in  some  cases,  sand.  As  much  poudrette  can  be  made 
from  a  single  load  of  night-soil,  by  maldng  compost  with  meadow  mud 
or  muck,  as  can  be  piux-hased  for  825  or  $30,  and  of  as  good  quality. 
Sea  manure,  consisting  of  kelp  and  mosses  or  rock- weed,  when  mixed 
with  an  equal  quantity'  of  muck,  will  make  compost  equal  to  the  best 
stable  manure.  It  is  recommended  that  the  manure  made  dming  the 
summer  be  applied  directly  to  the  land,  and  i»lowed  in  after  harvest,  the 
land  being  then  plowed  twice  in  the  spring  before  planting.  This  pro- 
cess would  not  be  advisable  on  leachy  land,  but  on  other  soils  it  has 
been  practiced  \\ith  much  success. 

The  premium  pens  of  nianm-e  in  Xautucket  were  made  up  of  thirty 
loads  of  peat  mud,  fifty  loads  of  sea-weed,  fiftj-  loads  of  sods  from  rich 
ridges  where  fences  had  been,  and  all  the  refuse  bedding  and  green  mat- 
ter around  the  farm,  hauled  at  times  when  the  man  and  horse  woidd 
have  been  doing  little  else,  together  with  the  droppings  of  four  cows, 
one  horse,  one  bull,  and  six  hogs.  The  cost  of  the  peat  mud.  sea-weed, 
and  sods  was  about  B'2S.  At  the  end  of  the  eighth  month  there  were 
2,700  cubic  feet  of  manure,  or  220  loads  of  twenty  bushels  each,  at  a  cost 
of  only  $28,  aside  from  the  droppings  of  animals,  and  equal  in  quaUty 
to  manure  for  which  $1  per  load  would  be  charged. 

MiicJc. — Mr.  Smith,  reporting  upon  manures,  saj'S  of  muck  that  it  is 
especially  adapted  to  forming  compost  with  manure ;  and,  when  mixed 
with  ashes,  makes  a  compost  nearer  to  stable  dung  than  anything  we 
have.  An  experiment  is  given  with  this  mixture,  used  in  the  di-iU  for 
English  turnips.  A  large  portion  of  the  field  was  manured  with  a  com- 
post of  barn -yard  manui'e,  tbe  remainder  with  muck  and  ashes,  four 
bushels  of  ashes  to  tweuty-tive  bushels  of  muck.    The  crop  fertilized,  with 


STATE   REPORTS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  487 

the  latter  exceeded  the  other  in  luxuriance  and  yield.  In  another  instance 
a  field  of  ten  acres  was  to  be  planted  in  corn.  In  the  autumn  450  bush- 
els of  muck  and  1,000  pounds  of  fish  manure  per  acre  were  carted  on  in 
several  piles.  In  the  spring  ISO  bushels  of  barn-yard  manure  per  acre 
were  mixed  with  the  muck  and  fish,  being  worked  over  three  times. 
The  land  was  plowed,  the  compost  spread,  and  harrowed  in.  The  result 
was  70  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre.  Mr.  Smith  urges  the  free  use  of 
muck  upon  all  sandy  or  gravelly  soils,  to  be  placed  in  the  barn-yard  and 
mixed  ^ith  manure. 

Hen  manure. — In  speaking  of  the  value  of  hen  manure,  Mr.  Ward 
stated  that  last  season  he  plowed  up  about  ten  acres,  and  carted  on 
about  thirty  loads  of  manure  to  the  acre;  and  at  planting  time  took  the 
hen  manure  made  during  the  year,  and  dropped  in  each  hill  as  much  as 
one  would  take  up  in  his  fingers,  the  whole  going  over  about  an  acre. 
The  result  was  a  yield  of  sixty  per  cent,  more  potatoes  on  the  portion 
where  the  hen  manure  was  used  than  with  the  other  manure  alone.  It 
was  stated  that  $10  worth  of  manure  can  be  made  from  twenty-five  hens 
by  forming  compost  with  i^eat  or  rich  sod. 

NEW  YOUK. 

The  report  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  New  York  State  Agri- 
cultural Society,  Colonel  B.  P.  Johnson,  secretary,  speaks  favorably  of 
the  agricultural  condition  of  the  State,  and  claims  that,  as  a  whole,  the 
farming  interests  are  advancing;  and  that,  taking  the  State  together, 
the  year  was  one  of  progress.  The  treasurer  reports  the  average 
total  receipts  of  the  society,  for  each  of  the  ten  years  from  1858  to  18G7, 
to  have  been  $14,511  57,  only  $805  of  which  came,  from  the  State  treas- 
ury; and  the  total  average  yearly  expenses  were  $13,018  08,  making  the 
average  annual  savings  $893  40.  The  accounts  for  18G7  show  receipts 
from  all  sources,  including  balance  on  hand  at  beginning  of  year, 
$40,597  99;  total  disbursements  $27,687  48— leaving  assets  of  the  soci- 
ety $12,910  51,  less  $1,055  subsequently  paid  for  damages  to  fair  build- 
ings by  tornado.  During  the  year  reports  were  received  from  fifty-one 
county  societies  and  thirty-five  town  societies  and  farmers'  clubs,  all  of 
which  are  ai^parently  in  prosperous  condition,  pecuniarily  and  otherwise. 

The  volume  contains  elaborate  reports  u])ou  the  Texas  cattle  disease, 
illustrated  by  colored  plates,  but  the  magnitude  of  the  investigation  i^re- 
cludes  the  presentation  here  of  even  a  summary  of  the  results. 

THE  LITTLE  FALLS  FARMERS'  CLUB. 

From  the  discussions  before  the  Little  FaUs  Farmers'  Club  are  com- 
piled the  following  reports  of  experiments : 

Mucli. — Mr.  A.  L.  Fish  stated  Ijhat  twelve  years  ago  he  drew  out  3,000 
loads  of  muck,  and  applied  it  at  the  rate  of  fifty  loads  to  the  acre,  pul- 
verizing and  mixing  it  with  the  soil.  The  result  was  good  crops  with- 
out further  cultivation.  Two  years  later  he  drew  out  4,000  loads,  and 
applied  it  at  the  rate  of  100  loads  to  the  acre,  spread  with  a  plank  to 
which  was  attached  a  tongue  to  hitch  tlie  team.  The  land  Avas  planted 
to  com.  After  taking  two  crops  from  the  laud  it  was  put  down  in 
meadow,  and  it  has  produced  at  the  rate  of  two  tons  of  hay  per  acre 
ever  since,  though  before  the  application  it  did  not  yield  one  ton  per 
acre.    It  did  not  act  so  quickly  as  manure,  but  the  effect  was  more  lasting. 

Bone  dust. — Mr.  Holliugworth  stated  that  fifteen  years  ago  his  farm 
was  considered  a  barren,  worthless  tract,  covered  with  briers,  wet  and 
swampy.  He  first  underdrained,  laying  the  drains  with  stone,  the  main 
line  four  and  a  half  lect  deep,  the  lateral  drains  two  and  a  half  to  three 


488  AGEICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

feet  deep.  Sixteen  acres  were  plowed  in  tlie  fall  and  left  fallov>'  one 
year,  when  tlie  refuse  of  8,000  head  of  cattle  was  drawn  upon  it,  consist- 
ing of  the  waste  fi^om  the  kettles  after  boiling  the  fat,  and  other  refuse 
parts  of  cattle  used  in  soap  manufacture.  Part  of  the  lot  was  then  cov- 
ered to  the  de]^th  of  five  inches.  The  next  spring  it  was  plowed  and 
harrowed,  and  in  the  fall  sown  to  rye.  The  -winter  was  unfavorable  to 
winter  grain,  and  in  the  spring  scarcely  a  blade  of  rye  could  be  seen ; 
but,  as  the  season  progTcssed,  it  began  to  shov,-  itself,  and  the  result  was 
a  line  crop,  the  straw  growing  seven  feet  two  inches  high.  The  gruin 
averaged  about  o2  bushels  to  the  acre,  62  pounds  to  the  bushel.  Hav- 
ing been  seeded  to  grass  at  the  same  time  with  the  rye,  a  good  crop  was 
cut  that  fall ;  and  every  year  since  the  land  has  produced  heavy  crops 
of  grass  with  no  additional  manuring.  The  grass  is  chiefly  timothy,  and 
the  lii'st  cuttmg  yields  thi-ee  and  a  half  tons  per  acre,  with  a  large  sec- 
ond crop.  Though  in  grass  seven  years,  the  laud  is  just  as  productive 
as  at  first.  Mr.  Holliugworth  has  GO  acres  in  grass  from  which  he  had 
the  following  cash  receipts  in  18G7  :  Six  tons  at  622,  50  tons  at  $14,  29 
tons  at  $lo,  and  15  tons  at  820 — $1,507 ;  to  which  must  be  added  34  tons 
consumed  on  the  place,  making,  at  $15,  $510,  or  a  total  of  $2,077.  He 
has  applied  gTound  bones  at  the  rate  of  70  bushels  to  the  acre.  From  14^ 
of  the  10  acres  above  referred  to  were  taken,  in  1SG7,  at  first  cutting,  39| 
tons,  cut  21st  June.  A  second  crop  of  four  large  loads  was  taken  from 
two  and  a  half  acres,  the  remainder  not  being  cut. 

Hotted  Xii.  unrotted  manure. — Judge  Owen  owned  twelve  acres  of  the 
poorest  land  on  the  Mohawk.  He  appUed  400  loads  of  fresh  or  raw 
stable  manure,  -svith  but  little  improvement  to  soil  or  croi)s.  He  then 
I)ut  on  1,000  yards  of  well  rotted  dung  which  had  been  accumulating 
for  five  years,  making  a  solid  mass  of  rich  manure.  The  field  became  a 
garden  by  this  treatment,  and  illustrated  the  superiority  of  rotted  over 
unrotted  manures. 

Liquid  manure. — About  fourteen  square  rods  of  the  lot  referred  to  was 
l)lanted  with  melons.  The  plants  came  up,  but  the  sun  dried  and  hard- 
ened the  clay,  and  the  vines  did  not  thrive.  A  wheel-barrow  load  of 
thoroughly  decomposed  dimg  was  then  taken  from  the  center  of  the  pile, 
and  thrown  into  a  barrel  of  water.  By  watering  the  plants  -uith  this 
liquid,  they  began  to  grow  vigorously.  They  were  thinned  out  to  two 
in  a  hill,  and  the  application  continued,  the  barrel  being  refilled  with 
water  and  manure  from  time  to  time.  When  the  plants  got  fairly  under 
vay,  tbey  made  a  growth  of  ten  inches  in  twenty-four  hoiu'S,  eventually 
covered  all  the  ground,  and  made  an  enormous  yield.  One  of  the  mel- 
ons weighed  28i  pounds,  and  six  others  weighed  120  pounds.  The 
patch  supplied  tlie  family  through  the  season,  and  in  the  fall  half  a 
dozen  wagon  loads  of  unripe  melons  w.ere  taken  olf.  The  owner  thinks 
the  Liquid  from  fresh  manure  of  not  much  account — it  must  be  perfectly 
decomposed. 

Foot-rot  in  cows. — For  a  dozen  years  or  more  the  cows  of  Herkimer 
and  adjoining  counties  have  been  troubled  more  or  less  with  foot-rot. 
The  disease  makes  its  appearance  sometimes  between  the  claws  of  the 
foot,  often  in  the  heel,  and  extending  u])  the  leg,  causes  extreme  lame- 
ness, loss  of  flesh  and  loss  of  milk.  It  often  runs  through  a  whole  dauy, 
and  its  appearance  is  becoming  every  year  more  common.  Mr.  Whit- 
man statetl  that  lie  had  found  an  efficient  remedy.  He  makes  an  oint- 
ment of  lard  and  red  precipitate,  one  part  of  the  latter  to  four  of  the 
former,  to  be  api)lied  to  the  afl'ected  parts  and  rubbed  in ;  or  in  bad 
cases,  when  the  disease  is  in  the  heel  and  upon  the  leg,  worked  in  by 
holding  a  hot  iron  near  tlie  foot.    The  foot  should  be  cleaned  before  the 


STATE    REPORTS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  489 

application,  by  "washing  well  with  soap  and  soft  water.  One  applica- 
tion if  thorough,  will  generally  eftect  a  cure;  but  if  all  parts  are  not 
reached  by  the  ointment,  a  second  application  should  be  made  in  forty- 
eight  hours. 

Frojits  of  dairy  farms. — 3Ir.  Myers  makes  the  following  estimate  of 
receipts  and  expenditures  of  a  dairy  farm  in  Herkimer  County  : 
Eeceipts:  -45  cows,  averaging  400  pounds  of  cheese  i)er  cow, 

18,000  pounds,  sold  at  814  30  per  100  pounds $2, 574 

Expenses:  Labor  and  taxes  $1,126;  interest  on  land  at  $75  pei' 
acre,  $980;  interest  and  depreciation  on  45  cows  at  860  each, 
10  per  cent.,  $270;  keeping  team,  $150;  repairs  to  buildings 
and  utensils  $100;  incidentals,  850 $2, 67G 

Loss  on  the  business 


Mr.  Myers  says  there  are  many  exj)enges  not  enumerated,  while  the 
interest  and  depreciation  of  stock  are  too  low.  The  total  receipts  of  a 
dairy  farm  of  81^  acres  and  20  cows  are  given  as  81,271  32.  Expenses, 
making  no  account  of  the  land,  female  labor  or  superintendence  of 
owner,  $1,305;  loss,  $34  33.  Another  dairy  of  50  cows:  Products, 
$2,800;  expenses,  throwing  out  the  interest  on  farm,  family  services, 
&c.,  $2,544. 

Buffalo  grass. — Mr.  Harris  Lewis  exhibited  samples  of  grass  he  had 
found  in  TTisconsin  under  the  preceding  name,  and  which  he  considered 
the  most  valuable  he  had  seen  for  grazing.  He  found  it  growing  over  an 
area  of  90,000  square  miles.  It  grows  in  tufts,  like  orchard  grass,  and 
stock  eat  it  gTeedily.  ^Vhen  cut  for  hay  it  will  give  two  crops  of  two 
tons  each  in  a  season,  the  second  crop  growing  and  maturing  from  the 
last  of  June  to  the  25th  August.  The  plow  is  fatal  to  it.  It  grows  in 
aU  soils,  stands  frost  well,  and  is  endimng.  AYhen  designed  for  hay  it 
should  be  cut  twice. 

Ind  ia  n  m  ca  Ifo  r  h  utter  maJcing. — Judge  Owen  said  that  he  found  no  ground 
feed  so  good  for  butter  making  as  Indian  meal ;  he  had  made  a  number  of 
experiments  in  feeding,  and  the  best  results  were  obtained  by  feeding  it 
dry.  In  this  state  the  animal  took  it  slowly,  moistening  it  with  sabva 
and  thoroughly  masticating  it.  In  feeding  it  wet,  he  thought  it  passed 
directly  to  the  third  stomach,  and  hence  was  not  properly  assimilated. 
He  had  experimented  with  a  large  cow  of  the  Holderness  breed,  to  see 
how  much  meal  could  be  fed  with  profit,  and  found  that  two  quarts  twice  a 
day  was  all  she  would  bear.  This,  in  addition  to  hay,  brought  down  the 
milk  in  large  quantities.  By  such  feed  this  cow  yielded  fourteen  pounds 
of  butter  per  Aveek.  Her  highest  product  was  forty-one  pounds  in  fif- 
teen days,  besides  thirty  quarts  of  milk  used  in  the  family. 

PROGRESS   OF  A^IERICAX   DAIRYING. 

Mr.  X.  A.  Willard,  in  a  review  of  the  progress  of  American  dairying, 
states  that  Herkimer  County,  IS'ew  York,  is  the  oldest  dairy  district  in 
America,  the  first  cheese  dairy  being  established  there  nearly  eighty 
years  ago.  The  American  dairv  now  represents  a  capital  of  more  than 
$600,000,000.  The  cheese  product  of  1867  sold  for  $25,000,000,  and  the 
butter  product  lor  more  than  8100,000,000.  In  1804  the  butter  product 
of  New  York  alone  was  nearly  85,000,000  i^ounds,  and  the  cheese 
72,000,000  pounds — the  value  of  the  two  products  being,  at  a  very  mod- 
erate estimate,  more  than  $50,000,000.    The  wheat  crop  of  the  State  in 


490  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

1SG4  was  G.000.000  bushels,  oats  19,000.000,  ne  2,000,000,  barley  3,000,000, 
and  corn  17,000,000.  The  product  of  the  Xew  York  dairies,  therefore,  sold 
for  more  than  the  entire  jTrain  crop  of  the  State.  The  wool-clip  that 
year  was  not  quite  10,000.000  pounds,  which,  at  $1  per  pound,  amounted 
to  less  than  one-fouith  that  from  the  dairy.  If  we  add  the  value  ot 
the  pork  made  from  whey,  the  calves  raised,  and  the  beef  and  milk  sold, 
we  can  hardlv  place  the  annual  product  from  the  dairy  farms  of  Isew 
York  below  $100,000,000. 

In  1810  the  vahie  of  the  daiiy  products  of  Xew  York — butter,  cheese, 
and  milk — was  estimated  bv  the  United  States  census  at  only  $10.490.000 ; 
and  in  all  the  States  about  $34,000,000.  In  1850  the  product  of  butter 
in  all  the  States  and  Territories  was  313.345,300  pounds,  and  the  cheese 
105,535,803  pounds.  In  1800  the  butter  product  had  reached  409,681,372 
pounds,  and  the  cheese  103,003,927.  The  value  of  these  products  in 
1860  could  not  have  been  less  than  $200,000,000.  The  cheese  product  ot 
1867  is  estimated  at  200,000.000  pounds,  half  of  which  was  made  in  Xew 
York. 

The  cheese  product  of  Great  Britain  in  1807  is  estimated  at  179,000,000 
pounds.  The  amount  of  Dntch  cheese  sent  to  England  in  1800  was 
80,000,000  pounds.  An  approximate  estimate  of  the  annual  consump- 
tion of  cheese  in  Great  Britain  is  309,000  000,  as  follows:  Home-make, 
179.000.000  pounds :  from  Holland.  80,000,000  pounds ;  from  the  United 
States,  50,000,000  pounds. 

The  consumption  of  cheese  in  the  United  States  and  Canadais  estimated 
at  about  160,000,000  pounds  per  annum.  This  makes  469,000,000  pounds 
for  Great  Britain  and  America.  Againstthisdemandwehave  179.000,000 
pounds  made  in  Great  Britain,  200,000,000  pounds  in  the  United  States, 
and  15,000,000  pounds  in  Canada— total,  394,000,000  pounds.  Deficiency 
for  the  supply  of  the  two  nations,  75,000.000  pounds.  It  is  stated  that 
France  is  competing  with  England  for  Dutch  cheese,  which  must  decrease 
the  imports  into  Great  Britain  from  that  source.  On  the  other  hand,  Swe- 
den is  entering  the  lield  as  a  dairy  district,  and  will  hereafter  compete 
with  the  United-  States  in  the  English  markets.  All  these  facts  seem  to 
indicate  that  there  is  danger  of  pushing  the  cheese  daii-ying  of  America 
beyond  ordinary  consumptive  limits. 

In  regard  to  the  quantity  of  cheese  needed  abroad,  the  secretary  ot 
the  London  Board  of  Trade  writes  that  the  Americans  should  bear  in 
mind  the  fact  that  Great  Britain  doubles  in  population  every  forty  years ; 
and  hence  the  consumptive  demand  for  cheese  will  increase  in  tha: 
proportion.  This  consideration,  with  the  fact  that  there  is  gTcat  proba 
bility  of  a  veiy  important  decrease  in  the  manufacture  of  English  cheese 
from  year  to  year,  gives  hope  that  the  dairying  business  may  be  sus 
tained  in  this  country  if  our  people  continue  their  efibrts  to  improve 
the  quality  of  both  butter  and  cheese. 

APPLE  CLT.TL'EE,  ITS  PEOFITS.  ETC. 

Duriug  the  discussions  at  the  State  Fair,  ^Mr.  H.  T.  Brooks,  of  Wyo- 
ming County,  read  a  paper  advocating  the  enlarged  cultivation  of  apples 
in  tbe  State  of  is'ew  York,  as  one  of  the  best  means  of  augmenting 
healtliy  human  food,  in  which  he  expressed  the  opinion  that  by  no  pro- 
cess can  so  niiK-h  nutriment  be  so  cheaply  extracted  from  four  square  rods 
of  gi'ound  as  by  planting  an  apple  tree  in  the  center,  and  giving  it  good 
cultivation.  In  comi)aring  the  products  of  various  crops,  Mr.  Brooks 
stated  that  General  Mills,  on  the  Genesee  Flats,  once  raised  47  bushels 


STATE   REPORTS   OF   AGRICULTURE.  491 

and  11  pounds  of  wheat  to  the  acre  on  80  acres ;  Captain  Scott,  of  Wyo- 
ming County,  abouj:  1822.  raised  500  bushels  upon  10  acres:  and  Simon 
McKenzie,  of  Caledonia,  GO  bushels  to  the  acre.  General  Mills  is  said  to 
have  raised  llo  bushels,  and  John  Sheldeu,  of  Living-ston  County.  116 
bushels  of  shelled -corn  to  the  acre.  One  hundred  bushels  of  oats  have 
been  pi«oduced  frequently,  and  4:00  bushels  of  potatoes.  Paul  C.  Sprague, 
of  Covington,  raised  at'  the  rate  of  700  bushels  to  the  acre.  Onions 
have  been  raised  at  about  the  same  rate,  and  carrots  may  be  estimated 
at  double  that  quantity.  He  estimated,  as  the  largest  possible  yield, 
corn  at  110  bushels,  \vheat  at  GO,  potatoes  at  700,  and  carrots  at  1.100 
bushels  to  the  acre.  This  would  give  S^  bushels  of  corn,  1^  of  wheat, 
17^  of  potatoes,  or  35  of  carrots  to  four  rods  of  ground.  3Ii\  Dodge 
picked  GO  bushels  of  apples  fi'om  a  tree  in  Maryland,  12  miles  from 
Washington.  Major  Bumphry.  of  Eochester'.  Xew  York,  reports  a  U'ee 
that  gave  75  bushels  at  a  single  picking.  Will  any  one  deny  that  75 
bushels  of  apples  are  equal  in  nutritive  value  to  3^  bushels  of  corn,  1^ 
of  wheat,  17i^  of  potatoes,  or  35  bushels  of  carrots.-  Colonel  Hannum, 
of  Genesee  County,  picked  from  one  tree  in  Massachusetts  at  least  80 
bushels  of  apples ;  and  a  tree  in  Duxbury.  Massachusetts,  bore  in  a  single 
season  121i  bushels.  These  are  comparisons  of  extreme  products  of  all 
the  crops  named. 

Mr.  Brooks  then  compared  ordinary  yields.  Potatoes  have  been  con- 
sidered the  cheapest  food  in  general  use,  but  of  late  years  the  average 
yield  has  been  less  than  100  bushels  to  the  acre.  Wheat  will  not  exceed 
15,  and  corn  35  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  orchards  of  western  ZS'ew 
York,  taking  one  year  with  another,  good  cultui-e  with  bad,  will 
average  fom'  bushels  to  the  tree,  or  100  bushels  to  the  acre.  So  we  have 
over  H  bushel  of  apples  for  one  of  potatoes,  1^  for  one  of  com,  and 
10^  for  one  of  wheat.  The  comparative  value  is  an  open  question,  but 
the  apples  in  this  comparison  are  greater  in  nutritive  value  than  either 
the  wheat  or  the  potatoes.  Corn  is  numtious  and  productive  in  an  emi- 
nent degree,  but  1^  bjishels  of  apples  are  about  equal  to  one  of  corn; 
and,  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  with  diy  or  concentrated  food,  the  apples 
are  preferable.  For  feeding  cows  or  hogs,  he  would  btiil  or  steam  two 
bushels  of  apples  to  one  of  meal,  and  rather  than  feed  meal  clear,  would 
exchange  one  bushel  of  com  for  14  of  apples.  In  addition  to  the  IGO 
bushels  of  apples  per  acre,  it  should  be  remembered  that  crops  of  grass 
and  grain  are  also  grown  on  the  land.  Apples  need  the  ground,  the 
whole  of  it,  and  all  it  contaius ;  but  the  roots  and  branches  of  the  trees 
are  haggled  and  mangled,  and  the  sou  is  exhausted  in  the  production  ot 
other  crops. 

In  reference  to  the  actual  profits  of  apple-growing,  Mr.  Brooks  said 
that  their  orchards,  in  full  bearing,  yield  an  average  of  one  barrel  of 
marketable  fi'uit  to  the  tree,  the  yield  depending  greatly  upon  the  kinds 
of  fi-uit,  as  well  as  uiion  the  vigor  and  healthfulness  of  the  trees.  The 
Spitzenburg,  Fall  Pippui,  Yellow  Belldower,  Fameuse,  and  other  highly 
esteemed  varieties,  are  now  seldom  planted,  because  they  yield  a  light 
product  or  the  fruit  is  imperfect,  while  the  Eoxbury  Eusset,  Baldwin, 
Greening,  Twenty-oimce  apple,  Tolman's  Sweeting.  Dutch  Pippin,  &c., 
bear  much  better.  The  average  price,  for  the  last  ten  years  at  Cuyler- 
ville,  on  the  Genesee  Valley  canal,  has  been  82  per  barrel  in  the  fall,  and 
$2  80  in  the  spring.  Forty  trees  to  the  acre,  yielding  one  barrel  each, 
woidd  give  in  thefaU  880  per  acre;  if  sold  in  the  spring,  8112.  One 
man  near  that  place  has  just  sold  his  crop  of  seven  acres,  2.200  barrels, 
netting  $6,000,  or  nearly  81.000  per  acre.  An  acre  in  grass  would  not 
give  more  than  812,  or  in  corn  or  wheat  more  than  825.     Shoidd  the 


492  AGRICULTUKAL   REPORT. 

yield  be  reduced  to  one-half  barrel  to  tlie  tree,  apples  would  still  l>e  the' 
most  profitable  crop.  Mr.  Brooks  claims,  however,  that  the  yield  of 
the  orchards  can  be  doubled  by  good  cultivation.  Large  yields  are 
not  uncommon:  thirty-three  bushels  were  ijicked  from  a  tree  in  Middle- 
bury;  foui-  trees  of  Greenings,  in  Le  Roy,  ^"ielded  IGO  bushels;  one 
Baldwin  tree,  in  Peny,  yielded  42  bushels,  which  were  drawn*  at  one 
load,  and  sold  for  $G0;  the  product  of  two  trees,  in  Middlebury,  sold 
for  $100;  in  1SG5  the  product  of  SO  trees,  growing  on  three  acres  in 
Alexander — l.OoO  bushels — sold  for  8l,'575;  the  fruit  from  33  trees  of 
the  Northern  Spy,  in  Middlebury,  sold  for  $900;  from  oO  trees,  in  Hess 
Road,  in  18G5,  the  owner  sold  288  bushels  for  $465:  in  18GG,  from  the 
same  trees,  144  bushels  were  sold  for  8187 ;  and  last  year  4G8  bushels, 
were  sold  for  8421.  This  orchard  occupied  less  than  two  acres,  and 
gave  an  average  of  six  bushels  to  the  tree  for  the  tlnee  years.  Three 
men  in  Xewfane,  in  1SG7,  sold  2,700  barrels  of  apples.  One  of  these 
men  has  ten  acres  in  orchard — mostly  gi'afted  ten  or  twelve  years  ago — 
near  the  lake  shore;  soil  a  gravel,  six  feet  deep,  with  clay  beneath; 
timber,  oak  and  chestnut;  trees  pruned  lightly  every  year;  distance 
ajjart,  twenty-seven  feet:  he  crops  every  year  with  corn,  barley,  or  oats; 
plows  five  inches  deep,  and  manures  every  third  year  with  ioTty  loads 
bam-yard  manure  to  the  acre.  This  orchard  yielded  300  barrels  in  1865, 
selling  for  $1,G20;  300  barrels  in  ISGG,  81,422;  750  barrels  in  1SG7, 
82,062;  average  per  acre  for  the  three  years  47  barrels,  8170  per  acre; 
crops  light  the  last  three  years.  Eighty  trees  in  Covington,  in  1867, 
yielded  8550  worth  of  fruit,  or  8190  per  acre.  This  orchard  is  trimmed 
every  year,  and  plowed  and  manured  evtry  other  year.  A  four-acre 
orchard,  at  Youngstown,  yielded  500  barrels  in  1867 — one  of  the  trees, 
a  Greening,  over  fifty  years  old,  ^i elding  26  barrels.  Twenty  trees,  in 
York,  produced  163  barrels  of  marketable  apples  in  1865,  which  sold  for 
8779  50.  A  forest,  about  forty  rods  distant,  incloses  this  orchard  on 
three  sides,  north,  east,  and  west.  From  six  acres  of  orchard,  in  Beth 
any,  Genesee  Countv,  there  were  sold,  in  1862,  750  barrels  of  apples  for 
82,370;  in  1863,  540" barrels,  for  81,790;  in  18G4,  600  baiTels,  for  82,100; 
in  1865,  810  barrels,  for  84,500;  1866,  157  banels,  for  8863;  1867,  670 
barrels,  $3,000 — paying  over  8400  per  acre  during  the  whole  time.  This 
is  an  old  orchard;  for  ten  years  after  it  came  into  bearing  it  was  allowed 
to  take  care  of  itself,  and  during  those  years  it  did  no  better  than  ordi- 
nary orchards ;  a  new  com-se  was  adopted;  it  was  annually  and  pru- 
dently trimmed,  heavily  manured,  plowed  very  shallow,  and  left  for 
another  year;  then  cross-plowed  and  harrowed,  and  suflered  to  lie  two 
years  without  being  cropped;  the  same  process  was  then  repeated,  with 
the  results  stated.  A  neglected  and  unfiuitful  orchard,  in  Ra\ilion,  was 
trimmed,  manured,  and  plowed,  when  it  l)ore  abundantly — ilie  seven 
acres  yielding  its  owner  86,000  in  six^  years.  An  orchard  of  100  old 
trees,  that  did  not  yield  over  20  barrels,  changed  hands  three  years  since, 
when  it  was  manured  regularly  and  heavily,  pruned  annually,  and  the 
first  year  it  yielded  oG  barrels,  the  second  92  barrels,  and  last  year  130 
barrels.  Five  years  ago  a  farmer  piled  his  manure  in  his  orchard  between 
two  large  Twenty-ounce  Pippin  trees,  which  had  borne  only  every  other 
year,  and  then  not  over  from  seven  to  nine  baiTcls;  since  the  manure 
deijosit,  they  have  borne  every  year  from  11  to  21  barrels. 

In  reference  to  varieties,  Mr.  Brooks  says  the  Roxbury  Russet  is  their 
best  keeping  a]:>ple,  and  if  properly  gi'owu,  carefully  preserved,  and  held 
to  the  proper  time,  v.ill  yield  more  money  than  any  other  apple.  It  is 
hardy,  and  yields  abundantly.  The  Xoithern  Spy  is  an  abundant  bearer, 
but  requii-es  a  better  soil,  more  pniniiig  and  thinning  of  fiuit,  and  does 


STATE    KEPORTS    OF   AGEICULTURE.  493 

not  yield  so  many  marl^etable  apples.  The  Baldwin  gives  more  fruit  per 
tree  fit  for  market  than  any  other  prominent  apple;  and  at  least  nine- 
tenths  of  all  the  apple  trees  set  in  Western  New  York,  during  the  last 
ten  years,  have  been  Baldwins  and  Eussets.  Every  person  who  has  an 
acre  or  two  of  land  should  have  two  trees  each  of  the  Early  Harvest, 
Early  Joe,  Sweet  Bough,  Eed  Astrachan,  Maiden's  Blush,  Fail  Pippin, 
Rambo,  Fameuse,  Melon,  Red  Canada,  Peck's  Pleasant,  Swaar,  Primate, 
Spitzenburg,  and  ISTorthem  Spy — raise  a  few  apples  for  their  quality, 
even  if  the  yield  is  light.  Plant  largely  of  the  Greening,  Twenty-ounce, 
Wine  Apple,  Gravenstein,  Peck's  Pleasant,  AVagener,  Tolman's  Sweet- 
ing, and" Dutch  Pippin;  but  the  larger  share  should  be  the  Eusset, 
Baldwin,  and,  where  they  do  well,  the  Northern  Spy. 

ABORTION  IN  COWS. 

The  report  of  Dr.  J.  C.  Dalton,  commissioner  of  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society  for  the  investigation  of  abortion  in  cows,  states, 
that  the  entire  number  of  sub-reports  received  was  4,259,  fi'om  the 
States  of  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  including 
1,577  inspectors'  reports  on  farms  personally  visited.  From  all  the 
States  named,  cases  of  abortion  among  cows  have  been  reported;  but 
only  in  New  York  and  Massachusetts  have  they  been  sufiiciently  numer- 
ous to  excite  general  attention.  In  Pennsylvania  they  were  found  in 
Chester  and  in  Cumberland  County,  reaching  ten  per  cent,  of  all  the 
cases  of  pregnancy  reported.  In  Ohio,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Iowa,  there 
have  been  comparatively  few  cases.  In  New  York  information  has  been  re- 
ceived from  forty  counties,  reporting  49,749  cases  of  pregnancy,  from  May 
1, 1866,  to  May  1, 1867,  and  2,574  abortions — a  little  over  five  per  cent.  The 
malady  is  not  generally  prevalent  in  an  active  form,  even  in  New  York. 
In  ten  counties  there  was  not  a  single  abortion  among  641  cases  of  preg- 
nancy. In  twenty  counties,  reporting  19,804  cases  of  pregnancy,  and 
661  abortions,  the  percentage  of  abortions  for  each  county  varied  from 
five  to  less  than  one  per  cent. ;  and  in  the  remaining  ten  counties,  report- 
ing 29,304  pregnancies  and  1,913  abortions,  the  percentage  varied  from 
above  five  to  ten  per  cent.  There  were  only  five  counties  in  which  the 
proportion  of  abortions  was  above  seven  -pev  cent.,  viz. :  Queens,  seven 
and  a  half  per  cent.;  Clinton,  eight  per  cent.;  Orange  and  Madison, 
nine  per  cent.;  and  Lewis,  ten  per  cent.  In  Oneida,  Otsego,  Herkimer, 
Lewis,  and  St.  Lawrence  abortions  have  occurred,  in  small  numbers,  as 
far  back  as  1852.  In  1860-'61  the  number  showed  a  marked  increase, 
amounting  to  251,  which  has  been  rapidly  increased  until  in  1866-'67 
the  number  was  2,214. 

The  results  obtained  by  the  commission,  so  far  as  it  has  been  able  to 
extend  the  investigation,  may  be  siunmed  up  as  follows: 

1.  Abortion  exists  as  a  serious  malady  in  some  parts  of  New  York  and 
Massachusetts,  and  in  one  or  two  localities  in  Pennsylvania.  It  is  very 
rare,  or  entirely  absent,  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Iowa. 

2.  In  New  York  the  annual  number  of  abortions  among  cattle  has 
considerably  increased  since  1860-'61.  At  present  the  number  of  abor- 
tions for  the  entire  State  is  about  five  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  of 
cows  Avith  calf. 

3.  The  prevalence  of  abortion  is  not  proportionate  to  the  relative 
extent  of  butter  and  cheese  production  in  the  afflicted  districts. 

4.  It  is  not  more  prevalent  among  good  milkers  than  among  ordinary 
milkers. 


494  AGRICULTUEAL    REPORT. 

5.  It  is  not  more  commou  iu  first  preguancies  than  in  subsequent  ones. 

G,  It  liapp&ns  most  fiequeatlj'  in  the  sixth,  the  seventh,  or  the  eighth 
mouth  of  pregnancy,  and  in  the  month  of  December,  January,  or  Feb- 
ruary. 

7.  In  all  probability  it  is  not  due  to  exposure  to  cold,  or  to  insufficient 
stabling  of  any  kind. 

8.  It  is  not  more  prevalent  among  cows  impregnated  at  the  age  of 
one  yt?ar  or  eighteen  months  than  among  those  impregnated  at  a  later 
period. 

9.  It  is  more  frequent  among  cows  'which  have  been  impregnated  by 
two  or  three  vear  old  bulls  than  among  those  imi)regnated  by  vearling 
buUs. 

10.  It  is  not  due  to  inflammation  of  the  uterus,  nor  to  jany  marked 
change  in  the  generative  orgiins  except  a  stoppage  of  the  circulation 
and  an  arrest  of  development. 

11.  It  ii5  probably  not  owing  to  any  defect  in  the  original  form  of  the 
foetus. 

12.  Aborting  cows  are  more  liable  to  miscarry  the  following  year  than 
those  which  have  never  been  aftected. 

1.3.  The  ear]y  separation  of  the  caLf  from  the  cow  does  not  seem  to 
have  any  injui-ious  intiueuce  id  producing  subsequent  abortions. 

14.  Aboitiou  is  a  disease  which  is  extremely  local  in  character,  and 
confined  for  the  most  part  to  particular  farms. 

15.  The  large  majority  of  farms,  even  in  the  affected  districts,  are 
free  from  the  disease,  whOe  upon  a  few  farms  the  percentage  of  abortion 
is  high,  and  the  disease  destructive  in  its  effects. 

IG.  Farms  affected,  and  those  unaffected,  often  lie  in  close  proximity, 
with  no  marked  difference?  in  physical  situation,  or  in  the  tieatment 
which  the  cattle  receive,  to  account  for  the  difference  in  the  prevalence 
of  abortion. 

17.  It  is  probable  that  abortion  is,  in  many  instances,  imported  into 
the  affected  farm  by  cows,  purchased  while  with  calf,  coming  from  in- 
fected districts,  or  even  from  localities  where  the  disease  is  not  known 
to  exist. 

THE  inSTORY  OF  THE  PLOvT. 

In  a  very  elaborate  report  on  plows  and  plowing,  occupying  about 
two  himdred  and  seventy  pages  of  the  volume,  J.  Stanton  GoiUd,  the 
chairman  of  the  committee,  traces  the  use  of  the  plow,  in  agiicultural 
operations,  back  to  a  very  remote  antiquity,  and  notes  in  detail  the  pro- 
gress and  improvements  in  this  implement  up  to  the  present  day.  The 
Book  of  Job,  the  most  ancient  wi-iting  of  the  Old  Testament,  begins 
with  an  allusion  to  the  plow,  and  'Mr.  Gould  gives  copies  of  sculptures 
on  ancient  monuments  which  date  back  foiu'  thousand  years.  It  is 
sti'ange,  in  view  of  the  antiquity  and  importance  of  the  plow,  that  its 
construction  should  have  received  so  little  attention  fi^om  scientific  men, 
and  the  principles  upon  which  it  acts  should  have  been  so  little  observed 
by  those  who  habitually  use  it.  The  only  special  treatise  upon  it  known 
to  us  is  the  work  of  Small,  published  late  in  the  last  century,  and  even 
that  gives  very  little  of  its  history  or  its  theory,  being  mainly  devoted 
to  practical  details. 

The  report  states  that  there  are  423  establishments  iu  the  United 
States  for  the  manufacture  of  plows,  haiTOws,  and  cultivators,  the 
annual  products  of  which  reach  a  total  value  of  $i',855,24S,  and  about 
two-thirds  of  this  amount  are  for  plows,  in  numbci-  about  185,500,  for 


STATE    EEPOPtTS    OF   AGEICULTUEE.  495 

domestic  use.  Tlie  annual  export  of  ])Iows  is  estimated  to  reach  in  value 
$300,000.  whicli  migbt  easily  be  increased  ten-fold.  The  plowing'  of 
the  land  under  cultivation  in  the  United  States,  estimated  at  80,000,000 
acres,  requires,  according  to  estimate,  the  labor  of  1,000,000  teams, 
either  of  oxen,  mules,  or  horse?;,  for  SO  days  in  the  year;  and  the  average 
value  of  the  labor  of  the  men  and  teams  required  for  this  purpose  is 
reckoned  at  not  less  than  $2  50  per  day  for  each  plow,  making  the  aggre- 
gate cost  of  the  plowing,  each  year,  to  be  8i'00,000,000.  It  is  shown  in 
the  report  that  there  is  a  difference  of  jiower,  required  to  j^erform  the 
same  amount  of  work  by  different  plows,  amounting  to  forty-six  per 
cent.,  as  shown  by  careliil  trials  in  England  ;  and  to  forty-two  per  cent., 
according  to  the  trials  instituted  by  this  society  in  1830.  It  follows  from 
this  that,  if  the  plow  having  the  lightest  draught  were  brought  into 
universal  use,  to  the  exclusion  of  those  which  require  a  greater  power, 
it  would  reduce  the  cost  of  plowing  in  the  United  States  forty-two  per 
cent. ;  or  from  8200,000,000  to  811(3,000,000,  leaving  884,000,000  in  the 
pockets  of  the  formers ;  or,  if  the  same  number  of  men  and  teams  be 
employed,  they  would  be  enabled  to  increase  the  crJtivated  area  forty- 
two  per  cent.*  with  the  same  expenditure  of  power.  The  annual  value 
of  the  crops  produced  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  about  $900,- 
000,000,  or  811  25  per  acre.  If,  by  the  use  of  better  plows,  this  amount 
can  be  increased  forty-two  per  cent.,  the  aggTcgate  mcrease  would  be 
$378,000,000.  It  is  not  claimed  thattheprecedingtig-ureswoidd  represent 
the  actual  increase  of  the  annual  value  of  the  products  of  agricultiu'e ;  but, 
allowing  the  reader  to  make  necessary  deductions  for  increased  cost  of 
cultivation  of  the  increased  area  for  seed,  planting,  &C.,  it  ^rill  be  seen 
that  the  use  of  the  best  form  of  the  i^low  wiU  increase  the  aggTegate 
profits  of  agriculture  to  an  extent  equal  to  the  annual  national  internal 
taxation  of  the  United  States.  ■ 

The  report  then  proceeds  to  give  the  history  of  the  plow ;  the  objects 
to  be  accomplishetl  by  plowing ;  discusses  some  of  the  practical  ques- 
tions in  connection  with  plows  and  plowing;  the  line  of  draught  in 
plows,  and  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  plow ;  concluding  with 
the  awards  of  the  judges  appointed  by  the  State  Agricultirral  Society 
of  Xew  York  to  examine  plows,  cultivators,  and  harrows,  at  the  grand 
trial  at  Utica,  September  10,  1SG7. 

The  report  states  that  Thomas  Jefferson,  ex-president  of  the  United 
States,  was  one  of  the  earliest  American  laborers  in  the  effort  to  perfect 
and  simplify  the  plow,  his  first  ideas  upon  the  subject  being  noted  in 
his  joiu-ual  of  1788,  though  it  was  not  imtil  1793  that  he  reduced  his 
theory  to  practice.  The  next  American  inventor  who  set  himself  to 
work  to  improve  the  plow  was  Charles  !^^ewbold.  of  Biuiiugtou  county, 
2s  ew  Jersey,  who  invented  the  first  cast-u-on  plow  ever  made  in  America, 
which  was  patented  in  June,  1797.  After  spending  upward  of  830,000 
in  ijerfecting  and  introducing  the  plow,  he  abandoned  the  business  in 
despair,  the  farmers  imbibing  the  notion  that  the  cast-ii'on  plows  pois- 
oned the  land,  injuring  its  fertility,  and  promoting  the  gTOwth  of  weeds. 
The  next  i:)low  patented  was  by  John  Denver,  of  Maryland,  June  12, 
1804:.    In  April,  1807,  a  patent  was  granted  to  David  Peacock,  of  New 

*  If  884,000,LX)0  are  savecl  upon  an  expenditure  of  SHO.OOO.OOO,  and  employed  in  extend- 
ing the  area  plowed,  such  increase  of  tilled  acreage  -^oiild  be  seveuty-tvro  per  cent, 
instead  of  forty -tAvo.  and  the  increase  of  production  would  be  in  the  same  projiortion. 
The  loss,  calculated  upon  §-J00,000.000,  would  be  forty-two  per  cent. :  the  gain,  in  the 
event  proposed,  calculated  upon  an  expenditure  of  §116,0(10,000,  would  be  seventy-two 
per  cent.  But  the  calculation  has  serious  fallacy  in  it,  being  based  upon  the  assump- 
tion that  all  our  jilows  in  use  are  no  better  than  the  worst  tested  samples  of  the  New 
York  Exhibition. — Ed. 


496  AGKICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Jersey ;  February  24,  180S,  to  Hezekiali  Harris,  Oi  Kentucky ;  and  the 
,next  to  Kichard  B.  Cheuoweth,  of  Maryland.  Patents  were  subse- 
quently issued  in  the  following:  order:  to  John  Klay,  of  Maryland,  Jan 
uaryli,  1812;  Eoswell  Towsley,  of  Scipio,  Xevr  York,  January  11,  1812; 
Matthew  Patrick,  of  Xew  York,  January  2,  1813  ;  John  Seltz,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, February  8,  1813 ;  Horace  Pease,  of  Scipio,  Xew  York,  August 
28,  1813;  Jethro  Wood,  of  Scipio,  New  York,  July  1, 1814;  John  Swan, 
of  Scipio,  Xew  York,  July  5,  1814 ;  J.  Morgan  and  J.  B.  Harris,  October 
11,1814;  Da\-id  Peacock^  of  New  Jersey,  3Iay  29,  1817;  Jethro  Wood, 
September  1,  1817  ;  Edwin  A.  Stevens,  New  Jersey,  1817 ;  Gideon 
Davis,  Maryland,  May  26,  1818.  After  this  date  the  inventors  of  plows 
multiplied  so  rapidly  that  only  such  inventions  are  named  as  involved 
new  ideas,  or  those  which  have  been  remarkably  x)Opular,  to  wit : 
Zadock  Harris,  of  Xew  York,  March  17,  1819 ;  Henry  Burden,  in  1819 ; 
the  Hingham  self-holding  jjIow,  of  Massachusetts,  about  1823 ;  David 
Hitchcock,  of  Xew  York,  July  10, 1823 ;  Joel  Xourse.  of  Massachusetts, 
about  1827  ;  the  McCormick  plow;  John  Means,  in  1831 ;  David  Prouty, 
in  1831;  James  Jacobs,  July  8,  1834;  the  Peekskill  plows,  in  1835; 
Daniel  Webster,  in  183G-'37  :  Samuel  Witherow  and  David  Price,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1839 ;  Cjttls  Alger,  of  Boston,  in  1839 ;  F.  D.  Burrall,  of 
Kew  York,  in  1843;  Governor  Holbrook,  of  Vermont,  in  1843;  Samuel  A. 
Knox,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1852;  H.  M.  Piatt,  in  1858;  Mr.  Mead,  of 
Connecticut,  in  1863;  Dr.  Grant's  new  plough  for  deep  tillage. 

The  first  idea  of  the  plow  was  a  crooked  stick,  of  Avhich  various  forms 
were  in  use.  Then  came  the  pro\ision  of  an  iron  point  to  the  i)low.  Up 
to  this  time  the  crooked  sticks  used  were  on  the  principle  of  the  double 
mold-board;  they  threw  off  the  earth  on  each  side.  The  next  step  was 
to  hew  off  one  side  of  the  stick,  so  as  to  throw  out  the  earth  only  on  one 
side,  approximating  to  a  single  mold-board.  Then  the  plow  became  a 
simple  wedge,  the  land  side  being  nearly  parallel  with  the  line  of  the 
plow's  motion,  the  other  moving  the  furrow  still  to  the  right,  but  leav- 
ing the  furrow  standing  on  edge.  Then  the  wedge  was  gradually  twisted 
so  as  to  regularly  invert  the  furrow.  Jefferson  and  Small  discovered 
the  iini)ortance  of  straight  lines,  running  from  the  sole  to  the  top  of  the 
share  and  mold-board.  Colonel  Pickering  was  the  first  to  discover  the 
importance  of  a  straight  line  running  from  the  front  to  the  rear.  Jethro 
Wood  discovered  that  all  the  lines  running  from  front  to  rear  shoitld  be 
straight.  Mr.  Knox  first  discovered  a  method  of  laying  down  all  the 
lines  of  a  plow  on  a  plane  surface.  John  Mears  first  discovered  the  im- 
portance of  a  center  draught,  and  pointed  out  the  practical  means  of 
obtaining  it  by  the  inclination  of  the  land  side  inward.  Aaron  Smith 
was  the  first  to  adapt  two  plows  to  work  well  together,  one  of  which  threw 
two  or  three  inches  of  the  sm^face  into  the  bottom  of  the  preceding 
furrow,  and  the  other  covered  it  with  the  lower  earth.  Finally,  Gov- 
ernor Holbrook  has  invented  a  method  by  which  plows  of  any  size  may 
be  made  symmetrical,  either  convex  or  concave,  in  such  a  way  as  to 
insure  the  comi)lete  pulverization  of  the  soil. 

MICHIGAN. 

MICHIGAN  STATE  AGEICITLTUEAL   COLLEGE. 

The  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  Sanford  Howard, 
reports  that  this  institution  has  been  comparatively  prosperous  during 
the  year,  though  the  accommodations  have  not  been  equal  to  the  de- 
mands of  students  for  admission,  the  limited  appropriation  affording  no 


STATE    REPORTS    OF    AGRICULTURE.  497 

surplus  above  the  current  expenses  for  tlie  erection  of  additional  build- 
ings, Tvbile  the  revenue  of  the  college  from  the  sale  of  sv.amp  lands  has 
been  sufficient  only  to  relieve  the  more  pressing  wants  of  the  institution 
in  repairs,  shelter  for  stock,  greenhouse,  &c.  The  products  of  t-he  farm 
Trere  $4,874:  72;  expenditures,  85,000  23;  and  of  the  horticultural  depart- 
ment, $1,067  12 ;  expenditures,  $1,517 12 — the  excess  of  the  latter  being 
incurred  for  orchards,  nurseries,  &C. 

THE  MICHIGAN  STATE  AGRICULTUEAE  SOCIETY. 

This  society  is  reported  to  be  In  a  flourishing  condition,  and  acting  in 
harmony  Tvith  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  and  the  State  Agricultural 
CoUege."^  The  total  available  funds  of  the  society,  January  1,  1867,  were 
$12,067  37;  receipts  during  the  year,  $23,778  90— total,  $35,840  30;  ex- 
penditures, $28,575  56;  balance  on  hand,  $7,270  80,  which,  added  to 
value  of  buildings  and  fixtures  on  fau-  grounds,  $13,407  24,  makes  ths 
total  assets,  January  1,  1868,  $20,678  04.  The  premium  list  of  1867 
reached  $7,4G7  75,  and  the  number  of  entries  made  at  the  State  Fair 
2,166— the  largest  since  1859. 

KECESSITY  FOE,  EVrPEO^VTID  CULTURE. 

The  secretary  of  the  society,  E.  F.  Johnstone,  urges  the  importance 
of  greater  attention  to  means  which  shall  in{fuce  inquiry  and  investiga- 
tion relative  to  the  improvement  of  farm  lands,  and  stimulate  higher 
cultivation  generally.  He  says  that  when  the  attention  of  the  farming- 
community  has  been  addressed  almost  entirely  to  the  improvement  and 
cultivation  of  the  surface,  it  has  become  evident  that  the  improvement 
and  amelioration  of  both  surface  and  subsoil  must  hereafter  become  a 
necessary  part  of  the  business  of  the  farmer,  and  the  question  is  sug- 
gested: "Is  it  not  the  duty  of  the  society  to  devise  means  and  ways  by 
which  it  can  promote  a  more  thorough  and  perfect  system  of  treatment 
of  land  than  now  prevails  f  The  premiums  oflered  on  farms  have  already 
done  something  in  this  direction,  and  the  example  has  been  followed 
with  remarkable  success  by  some  of  the  county  societies.  The  holding  of 
farmers'  State  conventions  is  recommended  as  another  means  of  awaken- 
ing a  more  general  interest  in  the  necessity  for  an  improved  system  of 
culture. 

PRElVirUM  FARMS. 

The  committee  on  farms,  in  reporting  the  awards  made,  remark  that, 
up  to  the  present  time,  the  general  system  of  agricultm-e  in  Michigan 
has  been  largely  governed  by  the  necessity  which  has  compelled  each 
farmer  to  apply  all  his  abilities  to  the  clearing  and  amelioration  of  the 
surface  of  his  laud.  The  greater  the  surface  he  could  till,  the  more  his 
returns.  But  the  time  has  come  when  this  system  must  be  changed,  the 
necessity  for  which  is  indicated  by  the  decreased  production  of  fields 
longest  imder  cultivation.  Farms  that  formerly  produced  thirty  to  forty 
bushels  of  the  choicest  wheat  to  the  acre  now  seldom  yield  over  twenty 
to  twenty-five,  and  in  many  cases  the  quality  is  inferior;  and  where  this 
yield  is  exceeded,  it  is  upon  the  new  and  recently  cleared  lauds,  where 
the  soil  is  yet  rich  in  the  elements  of  fertility  with  whic^h  natiu'e  has 
supplied  the  smiace. 

The  first  premium  farm  lies  in  Webster  Township,  and  contains  520 
acres,  365  of  ^rhich  are  improved.  The  soil  is  generally  rich  loam,  inter- 
mixed with  white  clay,  known  as  burr-oak  soil.    The  system  of  tillage 


498  AGRICULTURAL  REPORT. 

is  to  manure  each  year,  at  the  rate  of  forty  acres  of  sod  land,  and  to 
break  it  up  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  nine  inches.  The  fiehl  is  planted 
■with  corn;  next  year  barley  is  sown,  the  hoed  corn  preceding  render- 
ing the  soil  clean,  and  peculiarly  adapting  it  to  this  grain.  AMieat 
follows  the  barley.  Wheat  and  barley  are  drilled  in,  two  bushels  to  the 
acre ;  but  the  drilling  is  done  both  ways,  the  drill  being  gauged  to  sow 
a  bushel  per  acre  each  way.  Grass,  barley,  and  corn  are  plastered,  but 
it  is  thought  that  plaster  injiu^es  wheat.  The  yield  of  wheat  was  twenty- 
five  bushels  per  acre,  and  never  falls  below  twenty  bushels;  barley 
thh^ty-five  bushels  per  acre  for  the  past  three  years.  The  corn  grown  is 
the  eight-rowed  white  flint.  Crops  average  from  fifty  to  seventy-five 
bushels.  Wheat,  barley,  and  wool  are  the  leading  money  products. 
Total  productions  $G.304 ;  family  support,  labor,  expenses,  &c..  83,010. 
The  product  of  the  farm  averages  $17  50  per  acre  of  improved  land,  or 
$9  25  per  acre  net  income. 

The  second  premium  farm  lies  in  the  town  of  Avon,  contains  340  acres, 
275  improved;  soil  medium  hght  sand,  with  a  large  tract  of  bottom-land, 
resting  on  a  somewhat  compact  giavelly  subsoil.  The  practice  on  this 
farm  is  to  break  up  to  the  depth  of  seven  or  eight  inches ;  the  land  is 
seeded  to  clover,  the  maniu^e  irom  the  barn*  haAing  been  tkawn  out  as 
fast  as  made,  the  amount  thus  applied  being  equal  to  ten  loads  per  acre. 
The  field  is  planted  with  corn,  which  yields  thirty-five  to  forty  bushels 
per  acre.  The  next  year  either  oats  or  barley  is  grown,  the  former  pre- 
ferred, and  yielding  thirty  bushels  per  acre.  Wheat  follows,  the  stub- 
ble being  x^lowed  under,  and  this  crop  yields  an  average  of  twelve  bush- 
els per  acre.  Alter  wheat  the  field  is  seeded  to  clover,  intermixed  with 
timothy.  This  farm  has  derived  much  benefit  from  liberal  manuring 
and  plowing  under  heavy  crops  of  clover.  The  wheat  crop  was  increased 
from  nine  to  an  average  of  twelve  bushels  per  acre  by  iilowing  under  a 
crop  of  Hungarian  grass  just  pre\ious  to  the  sowing  of  the  wheat  in 
the  fall.  AMieat  and  corn  are  the  heaviost  money  crops.  Total  products 
S-t.OGO  99,  or  an  average  of  $14  80  per  acre;  exi^euditures,  including 
family  support.  &c.,  $1,701  70,  leaving  a  balance  of  $2,395  29,  or  a  net 
dividend  of  $<'3  10  per  acre. 

A  medal  was  awarded  to  a  farm  of  200  acres,  170  improved,  situated 
in  Iiichfield.  The  soil  of  this  farm  is  clayey,  with  a  mixture  of  gravelly 
loam.  The  system  of  tillage  is  to  plow  and  cultivate  sod  ground  and 
plant  with  corn,  followed  by  oats.  The  field  then  lies  from  three  to  five 
years  in  grass  before  it  is  sammer-fallowed  for  wheat.  The  wheat  is  then 
seeded,  and  it  is  allowed  to  lie  till  it  is  ready  to  take  up  for  corn.  There 
is  no  regidar  rotation.  This  system  has  been  adopted  as  the  best  for 
clearing  the  surface  of  a  heavy  timbered  farm.  During  the  past  year 
there  were  tweuty-four  acres  in  corn,  fifteen  in  oats,  seven  in  spring 
wheat,  and  four  in  winter  wheat ;  the  remainder,  one  hundred  and  twenty 
acres,  was  in  grass,  of  which  forty-five  acres  were  mowed  for  hay.  Total 
productions,  including  cousumptign  of  family,  $3,S73  90,  or  $19  25  per 
acre;  expenses,  including  support  of  family,  $1,190  So,  or  $7  per  acre. 
Sui'plus,  $2,183  05,  or  a  net  product  of  $12  25  per  acre. 

•  DEAEN'AGE. 

The  coinmittee  on  drainage  give  the  the  following  practical  illustra- 
tion of  the  advantages  of  this  system  of  reclaiming  lands:  The  lands 
subjected  to  drainage  consisted  of  twenty-five  acres  ot  swales,  produc- 
tive of  the  coarsest  vegetation,  %-iz:  bog  grass,  flags,  rushes,  and  other 
worthless  rubbish.    About  eight  hundred  yards  of  tile  were  laid,  at  an 


STATE    REPORTS    OF    AGRICULTURE.  499 

aggregate  expense  of  $480.  The  grass  products  of  tlie  lielcl  the  first  year 
reached  $1,570.  Expenses,  $541  25;  dramage.  8480 — 81.021  25;  leaving 
a  net  profit  the  fii'st  year  of  $548  75.  Second  year,  products  $1,425; 
xpenses,  $550 — net  profit  $075.  These  returns  are  from  land  yielding 
nothing  before  drainage. 

ORCHARDS. 

The  premium  on  apple  orchards  \ras  awarded  to  a  three-acre  orchard 
at  Ypsilanti,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Huron  Eiver,  at  an  elevation  of 
seventy-five  to  eighty  feet  above  its  surface ;  soil,  a  sandy  loam ;  oak 
openings.  In  184G  one  hundred  and  tvreuty  trees  weve  set,  thiity  feet 
apart,  at  right  angles,  embracing  ten  Baldwins,  ten  Spitzenbiu^gs,  eight 
Greenings, "eight  Green  Xewtown  Pippins,  six  Winter  Swaais.  eight 
Winter  Pearmains,  six  Fall  Pippins,  and  four  each  of  Golden  Eusset, 
Nevr  York  Pippin,  Twenty-ounce  Pippin,  Black  Gilliflower  and  Eed 
Gilliflower,  Pennock's  Eed  AVinter,  Seek-no-further,  and  Vande vere ;  the 
remainder  choice  summer  apples.  Two  trees  were  lost  the  fii'st  year, 
and  two  the  second,  which  were  replaced  with  the  Xoitheru  Spy.  The 
ground  was  mauiu'ed  in  tlie  spring  of  1846,  twenty  loads  to  the  acre,  and 
a  good  crop  of  corn  raised.  The  next  year  so^vn  to  wheat,  and  seeded 
to  clover,  remaining  in  this  condition  foiu'  years,  and  kept  most  of  the 
time  for  pastiu'e.  In  1851  it  was  again  manured  and  planted  with  corn, 
raising  a  better  crop  than  the  previous  one.  Xext  year  it  was  sown  with 
wheat  and  seeded  down,  in  which  conilition  it  remaiued  ten  years,  hay 
being  taken  ofl"  but  twice  during  the  time,  and  kept  for  pasture  the 
remainder  of  the  time,  being  top-(bessed  with  twenty  loads  of  barnyard 
manure  at  intervals  of  three  or  foui-  years.  The  trees  were  large  when 
set  out,  and  commenced  bearing  fruit  the  foiulh  year,  and  have  steadily 
increased  up  to  the  present  time.  The  cold  winter  of  1855-56  killed 
three  Baldwins  and  two  Pearmains.  In  1858  the  following  varieties  were 
cut  ofl^"  and  p^afted:  all  the  summer  apples  except  six,  and  Pennock's 
Eed  Winter,  Twenty-ounce  Pippin,  Black  GiUiflower  and  Eed  Gillidower, 
Winter  Pearmain,  and  Vaucjevere ;  and  grafts  were  set  of  the  following: 
Steele's  Eed  Winter,  Baldwin,  Spitzenburg,  Northern  Spy,  King  Apple, 
and  Greening,  and  aU  ilid  well  except  those  grafted  on  the  Winter  Pear- 
main. 

In  setting  out  an  orchard,  the  owner  of  the  foregoiug  recommends 
that  trees  be  grown  at  home,  the  nearer  to  the  prospective  orchard  the 
better.  Soil  and  climate  are  essential  elements  iu  growiug  trees,  and  a 
similarity  in  these  important  agencies  should  always  exist  between  the 
place  where  the  young  trees  were  propagated  and  that  wkere  they  are  to 
be  set  in  the  orchard.  He  thinks  top-dressing  with  barnyard  manure 
the  only  reliable  course  in  keeping  up  the  proper  standard  of  fertility  to 
produce  a  crop  of  ti'uit  of  good  quahty,  and  the  less  the  gToiind  is  plowed 
after  the  trees  are  matured  the  better  for  them.  Young  fibrous  roots 
run  in  every  diiection,  and  approach  the  suj'face  in  search  of  food,  which 
the  plow  destroys. 

TRF.ADWELL,  DEIHX,  AND  SOULE  WHEAT 

The  causes  of  the  deficiency  in  the  wheat  crop  of  Michigan  for  i867 
are  stated  by  the  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Agricultiu-e  to  have  been 
the  midge,  the  Hessian  fly,  and  winter-kLlliug,  much  the  gi'eater  portion 
being  chargeable  to  the  first-named  insect.  The  wheat  cro])  of  the  State 
has  been  seriously  diminished  by  the  ravages  of  this  insect  in  previous 
years,  and  it  is  known  that  some  varieties  of  wheat  have  sutiered  more 


500  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

than  others  Ixom  its  attacks.  The  Soiile  wheat  seems  especially  liable 
to  injim-  froiu  this  cause,  and  it  becomes  a  question  whether  the  culti- 
vation of  this  variety  should  be  continued.  The  Treadwell  and  the 
Delhi  were  substituted  with  advantage  the  preceding  year,  being  com- 
paratively little  injured  by  the  midge,  and  generally  yielded  v.ell.  Of 
these  two  varieties,  the  Treadwell  is  represented  to  be  the  more  hardy, 
and  better  adapted  to  groimd  not  thoroughly  ])repared ;  Avhile  the  Deihl 
is  a  somewhat  whiter  grain,  and  under  favorable  circumstances  will  >ie]d 
as  well  as  the  former.  Several  instances  are  reported  where  the  Tread- 
well  wheat  yielded  twenty-hve  to  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre,  being  nearly 
exempt  from  injury  by  the  midge,  though  the  Soule  wheat,  growing  in 
close  proximity,  was  nearly  riuued  by  that  insect,  and  the  opinion  is  ex- 
pressed that,  had  the  Treadwell  and  the  Deihl  variety  been  sown 
instead  of  the  Soule,  the  result  would  have  been  millions  of  dollars  to 
the  advantage  of  the  farmers  of  Michigan. 

S0EGHU3I  Ds   vncniGAJs*. 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Sugar-Growers'  Association,  it  was  gen- 
erally concluded  that  the  OtaheitauVariety  is  the  best  for  sugar,  and  the 
rhiriese  variety  for  sirup;  that  tbe  best  method  for  the  cultivation  of 
the  plant  is  sufficiently  known  to  insure  a  crop :  that  the  most  econom- 
ical and  the  safest  methods  of  harvesting  the  cane,  and  of  caring  forit  when 
harvested,  are  now  so  well  known  that  the  valuable  j^roperties  of  this 
plant  need  not  sutler  deterioration  from  handling  in  an  improper  manner; 
that  the  best  and  safest  treatment  of  the  cane,  and  of  the  expressed 
juice  when  at  the  mill,  does  not  seem  to  be  definitely  settled,  the  prac- 
tice in  this  respect  being  not  generally  the  same  among  cultivators  and 
manuiacturers,  and  more  thorough  examination  is  requisite  in  this  direc- 
tion; that  the  rapid  boiling  of  the  luuified  juice  in  shallow  pans,  afford- 
ing a  very  full  exposure  of  the  sirup  to  the  Jrtmosphere  while  boihng  and 
cooling,  promotes  speedy  granulation  under  ordinarily  skillful  manage- 
ment :  that  tbe  simp,  when  skillfully  treated,  will  readily  granulate  and 
furnish  a  sugar  of  high,  dry  quality,  without  the  introduction  of  foreign 
sugars :  that  the  qualirs*  of  the  sugar,  as  to  strength  or  weakness,  is  de- 
termined by  the  skiUfulness  of  the  grower  and  manufacturer;  and  that 
the  crop  can  be  grown  for  sugar,  and  the  production  be  sufficient  in  quantity 
to  insure  abundant  profits,  if  treated  according  to  the  best  methods 
known. 

The  interest  in  the  sorghum  crop  is  represented  as  ba\ing  been  stead 
ily  on  the  increase  in  Michigan,  though  the  season  of  1SG7  was  the  most 
unfavorable  one  kno-^Mi  since  the  introduction  of  the  plant.  The  yield 
in  the  State  was  estimated  at  400.000  gallons,  or  about  half  the  yield  of 
the  preceding  year,  the  cane  having  been  harvested  in  an  immature  state 
and  the  jield  of  sirup  of  course  diminished.  The  quality  of  the  sirup  is 
said  to  l>e  improving  anniwlly. 

cheese-3IAk:i>g  in  ^nCHlGAJf. 

The  business  of  cheese-making  by  the  factory  system  has  rapidly  in 
creased  within  a  year  or  two  in  this  State,  and  nearly  enough  was  manu- 
factured in  1807  to  supply  the  demand  for  home  consumption,  and  there 
is  promise  of  a  surplus  for  export  in  1808.  One  factory,  at  Fairfield,  re- 
ceived during  the  season  L',0.31.G25  ]»ounds  of  milk  from  an  average  of 
470  cows.  l)eing  an  average  of  4,370  pounds  of  milk  to  each  cow,  makhig 
460  pounds  of  cured  cheese  per  cow,  which  nets  12  cents  per  i^ound,  oi 


STATE    REPORTS    OF    AGRICULTURE.  501 

$55  20  per  cow.  The  wliey  was  "fed  to  hogs  at  the  factory,  netting  the 
patrons  about  $1  per  cow.  It  takes  8.7  pounds  of  milk  to  make  one  of 
green  cheese,  and  9i  i::*:)unds  for  one  pound  of  cured  cheese.  The  rule 
is  to  make  cheese  for  patrons  at  1^  cent  per  pound  and  the  whey,  or  If 
cent  per  pomid  and  feed  the  whey  to  patrons'  hogs. 

Skim-mill-  cheese. — It  is  claimed  that  the  most  palatable  cheese  is  not 
necessarily  that  which  is  richest  in  butter ;  that  American  cheese  is  richer 
in  butter  than  it  need  be,  and  that  the  butter  cannot  be  retained  in  the 
curds;  that  the  price  of  butter  is  greatly  in  excess  of  that  of  cheese, 
and  that,  in  consequence,  we  are  annualfy  throwing  away  millions  of 
dollars — a  loss  which,  it  is  said,  may  be  remedied  by  the  establishment 
of  butter  factories  in  connection  with  cheese  manufacture.  With  a  view 
to  this  economy,  a  combined  establishment  has  been  started  at  Ceresco, 
Michigan.  Operations  commenced  with  45  cows,  gradually  increased  to 
85,  and  the  whole  amount  of  milk  received  during  the  season  was  563,238 
poimds;  amount  of  butter  made,  17,318  pounds;  ciu-ed  cheese,  43,514 
potinds.  The  butter  sold  for  a  little  over  30  cents  per  pound,  and  the 
cheese  at  14  cents.  The  quality  of  this  skim-milk  cheese  is  stated  by  Pro- 
fessor Kedzie  to  be  as  good  as  the  average  of  country-made  cheese  man- 
ufactured from  whole  milk,  and  contains  three  times  as  much  butter  as 
does  the  English  skim-milk  cheese,  and  only  four  per  cent,  less  than  the 
"Double  Gloucester,"  wliich  is  made  by  adding  the  milk  and  cream  of 
the  evening  to  the  fresh  milk  of  the  morning.  The  famous  Cheddar 
cheese,  also,  contains  only  12^  per  cent,  more  of  butter  than  does  this 
American  skim-milk  cheese. 

Causes  of  had  flavor  of  Ainerican  cheese. — Mr.  Weeks,  secretary  of  the 
American  Dairymen's  Association,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  annual 
meeting,  held  at  Utica,  gives  the  following  as  the  most  serious  causes 
of  the  bad  flavor  of  American  factory  eheese :  1.  Unclean  inilk.  2.  Dis- 
eased milk.  3.  Cows  eating  objectionable  weeds,  imparting  bad  flavor 
to  the  milk,  and  thence  to  the  cheese.  4.  Cows  being  chased  by  dogs, 
or  otherwise  overdriven,  rendering  the  mDk  feverish  and  unnatural.  5. 
Failure  to  remove  natural  heat  from  the  milk.  G.  Impure  annotto.  7. 
Bad  rennets.  8.  Curds  insufficiently  cooked,  which  in  our  warm  climate 
will  almost  invariably  lose  their  sweet  flavor.  9.  Curds  too  lightly  salted. 
10.  Salting  curds  while  too  warm  and  too  damp.  11.  Putting  curds 
into  the  hoops  and  to  press  before  they  are  properly  cooled.  12,  Expos- 
ure of  cheese  to  too  high  a  temperature  while  curing.  There  are  other 
things  also  which  induce  bad  flavor,  as  foul  cows  and  milking  utensils, 
tainted  pails  and  unclean  surroundings  of  the  factory,  all  of  which  have 
their  influence,  and  a  most  injurious  influence  it  is. 

THE  POTATO  BUG. 

James  Bernard  states  that  he  has  learned  how  to  manage  the  potato  bug 
{Doryphora  decem-Uneata.)  He  observed  that  in  one  patch  of  potatoes  sev- 
eral rows  were  nearly  stripped  of  their  leaves,  while  the  other  rows  in 
the  same  patch  were  scarcely  touched.  These  rows  were  of  different 
varieties,  and  he  thinks  the  insects  have  a  preference,  and  will  devour 
one  variety  before  commencing  on  others.  His  plan  is  to  plant  first  such 
varieties  as  the  insects  like  best,  which  wiU  attract  the  beetles  when  com- 
ing from  their  winter  sleep ;  and  then  to  plant  his  other  varieties,  and,  as 
the  beetles  will  not  leave  their  first  location  while  there  is  anything  left 
to  eat,  the  later-planted  kinds  wiU  grow  out  of  their  way  before  being 
molested.  Illustrating  this  theory,  one  patch  on  Mr.  Bernard's  farm  was 
completely  stripped,  the  foliage  and  stalks  being  literally  devoured,  while 


502  AGKICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

those  planted  later  were  uninjured.  'It  is  probable  that  any  variety 
planted  quite  early  will  answer  equally  well,  as  the  beetles,  when  once 
located,  are  not  inclined  to  remove  far,  either  from  slu^jjiishness  or  de- 
votion to  their  younj]:,  and  will  continue  to  devour  the  stalk  down  to  the 
tubers,  eating  holes  into  the  latter  5  while  another  patch,  not  thiity  rods 
distant,  may  remaiji  untouched. 

BUYINGr  AND   SELLING  WOOL. 

At  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  Convention,  the  following  rules, 
governing  sales  af  wool,  were  adopted:  1.  Sheep  should  not  be  allowed 
access  to  straw  stacks,  especially  of  barley  or  bearded  wheat.  2.  All 
sheep,  except  perhaps  bucks,  sLould  be  well  washed  if  practicable  in  a 
running  stream,  and  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  weather  will  permit. 
3.  Sheep  should  be  sheared,  weather  and  other  circuuistances  jiermit- 
ting,  within  six  to  ten  days  after  washing.  4.  At  the  time  of  shearing 
the  fleeces  should  be  carefully  rolled  up,  without  being  too  tightly  pressed, 
wound  with  light-colored,  strong  twine,  put  twice  each  way  round  the 
fleece,  carefully  excluding  all  dead  wool  and  unwashed  tags.  5.  Rea- 
sonable deductions  should  be  made  on  account  of  unwashed  or  other- 
wise unmerchantable  coiulition — this  deduction  to  be  determined,  how- 
ever, according  to  the  conditiou  and  quality  .in  each  case,  and  not  by 
any  arbitrary  rule  of  deduction,  to  be  applied  indiscriminately  to  all 
cases.  , 

IRRIGATION. 

In  a  lectm-e  upon  this  subject  Professor  Coleman  gives  an  account  ot 
the  practice  of  irrigation  on  a  farm  at  Brattleboro',  Vermont.  The  farm 
is  situated  on  a  high  hill,  near  the  summit  of  which  is  a  basin  compris- 
ing several  acres,  formerly  a  boggy  swamj),'  and  the  source  of  a  small 
stream  running  through  the  fields  below.  By  making  a  dam  of  a  few  feet  in 
height  along  the  lower  edge  of  the  swamj),  a  reservoir  is  formed,  which 
holds  a  large  quantity  of  water.  From  this  reservoir  water  can  be  taken 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  farm,  and  might  be  carried  over  portions  ot 
adjoining  farms.  About  seventy  acres  are  irrigated,  though  the  watei 
is  not  let  on  the  whole  tract  everj-  year,  irrigation  being  i)raGticed  only 
with  the  grass  crop.  The  water,  soon  after  leaving  the  reservoir,  is 
di\ided  into  several  main  channels,  by  which  it  is  carried  to  difCerent 
fields,  where  it  is  made  to  flow  in  thin  sheets  over  the  gxass.  The  water 
is  let  on  in  the  spring  before  the  snow  is  gone,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
melt  the  snow  next  the  ground,  making  a  space  between  the  snow  and 
the  grass.  The  water  thaws  the  ground,  and  the  heat  thus  inqxirted 
starts  the  grass,  so  that,  by  the  time  the  fields  are  bare,  they  become 
beautifully  green.  The  water  is  kept  ninnlng  on  the  grass  till  about  two 
weeks  before  haying.  It  does  not  run  constantly  on  the  same  ground, 
but  as  required.  As  soon  as  the  fiaet  crop  of  gi'ass  has  been  cut,  the 
water  is  Hushed  over  the  ground,  aad  the  gray  stubble  is  soon  hidden 
by  a  luxuriant  second  growth.  Most  of  the  in  igated  lands  produce  one 
and  a  half  to  two  tons  of  hay  per  acre  the  first  cutting,  with  an  after- 
growth of  a  half  to  three-quarters  of  a  ton.  Water  should  not  be  let  on 
the  meadow  very  early,  if  the  ground  is  bare,  lest  the  gi-ass  be  destroyed 
by  freezing.  It  has  been  demonstrated  here  that  land  may  be  kept  in 
gi'ass  permanently  by  ii-rigation,  with  increasing  fertility  and  ]jroduct- 
iveness. 

In  the  discussion  wkicli  followed  Professor  Coleman's  lecture,  it  was 


STATE   REPORTS   OF   AGRICULTURE.  603 

said  tliat  tlie  trampling  of  sheep  did  rnucli  to  benefit  clover,  by  consoli- 
dating the  land,  just  as  the  old  agriculturists  had  found  their  clover  best 
on  the  headlands  which  had  been  trampled  by  horses. 

BONE-DUST  AXD  SUPERPHOSPHATE   OF  LDES. 

A  committee  of  the  Calhoun  County  Agricultural  Society  report  upon 
the  value  of  these  fertilizers,  recommentliug  them  as  requisite  iu  restor- 
ing to  the  soil  properties  exhausted  under  the  system  of  cro})piug  gen- 
erally practiced  in  the  wheat-growing  States.  An  aualysis  of  the  gTain 
of  wiieat,  that  part  of  the  i)lant  which  is  not  again  retui'ued  to  the  soil, 
shows  that  nearly  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  ash  constituent  is  phos])horic 
acid,  and  this  is  equally  true  of  nearly  all  the  cereal  crops.  AVhcn  it  is 
considered  that  our  most  fertile  soils  contain  a  very  small  percentage 
of  this  essential  element,  and  that  in  many  soils  there  is  scarcely  a  trace, 
its  real  importance  in  an  agiicultural  point  of  view  cannot  be  questioned. 
Under  oui-  system  of  cropping,  the  mineral  elements  first  exhausted  are 
the  i)hosphates,  and,  while  conceding  that  no  special  manure  can  be  re- 
garded as  a  substitute  for  barn-yard  manure,  the  question  arises,  can 
the  farm  be  made  to  sustain  its  productiveness  by  the  use  of  manui^es 
made  solely  from  the  products  of  the  farm  ?  Every  bushel  of  giaiu  and 
roots,  every  poiuid  of  cheese,  butter,  and  wool,  every  ton  of  hay  and 
sti'aw  sold,  carries  away  a  portion  of  the  organic  mineral  elejients  of  the 
soil;  and,  if  something  is  not  added  to  supply  this  deficiency  beyond 
the  ordinary  accimiulations  of  the  barn-yard,  gradual  but  certain  dete- 
rioration of  the  soil  must  necessarily  follow.  The  largely  increased  yield 
of  wheat  by  the  use  of  clover  and  plaster  on  fields  partially  exhausted  by 
tillage,  the  clover  being  plowed  under  as  a  green  crop,  has  led  some 
to  suppose  that  nothing  else  is  needed  to  retain  or  restore  the  fertility  of 
their  land.  Without  doubt  there  are  important  benefits  derived  from 
the  use  of  clover  and  plaster  as  fertilizers ;  indeed  a  soil  may  have  an 
available  supply  of  minerals  for  a  wheat  crop  of  forty  bushels  per  acre, 
but,  if  deficient  in  ammonia,  the  crop  depending  solely  upon  the  atmo- 
sphere for  its  sui)ply,  the  yield  will  not  exceed  eighteen  or  twenty  bush- 
els, under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  of  weather,  ammonia]  ma- 
nures being  necessary  to  increase  the  yield.  Yet,  valuable  as  is  the 
clover  crop  in  furnishing  this  essential  organic  matter  to  the  cereal  crop, 
it  adds  no  mineral  matter  to  the  soil.  The  clover  crop  and  the  ordinary 
accumulations  of  the  barn-yard  are  not  sufficient  to  restore  the  muieral 
elements  of  which  the  soil  is  deprived  by  successive  grain  crops,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  resort  to  other  fertilizers  to  restore  this  deficiency. 

The  phosphates,  among  the  mineral  elements,  necessarily  first  disap- 
pearing on  a  wheat  farm,  the  value  of  bone-dust  and  the  superphos- 
phates cannot  be  questioned,  the  former  containing  about  fifty  per  cent, 
of  phosphoric  acid.  But  it  will  not  do  to  rely  uj^on  this  alone,  as  will 
be  a])parent  when  the  constituents  of  bone-dust  are  considered.  One 
hundred  pounds  of  raw  bones  may  be  estimated  to  contain' 11  pounds 
water,  45  pouiids  phosphate  of  lime,  38  pounds  fat  and  gelatine,  of  which 
about  five  pounds  are  nitrogen ;  of  the  phosphates  about  fifty  per  cent, 
are  phosphoric  acid.  If  all  the  nitrogen  is  preserved,  lOU  pounds  of 
bones  would  furnish  the  amount  expended  in  growing  a  bushel  of  wheat; 
an  application  of  400  pounds  per  acre  would  furnish  only  20  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  about  one-third  the  quantity  contained  in  the  clover,  equaling 
one  ton  of  dry  hay.  The  committee  think  that,  in  connection  with  a 
proper  use  of  clover  as  an  organic  fertilizer,  the  wheat  crop  may  be 
largely  and  profitably  increased  on  impoverished  soils  by  an  application 


504  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

of  300  to  -400  pounds  of  bone-dust  per  acre ;  on  soils  not  greatly  impov 
orished  a  smaller  quantity  will  answer. 

It  is  someaiaes  the  case  tliat  bone-dust,  wlien  no  other  manures  are 
used,  fails  to  materially  benelit  the  wheat  crop  to  v.hich  it  is  immediately 
applied.  This  is  attributed  chiefly  to  a  deficiency  of  ammonia ;  and 
when  the  wheat  crop,  under  such  circumstances,  is  only  slightly  bene- 
fited, the  clover  sown  the  succeeding  spring,  which  obtains  a  large  i^ro- 
portion  of  its  ammonia  through  its  broad  leaves  from  the  atmosphere, 
will  be  largely  increased  by  the  decomposing  phosphates  applied  in  the 
fall,  thus  accumulating  ammonia  for  the  succeeding  wheat  crop.  The 
failure  of  bone-dust  to  benefit  the  crop  to  which  it  is  first  applied  is 
owing  also  to  its  imdecomposed  condition.  In  one  instance  given,  500 
pounds  per  acre  was  applied  to  com  without  benefit ;  the  second  year  it 
helped  the  com,  and  the  third  year  after  the  application  the  yield  of  wheat 
was  four  bushels  i^er  acre  gi'eater  than  the  product  of  laud  in  the  same 
field  not  so  dressed. 

On  soils  where  no  phosphates  have  been  applied,  an  immediate  fertil- 
izer being  needed  for  a  summer  crop,  a  well-prepared  supeqjhosphate  is 
recommended  as  preferable  to  undecomposed  phosphate.  The  effects  of 
a  properly-prepared  superphosphate  upon  a  turnip  crop  are  frequently 
almost  magical,  the  crop  being  increased  foiu"  or  five  fold  by  an  applica- 
tion of  4:00  to  500  pounds  per  acre.  TMien  used  for  wheat  and  clover  it 
should  be  weU  mixed  with  the  surface  soil,  in  a  partially  fermented  con- 
dition, before  the  wheat  is  sown.  Ample  time  will  thus  be  given  for  a 
portion  of  the  phosphates  to  be  decomposed,  and  taken  up  in  solution  by 
the  roots  and  plants,  and  organized  in  the  gi^ain.  After  the  wheat  crop 
has  matured,  the  clover  sown  in  the  spring  will  be  still  further  benefited 
by  the  gradual  decomposition.  Ashes,  both  leached  and  unleached,  are 
Mghly  valuable  as  additional  fertilizers  in  furnishing  potash  and  other 
minerals  for  the  cultivated  crops.  In  closing  their  report  the  committee 
state  that,  under  the  system  of  cropping  so  widely  prevalent,  the  most 
careful  preparation  and  use  of  aU  the  available  bones  in  Michigan  will 
not  replace  the  phosphates  withdi-awn  from  the  soil  by  the  frequent  re- 
currence of  the  wheat  crop ;  and  that,  to  increase  the  productiveness  ot 
their  lands,  farmers  must  lessen  the  proi>ortion  of  acres  annually  devoted 
to  wheat,  keep  more  stock,  and  thus  manure  more  highly  from  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  fann,  and  with  other  valuable  fertilizers  at  command. 

AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES — THEIR  OBJECTS  ANT)  ^lAXAGEMENT. 

An  article  upon  this  subject  states  that  the  Highland  Society  of  Scot- 
land— the  oldest  in  Great  Britain — was  formed  in  1780,  and  that  the  first 
steps  toward  such  organizations  in  this  country  were  taken  shortly  after 
the  close  of  the  Eevolution.  "  The  Philadelphia  Society  for  the  Im- 
provement of  Agi'iculture"  was  organized  in  1787.  numbering  among 
Its  members  George  Washington,  Kobert  Morris,  Timothy  Pickering, 
and  other  distinguished  men.  '•  The  Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Agi'iculture  -'  was  formed  in  1702,  with  Samuel  Adams  as 
president.  "  The  New  Yorlc  State  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agricul- 
ture, Arts,  and  Manufactures  "  was  organized  in  1793,  with  Chancellor 
Livingston  at  its  head.  County  societies — Berkshire,  Massachusetts, 
taking  the  lead — were  formed  in  several  States  before  the  close  of  the 
last  century,  but  it  was  not  until  after  the  war  of  1812  that  these  soci- 
eties became  general.  Before  the  establishment  of  exhibitions,  societies 
dii'ected  theii'  efforts  mainly  to  bringing  out  jiapers  or  essays  in  response 
to  questions  i^ropounded,  much  valuable  matter  being  thus   elicited. 


STATE    KEPORTS    OF    AGRICULTURE.  505 

Some  societies  oflfered  premiums  for  tlie  introduction  of  specimens  of 
breeds  of  domestic  animals,  implements,  seeds,  &c.,  tboiigbt  to  be  desir- 
able ;  and,  under  tbis  offer,  Merino,  Leicester,  and  Texel  sbeep,  and 
botb  Sboitborn  and  Holstein  cattle  were  introduced  into  Massacbu- 
setts.  Premiums  were  also  offered  for  experiments.  Tlie  fundamental 
idea  in  tbe  iustimtion  of  agricultural  societies  was  to  better  tbe  condi- 
tion of  tbe  farming  class,  by  introducing  sucb  improvements  in  busbandry 
as  would  secui'e  tbe  best  returns  for  tbe  outlay  of  labor  and  capital.  Af- 
fording amusement  to  tbe  people,  any  furtber  tban  amusement  could  be 
derived  from  objects  of  actual  utibty,  was  not  contemplated,  and  tbis 
is  undoubtedly  tbe  true  gi'ouudwork  for  sucb  associations. 

The  means  by  wbicb  agTic^lItural  societies  can  effect  improvement  are 
enumerated  as  follows:  1.  Tbe  bolding  of  exbibitions  at  wbicb  premiums 
are  given  for  specimens  of  superior  merit  or  excellence  in  tbe  different 
departments  to  wbicb  tbeir  supervision  is  extended.  2.  Tbe  bestowment 
of  money  for  making  experiments  to  settle  doubtful  questions.  3.  Tbe 
publication  of  speciid  papers  or  essays,  comprising  useful  information- 
Of  these  tbe  holding  of  exbibitions  is  tbe  most  prominent,  but  not  neces- 
sarily the  most  important,  though  many  societies  make  tbis  the  sole  ob- 
ject. Judgment  is  required  in  the  offering  of  premiums,  and  generally 
the  amount  of  premium  should  be  graduated  by  tbe  utility  of  the  object 
for  which  it  is  offered.  It  is  importiint  to  establish  correct  standards  by 
which  animals  and  things  should  be  judged.  The  mere  use  of  the  word 
best  does  not  express  anything  as  to  what  constitutes  excellence. 

Unusual  prominence  has  of  late  years  been  given  to  the  horse,  and, 
under  the  name  of  ''trials  of  speed,"'  some  societies  have  made  racing 
the  principal  feature  of  tbeir  exhibitions.  Tbe  excitement  incident  to 
these  displays  is  attractive  to  those  who  attend  for  amusement ;  but  is 
there  any  real  improvement  effected  by  these  premiums  f  What  im- 
provement do  they  make  or  even  intend  ?  It  frequently  happens  that 
the  winning  horse  is  one  of  little  value  for  any  purpose  of  usefidness, 
and  the  offering  of  i:)remiums  for  mere  speed,  if  it  has  any  effect  at  aU, 
tends  to  the  iiroduction  of  horses  in  which  tbe  more  useful  properties 
axe  found  only  in  an  inferior  degree.  An  acquaintance  with  the  manner 
in  which  these  '-trials  of  speed''  are  got  up  leads  to  the  conclusion  that 
they  are  chiefly  designed  as  means  for  making  money  for  bot^l-keepers, 
horse-dealers,  and  gamblers ;  and  the  contests  are,  in  principle,  nothing 
more  than  those  instituted  by  gamblhig  associations,  where  horses  com- 
pete for  purses.  In  view  of  these  facts,  are  such  displays  calculated  to  im- 
prove either  tbe  breed  of  horses  or  the  morals  of  men  ■?  The  true  friends 
of  agriculture  are  disgusted  and  stand  aloof,  thus  depriving  the  societies 
of  the  aid  of  the  most  substantial  citizens,  tbe  class  which  can  alone  be 
depended  upon  for  tbe  prosecution  of  enterprises  designed  for  the  public 
good.  The  horse  need  not  be  excluded  from  these  exhibitions ;  be  is  one 
of  the  most  useful  of  our  domestic  animals,  and  his  improvement  should 
not  be  overlooked.  Several  classes  of  horses  are  required,  however,  the 
most  important  of  which,  in  this  community,  is  the  farm  horse ;  and  this 
ilso  is  the  class  most  needing  improvement.  ZSText  in  importance  is  the 
roadster.  One  point  of  merit  in  this  class  is,  of  course,  speed :  but  the 
fairest  mode  of  testing  the  quabty  would  be  to  try  each  horse  by  himself 
in  a  quiet  way;  for,  when  put  upon  tbe  track  isn  competition,  tbe  race  is 
not  always  to  the  swift,  the  tricks  of  the  jockies  often  having  more  to  do 
with  the  result  than  the  speed  of  the  horses. 

It  is  said  that  the  people  wiU  not  attend  purely  utditarian  exbibi- 
tions, but  experience  shows  that  this  objection  is  not  valid.  The  Xew 
York  State  Agricultural  Society  has  form  the  beginning  steadily  refused 


506  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

to  tolerate  any  gambling  or  clap-trap  expedients.  It  lias  never  allowed 
ti'ials  of  speed  on  its  grounds,  and  has  never  set  apart  any  more  gi'ound 
for  horses  than  was  required  fairly  to  show  their  gait ;  yet  large  crowds 
'have  always  attended  the  exhibitions  of  this  society.  In  Great  Britain 
everything  that  has  not  a  direct  bearing  on  the  improvement  of  agricul- 
ture is  rigidly  excluded  from  the  exhibitions;  yet  the  people  attend  in  as 
great  numbers,  in  proiiurtiou  to  i)opulation,  as  they  do  in  this  country. 
At  the  exhibitions  of  our  Canadian  neighbors  they  have  no  trials  of 
speed,  and  allow  no  private  shows  upon  their  grounds;  but  their  exhibi- 
tions are  as  well  attended  as  ours,  it  is  unreasonable  to  suppose  that 
our  people  are  naturally  so  diiierent  from  those  of  other  countries  that 
they  cannot  be  iutluenced  by  similar  motives. 

The  subject  of  trotting  and  racing  horses  at  agricultural  exhibitions 
seems  at  last  to  be  attracting  considerable  attention  from  persons  who 
have  the  prosperity  of  agricultural  societies  at  heart.  W.  L.  Webber,  in  his 
address  before  the  Saginaw  County  Agricultural-Society,  observed  that, 
"While  an  agricultural  society,  conducted  as  itnshould  be,  is  productive 
of  manifest  good,  ex])erience  has  proved  that  a  society  under  the  name 
and  gidse  of  agricultiue  may,  by  mismangement,  and  by  its  officers 
mistaking  or  forgetting  the  objects  for  wiiich  the  society  was  formed, 
become  rather  an  e\il  than  a  blessing  to  the  community."  It  is  appa- 
rent that  the  "  fast-horse  business"  is  operating  injiu'iously  on  the  inter- 
ests of  agi-icultiu'al  societies.  The  meager  display  of  animals  and  articles 
in  general  at  exhibitions  is  attributable  to  the  fact  that  the  i)ublic  interest 
is  absorbed  by  the  racing  allowed  on  these  occasions;  and  it  is  thought 
by  many  that,  unless  this  thing  is  checked,  it  will  ruin  the  societies. 

The  utility  of  exhibitions  depends  very  much  upon  the  systematic 
transaction  of  business.  There  is  usually  too  much  hiUTV  and  confusion, 
which  might  be  avoided  in  a  great  degree  by  requiring  the  entries  to  be 
made  in  advance.  It  is  ad\isable  also  that  at  large  shows,  at  least,  the 
awards  be  made  before  the  crowd  is  admitted.  The  offering  of  premi 
nms  for  the  settlement  of  doubtful  questions,  under  proper  direction, 
may  accom})lish  much  good ;  and  it  shoidd  be  a  leading  object  to  do 
that  which  cannot  be  done  by  individuals.  Accurate  experiments  are 
always  valuable  to  agriculturists  in  general,  but  in  most  cases  cause  loss 
to  their  conductors ;  hence  the  peculiar  propriety  of  encouraging  experi- 
ments by  premiums.  Every  zealous  farmer  is  an  experimenter,  but  the 
results  of  his  experiments  are  seldom  known  to  others.  To  prove  that 
a  doubtful  practice  is  wrong  woidd  be  as  valuable  to  agriculture  as  to 
prove  it  right ;  but  the  proof  may  be  obtained  hfty  times  by  as  many 
farmers,  and  still  the  residt  be  unkno\A'n  to  all  but  the  exi)erimenters. 
Premiums  for  experiments,  conducted  with  care  and  accuracy,  and  re- 
peated under  different  circumstances  until  the  point  in  question  is  clearly 
settled,  could  not  fail  greatly  to  promote  the  improvement  of  agTicidture. 
The  reports  and  experiments  would  comprise  useful  matter,  and,  in  con- 
nection with  special  papers  and  essays,  woidd  be  valuable  for  publica- 
tion by  the  society.  If  officers  of  societies  would  take  this  matter  seri- 
ously in  hand,  they  might  greatly  increase  the  usefiduess  of  their  associ- 
ations, besides  adding  largely  to  the  fund  of  useful  inlbrmation. 

OHIO. 

REPORT  OF  THE  SECRETARY. 

John  n.  Klippart,  corresponding  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of 
Agriculture,  says,  in  his  annual  report,  that  while  the  past  twelve  or 


STATE   EEPORTS   OF   AGRICULTURE.  507 

fifteen  years  have  -witnessed  a  greater  revolution  in  Oliio  in  tlie  introduc- 
tion of  niecbauii-al  forces  into  practical  agricultm^e  than  the  most  fertile 
imagfiuation  could  have  conceived  at  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century,  there  has  been  no  improvement  in  the  management  of  soil  since 
1850 ;  neither  the  product  per  acre  nor  the  aggTCgate  yield  has  been 
increased.  Iso  crop  of  wheat  since  1850  has  yielded  so  many  bushels  as 
the  product  of  that  year,  and  no  crop  since  has  equaled  the  yield  per 
acre,  while  the* area  in  wheat  has  been  regularly  decreasing  up  to  the 
present  year.  He  estimates  that  the  wheat  production  of  the  State  for 
the  years  18G4-'G5-'GG  fell  at  least  3,000,000  bushels  below  the  actual 
borne  consumi)tion  for  bread  each  year  alter  deducting  reserve  for  seed, 
requiriug  an  importation  of  that  amount  annually,  instead  of  exporting 
10,000,000  bushels  as  in  former  years. 

The  acreage  in  corn  almost  attained  its  maximum  in  1855,  when  the 
acreage  was  2,1*05,28!2  and  the  yield  87,587,431,  against  an  acreage  of 
2,18L>,789  and  a  yield  of  G3,8G5,1GL'  bushels  in  18G7.  But  one  yeai-'s  crop 
has  exceeded  that  of  1855  ;  it  was  that  of  1860,  aggregating  91,588,704 
bushels  on  an  area  of  2,397,039  acres. 

The  secretary  remarks  that  Ohio  cannot  maintain  her  position  as  an 
agricultural  State,  if  she  fails  to  produce  a  sufiBcient  supply  of  breadstitffs 
for  her  owu  i)opulation,  and  suggests  that  ex[)eriments  be  instituted  with 
the  view  of  obtaining  an  increased  product  jDcr  acre,  without  materially 
increasing  the  expense  of  cidtivation. 

Horse-hoeing  wheat  in  the  spring  has  proved  beneficial  in  Europe,  but 
so  long  as  Americans  undertake  to  grow  two  crops  at  once,  wheat  and 
clover,  it  is  not  probable  that  horse-hoeii\g  will  find  much  favor ;  though 
it  woidd  be  much  more  remunerative  to  grow  forty  bushels  per  acre  by 
horse-hoeing  and  grow  the  clover  separate,  than  to  grow  fifteen  oi 
eighteen  bushels  in  connection  v^ith  a  crop  of  clover. 

The  aggregate  acreage  under  cultivation  in  18G7  shows  an  increase  of 
only  about  75,000  acres  over  that  of  1858.  The  maximum  muuber  was 
reached  in  18G0,  being  7,405,400;  in  18G3  the  amount  had  fallen  to 
6,343,494;  in  18G7  it  had  again  increased  to  6,479,659,  but  nearly  a  mil- 
lion of  acres  less  than  in  1858,  while  the  population  had  increased  half  a 
million. 

Products  0/1867.— Wheat,  15,220,720  bushels;  rye,  1,023,520  bushels; 
buckwheat,  590,294  bushels;  oats,  18,534,772  bushels;  barley,  1,604,226 
bushels;  corn,  63,865,102  bushels ;  meadow  hay,  1,993,463  tons ;  clover 
hay,  286,807  tons;  clover  seed,  147,876  bushels;  clover  plowed  under 
for  manm-e,  26,827  acres ;  llax,  10,523,876  pounds  of  fiber,  and  726,517 
bushels  of  seed ;  potatoes,  5,794,797  bushels ;  tobacco,  11,589,355 
pounds ;  butter, 34,833,604  pounds;  cheese,  19,985,486 pounds ;  sorghum 
sirup,  1,255,807  gallons;  sorghum  sugar,  20,094  pounds;  maple  sirup, 
339,444  gallons;  maple  sugar,  2,655,881  pounds;  grapes,  4,558,707 
pouuds ;  wine,  291,933  gallons ;  gi'ape- vines  i)lanted  during  the  year, 
3,483  acres ;  whole  number  of  vines  in  the  State,  6,939  acres ;  wool, 
24,844,601  pounds;  sweet  potatoes,  11,365  bushels;  apples  9,404,642 
bushels;  peaches,  1,402,849  bushels ;  pears,  125,702 bushels;  pasturage, 
4,218,710  acres ;  number  of  acres  in  orchards,  340,925 ;  uncultivated 
lands,  5,838,906  acres;  stone-coal  mined,  46,703,88^  bushels;  pig  iron 
manufactured,  1,887,584  tons. 

Parw  sfoc/c— Horses,  698,909 ;  cattle,  1,504,558;  mules,  25,272 ;  sheep, 
7,622,495;  hogs,  1,807,594;  dogs,  176,807;  sheep  killed  by .  dogs, 
34,141;  injured,  19,416;  aggregate  amount  of  injury  to  sheep  by  dogs, 
$123,827  54. 


508  AGRlGULTijRAL   E£:PORT. 

THE  :5LAJ)IS0N  COUIJJTY  CATTLE  SALES. 

The  agprrejrate  number  of  cattle  and  other  stock  sold  at  the  niontlily 
sales  iu  Madison  County  durinj?  the  year  18G7  was  3,713  head,  divided 
as  follows:  Three-year-old  cattle,  643;  two  year-old  cattle,  1,GG4:  one- 
year-old  cattle,  G3l*  :  diy  and  fat  cows,  193 ;  milch  cows  and  calves,  40 ; 
two-year-old  heifers,  I'l ;  one-year  old  heifers,  20;  calves,  10:  bulls,  3; 
oxen,  Sd  yokes ;  shee]),  l'3G ;  mules,  23.  Average  weights  and  prices  for 
the  year:  three-year-old  cattle.  1,120  pounds:  price,  -$71  40;  two-year- 
old  cattle,  002  pounds;  price,  848  54;  one-year-old  cattle,  o04  pounds; 
price.  $20  50;  chy  and  fat  cows.  072  pounds  ;  ])rice,  830  74;  milch  cows 
and  calves,  price,  $52  2G;  two-year-old  heifers,  732  pounds ;  price,  $32  71; 
one-year-old  heifers.  528  pounds:  price,  $17  GO:  calves,  price,  $28  75; 
bulls,  1,200  pounds;  price,  $40  25;  oxen,  2,704  pounds,  per  yoke;  price, 
$18G  44;  sheep,  price,  $2  G5;  mules,  price,  SG5.  Total  cash  sales, 
$160,582  34,  or  an  average  of  .$14,131  Sii  ^er  month. 

PEEZmJil  CEOPS  REPORTED  FROM  COUNTY  SOCIETIES. 

Wheat. — Henry  Everett,  Van  Wert  County,  raised  on  two  acres  of 
land,  57^  bushels  of  wheat,  at  a  cost  of  $24  12 ;  sowed  three  Itushels  of 
seed- 
Samuel  Mitchell,  of  Brown  County,  raised  on  one  acre  27  bushels  34 
pounds,  at  a  cost  of  $11  28.  Wheat  sold  at  $3  per  bushel — $82  70;  net 
profit.  $71  42.  Variety,  Tappahannock ;  li  bushel  sown,  on  tobacco 
ground. 

H.  T.  Rinehart.  of  Auglaize  County,  raised  on  seven  acres  101  bushes 
17  pounds,  at  a  cost  of  $71  50.  V^Tieat  sold  at  $2  per  bushel — $382 ; 
net  profit,  $310  50,  or  $45  36  per  acre.  Corn  stubble  land,  broken 
in  June,  stined  in  August,  and  twice  harrowed  and  drilled  September  1, 
putting  one  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre. 

Corn. — H.  T.  Einehart.  of  Auglaize  County,  raised  on  one  acre  81 
bushels  6  pounds  of  com,  worth  $64  86;  cost  of  raising,  $8;  net  profit, 
^56  SG.  Ground,  an  old  meadow  never  before  plowed  ;  broken  up 
early  in  spring,  so  as  to  freeze  after  jilowiug,  then  harrowed  well,  and 
planted  13th  May,  plowed  four  times,  commencing  as  soon  as  the  corn 
was  large  enough.  Another  acre  yielded  06  bushels  of  com.  The  land 
was  harrowed  and  rolled  until  perfectly  mellow,  furrowed  one  way  and 
drilled,  three  or  four  grains  in  the  hill,  two  feet  apart,  and  plowed  twice, 
three  furrows  in  a  row. 

Eleazer  Abbe,  of  Lorain  County,  raised  on  one  acre  eighty-nine  and 
two-fifths  bushels  of  corn.  Ground  never  before  plowed ;  broken  up 
in  May,  thoroughly  harrowed  and  planted  without  manure,  four  feet 
apart  each  way ;  cultivated  twice  and  well  hoed. 

M.  V.  Brown,  of  Brown  County,  raised  on  one  acre  77  bushels  of  com, 
worth  $57  50 ;  expenses,  $10  25 ;  net  profit,  $47  25 :  soil,  a  clay  loam, 
plowed  in  April,  eight  iiiches;  rows  four  feet  apart  each  way;  seed, 
small,  yellow  com. 

H.  X.  Gillett,  of  Lawrence  County,  raised  on  one  acre  90  bushels  12^ 
I>ounds  of  corn,  on  a  field  which  had  been  under  cultivation  forty-seven 
years  \^'ithout  manuce ;  river  bottom;  soil  one  fifth  whiteoak,  sandy,  clay 
loam :  balance  allu^^al,  with  blue  clay  subsoil ;  culture,  land  broken 
about  a  foot  deep,  harrowed  once,  and  laid  off  three  feet  nine  inches  each 
way;  planted  with  Gillett  *s  improved  com,  worked  each  way  when  quite 
young,  with  cultivator,  hoed  once,  and  thinned  to  two  stalks,  plowed 
twice,  and  just  before  the  tassel  appeared  it  was  worked  by  running  the 


STATE   REPORTS    OF    AGRICULTURE.  509 

cultivator  across  the  fiirrows  of  the  last  plowing,  holding  up  the  side  oi 
the  implement  next  to  the  row,  so  as  to  barely  scarify  the  surface  near 
the  corn. 

George  Nichols,  of  ]Morrow  County,  raised  on  one  acre  90  bushels,  and  on 
five  other  acres  60^  bushels  each  of  corn.  The  piece  was  an  old  meadow, 
plowed  and  haiTOwed,  rowed  one  way,  nearly  four  feet  apart ;  plowed 
twice  in  the  row  one  way,  and  hoed  once.  The  first  acre  was  a  black 
loam;  of  the  other  five,  four  were  black  loam,  and  the  remaining  one 
clay;  no  manure  used. 

Barley. — A.  E.  Hofiman,  of  Tan  Wert  County,  raised  on  one  acre  41 
bushels  of  barley,  worth  S-Al ;  expenses,  $11 ;  net  profit,  $30.  Land 
plowed  and  harrowed,  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed,  harvested  by  hand, 
threshed  by  machine. 

A.  P.  Rinehart,  of  Auglaize  County,  raised  on  1^  acre  50  bushels  of 
barley.     Clover  sod,  plowed  in  July,  and  faUoAved;  gi-ain  drOled  in. 

Ha)/. — A.  E.  Taylor,  of  Lorain  County,  cut  from  four  acres  of  bottom 
land  11  tons  of  timothy.  The  grass  stood  three  feet  to  four  feet  high, 
and  very  thick.  The  land  was  not  iiastiu'ed  the  preceding  fall,  which 
Mr.  T.  thinks  adds  twenty-five  per  cent,  to  a  meadow,  especially  if  before 
a  dry  siunmer. 

Potatoes. — A.  E.  Hoffman,  of  Yan  Wert  County,  raised  on  one-foiu'th 
of  an  acre  10^  bushels  of  potatoes,  valued  at  $10  50 ;  expenses,  $11.50. 
jS'et  profit  $29.  Land  plowed  and  harrowed.  The  potatoes  were  cut 
and  dropped  in  rows ;  hoed  once,  plowed  three  times. 

Hiram  Leget,  of  Morgan  Comity,  raised  on  one-half  acre  121  bushels 
of  peach-blow  i)otatoes.  Sod  ground  of  sandy  character,  plowed  deep 
in  March  and  planted  1st  April ;  drilled  six  inches  apart ;  cultivated 
twice  with  double-shovel  plow,  and  hdled  up  with  Xo.  1  plow,  placing 
the  seed  deep  in  the  hiU. 

S.  H.  Scott,  same  county,  raised  on  88  rods  111  bushels  white  peach- 
blow  potatoes,  valued  at  $111 ;  exi)enses,  $30  10  ;  net  profit,  $83  GO.  Corn 
land,  with  five  loads  of  maniu-e  spread  on,  and  then  plowed  deep;  planted 
in  di'ills,  plowed  three  times,  and  hoed  once. 

H.  X.  Gillett,  of  Lawrence  County,  raised  on  one  acre  160  bushels  15^ 
pounds  i^each-blow  potatoes,  valued  at  $100  25;  expenses,  including 
interest  on  land,  taxes,  &c.,  $32 ;  net  profit,  $128  25.  Sod,  dark  clay 
loam,  in  places  quite  gravelly.  Planted  middle  of  June,  on  heavy  blue- 
grass  sod  recently  turned. 

Mr.  Gillett  divided  one  potato  into  179  sets,  from  which,  after  sprout- 
ing, 67  slips  were  taken,  making  in  all  216  hills,  from  which  he  har- 
vested 10  bushels  4:8^  pounds,  after  having  29  hills  robbed  by  thieves. 
The  potato  occupied  eight  rods  of  ground.  Soil,  pond-muck;  crop 
worked  with  hoe  after  breaking  deep  vrith  the  big  plow.  No  manure 
used. 

Siceet  potatoes. — William  Meyer,  of  Brown  County,  raised  on  nine  rods 
23  bushels  of  Lebanon  yellow  sweet  potatoes,  at  a  cost  of  about  $6.  Sod, 
light  loam,  without  manure ;  plowed  early  in  the  spring,  and  re- 
plowed  and  haiTowed  middle  of  May,  then  throAvu  uj)  in  ridges  3i  feet 
aj^art,  and  dressed  over  with  a  hoe ;  the  seed  j)otatoes  sprouted  in  a  hot 
bed,  and  transplanted  20th  of  May ;  plants  set  in  the  center  of  the 
ridges,  18  inches  apart,  and  watered  as  set,  and  afterward  plowed 
twice  with  double  shovel,  and  hoed  twice. 

Sorglnim. — A.  E.  Hoffman,  of  Van  Wert  County,  raised  on  one-fourth 
of  an  acre,  Chinese  cane,  yielding  syrup  valued  at  $20  25,  at  a  cost  of 
$12  25;  net  profit,  $8.  Land  plowed  and  harrowed,  and  planted  in 
hills  about  four  feet  apart. 


510  AGRICULTURAL  REPORT. 

MTLK,  EUTTEE,  AXD  CHEESE. 

Mill:  and  butter.— E.  Bakers  cow,  "  Victoria,"  11  years  old,  three- 
fourtlis  Sborthorn,  gave  ia  ten  days,  commenciiig  July  9,  GIOJ  pounds  ot 
milk.  ''  Euby,''  live  years  old,  three-quarters  Sborthorn,  gave  423 
pounds  in  same  time.^  ''  Ii^ene,"  eight  years  old,  seven-eighths  Short- 
horn, gave,  in  ten  days,  from  June  14,  IS.h  pounds  of  butter.  These  cows 
were  kept  on  grass  during  the  trial,  and  lor  six  weeks  previous. 

George  E.  Nichols,  of  Lorain  County,  entered  his  "  Star"'  cow,  eight 
years  old,  large  and  hne,  as  yielding  557^  pounds  of  milk  in  ten  days, 
the  highest  for  one  day  being  59  pounds. 

Cheese. — The  premium  cheese  in  Lorain  County  was  made  in  l\Iay  and 
June  from  IS  cows,  two  milkings  to  a  cheese,  with  no  addition  of 
cream.  After  a  calf  was  killed,  the  rennet  was  taken  out,  turned  and 
examined,  turned  back,  filled  with  salt,  hung  up  and  dried.  In  pre- 
paring the  rennet  it  -^as  cut  up  in  small  pieces,  put  in  a  stone  jar  or 
crock,  and  a  gallon  of  water  and  one  quart  of  salt  added  to  each  rennet, 
and  to  each  six  rennets  three  lemons  and  one  ounce  each  of  sage,  cloves, 
and  cinnamon.  The  cheese  was  pressed  in  a  common  self-presser  for 
twenty -four  hours,  and  then  in  a  scrcAv-press  the  same  length  of  time, 
then  put  in  a  drying-room  and  turned  daily. 

According  to  the  Kst  given  there  were  52  cheese  and  butter  factories 
in  the  State  in  1SG7,  with  an  aggregate  of  37,050  cows,  located  as  fol- 
lows :  Geauga  Coimty,  19  factories,  16,350  cows ;  Lake,  four  factories, 
1,600  cows;  Trumbull,  three  factories,  2,700  cows;  Summit,  eight  fac- 
tories, 5,050  cows ;, Portage,  six  factories,  3,800  cows;  Cuyahoga,  two 
factories,  1,500  cows;  Lorain,  four  factories,  2,750  cows;  Union,  two 
factoriesj  1,200  cows ;  Ashtabula,  one  factory,  400  cows  ;  Medina,  three 
factories,  1,700  cows ;  being  an  average  of  712i  cows  to  each  factory. 

SMALL  FETJITS.. 

Charles  Van  Thome,  of  Berlin  Heights,  raised  on  77  rods  100  bushels 
of  strawberries,  mostly  Wilson's  Alljany.  The  vines  were  covered  with 
straw,  thus  protecting  them  from  the  severity  of  the  winter.  One  of  the 
committee  raised  on  less  than  four  rods  over  five  bushels  of  Lawton 
blackberries,  worth  in  Cleveland  $6  to  $8  per  bushel,  at  the  rate  of  more 
than  -$1,000  per  acre. 

Xicholas  Ohmer,  of  Dayton,  from  two  acres  in  strawberries,  the  Wash- 
ington, McAvey  Superior,  and  Wilson's  Albany,  realized,  during  seven 
years,  from  $150  to  $200  per  acre  above  expenses  of  picking,  marketing, 
&c. ;  from  four  acres  in  Black-cap  raspbenies  he  netted  from  -$125  to  8150 
l>er  acre  annually ;  and  from  li  acre  in  Lawton  blackberries  he  had 
four  good  crops  in  seven  years,  netting  an  average  of  $200  per  annum. 
After  planting,  the  strawberries  received  no  further  attention  than 
weeding ;  from  the  raspberries  the  old  wood  was  cut  away  as  soon  as 
the  vines  had  done  bearing,  and  the  new  wood  cut  back,  lea^■ing  the 
stalk  not  to  exceed  three  feet  in  length  ;  the  blackberries  were  several 
times  winter  killed,  and  are  somewhat  tender  in  that  locality  ;  the  only 
cultivation  was  cutting  away  the  old  wood,  one  good  idowing  an- 
nually, and  keeping  downi  the  weeds.  His  strawben-y  patch  now  con- 
tains'five  acres,  chiefly  WUson's  Albany,  some  Jucunda,  or  Knox,  Agri- 
culturist, and  Russell ;  the  crop  of  ISOV  reached  125  bushels  per  acre, 
field  culture,  from  which  he  realized  $1,000.  He  finds  currants  and 
quinces  profitable  :  gooseberries,  cherries,  and  peaches  unprofitable. 


STATE    REPORTS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  611 

iPALL  PLOTTING,  HIGH  CULTURE,  ETC. 


,,       aj.iV,,J_C       KJKJ^^KJ^V^j 


Fall  plon-ing  for  corn. — In  an  "Agricultural  Survey  of  Dela^vare 
County,"  Thomas  C.  Jones  states,  in  reference  to  corn  planting,  that 
the  best  farmers  break  up  clover  or  clover  and  timothy  sod  in  the 
fall  or  winter,  and  that  great  benelits  result  from  the  practice.  The 
soil,  on  account  of  the  ameliorating  influence  of  the  winds  and  frosts 
of  winter,  is  more  mellow  and  friable,  and  consequently  more  fertile. 
This  mellow  condition  of  the  soil  remains  all  summer,  and  may  be  rea- 
dily distinguished  from  lands  broken  up  in  the  spring.  The  effect  in 
the  destruction  of  worms  is  equally  important.  Some  years  since  a 
portion  of  IMr.  Jones's  sod  for  corn  was  not  plowed  until  late  in  the 
si)ring;  the  remainder  of  the  field  had  been  plowed  in  the  fall.  The 
result  was,  that  the  corn  upon  the  late  plowing  was  nearly  all  taken 
up  by  the  cut-worms;  while  that  upon  the  fall-plowed  portion  was  not 
disturbed,  the  worms  stopping  at  the  very  row  where  the  latter  com- 
menced. 

Plaster  for  clover. — Of  plaster  Mr.  Jones  says  that,  though  used  in  the 
county  to  very  limited  extent,  when  applied  to  clover,  the  result  in  every 
case  has  been  an  extraordinary  increase  in  the  crops.  In  his  first  ex- 
periment about  IJ  bushel  per  acre  was  sowed  upon  the  young  clover  the 
latter  part  of  i\Iay.  A  strip  was  left  through  the  middle  of  the  field  with- 
out sowing.  The  difference  in  the  color  and  quantity  of  the  clover,  at 
the  time  of  mowing,  was  incredible.  The  plaster  increased  the  yield  at 
least  one-third,  and  the  difference  in  the  aftermath  was  still  more 
marked,  as  it  was  also  in  the  crop  of  the  following  year,  especially  on 
the  timothy,  upon  -which  it  appeared  to  have  little  effect  the  first 
year.  He  tried  plaster  on  wheat  and  corn  in  the  hill,  but  could  discovei 
no  material  benefit  in  either  case ;  but  for  clover  he  considers  it  by  fai 
the  cheapest  fertilizer,  and  thinks  every  farmer  should  make  a  thorough 
trial  of  it,  his  impression  being  that  there  are  few  soils  where  it  may  not 
be  applied  with  advantage. 

Eigh  culture. — In  concluding  his  general  observations  upon  farm  op- 
erations, Mr.  Jones  remarks,  that  whatever  branch  of  agriculture  a  man 
may  engage  in,  whether  mainly  in  tillage  crops,  or  stock,  there  can  be 
no  profitable  residts,  unless  his  land  is  kept  in  go»d  condition.  Large 
crops  are  always  profitable ;  small  crops  are  always  grown  at  a  loss. 
The  experience  of  Delaware  County  farmers  has  demonstrated  that  the 
only  practical  way  to  keep  their  clay  lauds  in  good  condition  is  to  break 
them  up  as  deep  as  possible,  eight  to  ten  inches,  and  in  the  fall,  if  practi- 
cable, to  throw  the  subsoil  up,  so  that  the  frost  can  act  upon  it.  This 
will  loosen  it,  as  will  the  stii-ring  which  it  will  get  in  summer  in  working 
the  corn  crop.  Then,  after  carefully  saving  and  applying  the  barn- 
yard manure,  their  great  dependence  must  be  clover,  for  the  two-fold 
puri^ose  of  enriching  the  land  with  its  large  growth  of  vegetable  matter, 
and  of  assisting  in  the  important  work  of  loosening  it  and  keeping  it 
friable,  with  its  far-reaching  net  work  of  roots.  Air  and  moistui'e  must 
penetrate  the  earth,  or  crops  will  not  grow.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
that  ])lants  will  grow  with  no  other  food  than  air  and  water,  but  with- 
out these  the  best  soil  will  fail  to  produce  vegetation. 

DRAINAGE. 

Under  the  general  ditch*  laws  the  commissiioners  of  Wood  County 
have  granted  and  laid  out  130  drains,  averaging  ten  miles  in  length; 
and  the  several  townships  have  gxanted  and  laid  out  an  equal  number, 


512  AGEICULTUEAL    REPORT. 

averaging  three  miles  in  length.  During  the  summer  and  fall  of  1867 
nearly  4<X>  miles  of  county  ditches  were  made,  at  an  average  cost  of 
$1,000  per  mile,  and  about  50  miles  of  free  turnpike  roads.  One  of  these 
county  ditches  is  30  miles  long,  from  eight  to  20  feet  on  the  bottom,  and 
fix)m  three  to  six  feet  deep,  deepening  and  widening  as  it  approaches 
the  outlet.  The  county  sx>ent.  in  1867,  alx>ut  8500.000  for  drainage  pur- 
XX)se5,  and  it  is  considered  a  good  investment. 

I X  D I A  :v  A . 

iHLCH  COWS. 

An  essay  on  breeding  cattle  and  the  management  of  milch  cows,  by 
Alfred  Hadley,  urges  the  farmer  or  dairyman  to  keep  good  stock,  as 
most  prudent  and  i»rofitable.  Counting  the  cost  of  keeping  a  cow  the 
whole  year  at  $3  per  month,  and  estimating  the  miLk  at  four  cents  a 
quart,  a  cow  that  cost  $60  and  averages  eight  quarts  a  day  for  300  days 
of  the  year,  will  exactly  pay  first  cost  and  expenses ;  while  a  cow  that 
costs  .$100  and  averages  12  quarts,  will  pay  first  cost  and  expenses  and 
*S  over,  so  that  if  a  good  cow  is  worth  .*00,  a  very  good  one  is  worth 
$100,  besides  the  strong  probability  that  the  offspring  of  the  very  good 
cow  will  also  be  superior.  The  writer  says  that  the  Shorthorn  breed 
varies  widely  from  very  good  to  very  poor  milkers,  and  that  choosing  a 
heifer  for  the  dairy  from  this  stock  is  always  attended  with  risk.  The 
Devonshire  cows  are  much  nearer  uniform.  He  commenced  breeding 
Shorthorns  thirty  years  ago.  but  for  the  past  ten  years  has  used  the 
Devons  mostly :  and  has  never  yet  mUked  one  that  did  not  give  rich 
milk,  though  there  is  a  variation  in  the  quantity  and  quality  even  with 
them.  The  Shorthorns  are  not  surjjassed  for  growing  and  fattening, 
when  they  have  an  abundance  of  good  pasture  or  other  good  food.  He 
once  had  a  pure  Shorthorn  calf  which  at  seven  months  old  weighed  700 
pounds,  and  he  had  only  about  half  the  milk  his  dam  gave  during  the 
first  three  months. 

In  reference  to  milking,  Mr.  Hadley  says,  the  pen  should  be  furnished 
with  troughs  for  salt  or  meal,  and  with  a  large  movable  box  to  receive 
the  droppings,  and  tl^  pen  be  kejit  clean.  Before  milking,  the  cows  should 
be  bru^ed  with  a  short-handled  broom,  and  their  teats  washed  with  cold 
or  warm  water,  ae,  the  weather  may  indicate.  3Iilk  each  teat  a  little  as 
a  kind  of  preparation,  after  which  the  faster  and  sooner  the  mUk  is  taken, 
the  more  milk  the  cow  will  have  to  give  the  next  time,  if  the  milking  is 
not  performed  rashly.  Each  cow  should  have  the  same  location  and  the 
same  milker,  and  the  milking  should  be  performed  regularly  before  sun- 
rise and  after  sunset,  ^'either  the  cow  nor  her  milker  should  be  inter- 
mitted during  the  process  of  mUking,  and  the  less  talk  there  is  in  the 
pen  the  more  milk  the  cows  will  give.  The  teats  should  often  be  greased, 
after  milking,  with  some  bland  oil ;  ojiossum  is  the  best. 

DEEP  PLOWTNG. 

The  same  writer  in  another  article  advocates  deep  plowing  as  neces- 
sary, in  connection  with  judicious  underdraining  and  manuring,  to  stay 
the  general  deterioration  of  farm  lands,  and  restore  the  natural  produc- 
tiveness of  the  soil.  He  sums  up  the  advantages  of  deep  plo^\ing  as 
follows:  First.  It  often  prevents  growing  crops  receiving  material 
injury,  by  inducing  a  more  speedy  and  general  diffusion  of  a  sui^erabun- 
dance  of  rain  or  water.     Second,  It  receives  and  holds  in  store  a  much 


STATK    REPORTS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  513 

larger  amount  of  plant  food,  carbonic  acid,  ammonia  and  water,  and  at 
the  same  time  admits  of  a  proportionally  wider  range  for  the  roots  of 
plants  to  travel  in  pursuit  of  that  food,  so  that  when  dry  weather  comes, 
plants  growing  in  a  deeply  pulverized  soil  will  be  supplied  with  food,  and 
sustained  in  their  Aigor  of  growth  much  longer  than  plants  in  a  shallow 
plowed  soil.  Third.  It  admits  of  a  much  more  free  and  extensive  circu- 
lation of  air,  and  as  the  subsoil  is  much  cooler  than  the  air,  it  acts  as  a 
condenser;  and,  as  the  air  comes  in  contact  with  it,  it  is  decomposed 
and  water  is  left  in  the  soil,  richly  laden  with  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia. 
There  i^  a  bountiful  supply  of  water  held  in  solution  by  the  air  in  the 
driest  weather ;  and  consequently,  if  the  soil  could  be  kept  completely 
pulverized  to  a  sufficient  depth,  a  crop  of  corn  could  be  prod^iced  with- 
out rain. 

UNDEEDRAINING  AND  GRASSES. 

An  article  upon  this  subject,  by  J.  F.  Soule,  holds  that  the  two  gTeat 
needs  of  Indiana  are  gTass  and  drainage — systematic  drainage  of  all 
lands  composed  largely  of  clay,  or  clay  loam,  devoted  to  cereals  or  roots, 
even  though  considerably  elevated  or  inclined.  Much  can  be  accom- 
phshed,  however,  by  the  systematic  growing  of  the  various  gTasses,  not 
as  food  for  stock  alone,  but  as  a  means  of  enriching  the  laud  and  improv- 
ing its  mechanical  condition;  so  that  corn,  wheat,  potatoes,  «S:c.,  shall 
be  regidarly  and  certainly  remimerative  in  all  seasons.  The  State  is 
eminently  suited  to  the  growing  of  grass,  but  it  is  uot  best  that  it  should 
become  exclusively  a  gTazing  State,  a  diversity  of  productious  being 
requisite  to  prosperity.  Every  farmer  should  have  sufficient  pastur- 
age to  furnish- good  feed  for  all  his  stock;  some  green  crops  should 
be  grown  to  feed  milch  cows  and  other  stock  when  pastures  become  short 
in  August,  and  enough  hay  should  be  cut  to  feed  in  winter  the  stock 
kept  on  the  place ;  but  no  farmer  can  afford  to  raise  hay  for  sale.  The 
proceeds  of  the  hay  are  taken  from  the  land,  the  latter  being  impover- 
ished fully  in  proportion  to  the  value  abstracted,  and  no  one  can  profita- 
bly pursue  a  course  of  farming  which  impoverishes  his  land. 

Farmers  can  raise  remunerative  crops  of  nearly  all  kinds  every  year  if 
the  soil  is  in  the  right  condition — not  only  large  crops  in  favorable 
seasons,  but  in  the  wettest  and  the  driest  and  the  shortest  seasons.  This 
condition  is  found  ready  made  in  new  land  composed  largely  of  vege- 
table mold,  not  too  wet  or  springy,  and  with  sufficient  sand  in  the 
soil  to  permit  natural  di-ainage.  Such  soil  will  gTow  corn  and  pota- 
toes well  in  a  wet  or  a  dry  season.  At  the  time  of  writing,  Mr.  Soule  knew 
of  no  corn  on  ncAv  land,  well  supplied  with  leaf  mold,  which  was  well 
prepared  and  well  planted,  in  good  season,  and  well  worked,  but  would 
prove  a  remunerative  crop  ;  whereas  the  corn  on  old  or  poor  land,  or  that 
which  was  poorly  worked  on  comparatively  good  land,  would  be  hardly 
worth  harvesting.  Xew  land  cannot  always  be  had,  however;  hence  the 
requisite  condition  must  be  secured  otherwise. 

All  plants  need  a  certain  degree  of  moisture  in  the  soil  to  secure 
healthy  and  vigorous  growth.  When  the  soil  is  filled  with  water  to  that 
degree  that  it  is  called  mud,  most  plants  grow  but  little,  and  some  die. 
The  excess  of  water  prevents  the  air  and  heat  from  penetrating  the  soil, 
and  the  necessary  chemical  changes  to  feed  the  plant  cannot  take  place. 
The  air  also  furnishes  nitrogen,  ammonia,  &c.,  for  tlie  plants.  If  the 
soil  is  too  dry  plants  cannot  grow  vigorously,  as  water  is  essential  to  the 
solution  and  preparation  of  the  mineral  elements  of  the  soil  necessary  to 
plant  life,  and  also  furnishes  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  for  the 
33 


514  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

plants.  Plants  can  grow  only  when  all  the  ingredientvS  of  their  compo- 
sition are  supplied  at  the  same  time,  and  in  a  chemically  prepared  con- 
dition, so  as  to  be  absorbed  by  the  roots.  "We  must  so  manage  that  the 
soil  shall  be  furnished  with  a  certain  degree  of  moistm^e  as  well  as  air. 
"We  need  to  have  the  soil  in  that  mechanical  condition  (fineness,  or 
coarseness,  compactness  or  looseness,)  that  the  water  which  falls  upon  it 
may  penetrate  it,  carrying  its  richness  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  The 
greater  your  store-house  of  water  the  better ;  and  the  soil  should  not  only 
permit  the  rain  to  penetrate  in  abundance,  but  it  should  be  in  condition  to 
lift  the  water  up  toward  the  surface  as  the  latter  becomes  dry,  both  ot 
which  are  practicable  when  the  soO  is  loose  and  pulverized.  The  ill  effects 
of  heavy  r^ins  may  be  avoided  to  a  great  degree,  by  working  the  soil  to  a 
greater  depth,  and  still  farther  by  creating  a  vegetable  mold,  by  grow- 
ing gTasses,  so  that  the  particles  of  clay  or  loam  may  be  held  apart,  and 
prevented  from  running  together. 

Take  a  field  of  clay  loam  tjiat  has  been  poorly  cultivated  until  the 
vegetable  mold  has  been  mostly  consumed  by  the  growing  crops,  it 
will  produce  little  corn,  less  potatoes,  and  l)Lit  a  small  and  uncertain  crop 
of  wheat.  It  surely  needs  enriching,  but  its  mechanical  condition  needs 
changing  as  certainly.  Stable  manure  would  enrich  it  and  somewhat 
improve  its  mechanical  condition ;  straw  plowed  under  would  do  the 
same,  but  it  is  difficult  to  plow  under.  These  are  not  always  convenient, 
however,'  and  involve  considerable  labor ;  but  the  field  could  be  seeded 
to  some  of  the  grasses,  in  connection  with  wheat,  rye,  or  even  oats.  A 
light  dressing  of  manure  should  be  added  to  invigorate  the  grass  and  other 
crop.  Ashes,  leached  or  uuleached,  scattered  on  the  surface  as  the  crop 
is  coming  up,  or  early  in  the  spring,  would  be  beneficial.  Plaster  gen- 
erally produces  a  marked  result  upon  any  of  the  grasses,  especially  clover. 
Make  a  good  effort  to  get  the  grass  to  grow.  Clover  enriches  the  soil 
more  than  other  grasses  ;  and,  if  plowed  under  when  in  blossom,  the  soO 
is  greatly  enriched  by  the  tops,  as  the  grass  is  rich  in  fertilizing  qual- 
ties;  and  the  roots  make  vegetable  mold,  and  aid  in  improving  the 
mechanical  condition  of  the  soil.  Clover  will  not  do  well  on  fiat  and 
springy  land,  timothy  being  preferable.  "Where  the  land  is  not  too  wet 
for  clover,  and  the  latter  is  not  to  be  cut  for  seed,  sow  both  timothy  and 
clover,  as  the  latter  is  liable  to  fi'eeze  out.  ^Mlen  mixed  they  succeM 
finely.  "With  this  turned  under  and  the  field  planted  with  corn  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  the  corn  comes  up  vigorous  and  strong,  with  healthy  color, 
grows  rapidly,  and  produces  strong  stalks,  and  large,  well  tilled  ears ;  the 
soil  does  not  become  compact  and  hard  after  a  soaking  rain.  The  corn 
being  so  much  more  vigorous  and  the  soil  looser,  the  corn  is  quite  safe 
against  any  ordinary  diought  by  ha^Tng  taken  deep  root. 

The  grass  has  converted  the  mineral  substances  of  the  earth  and  the 
gases  of  the  air  and  water  into  organic  matter,  new  vegetable  mold, 
and  furnishes  a  large  supply  of  food  in  a  condition  that  is  easily  incor- 
porated into  the  growing  plants.  This  mold  furnishes  not  only  fertility 
and  drainage,  and  keeps  the  particles  of  the  soQ  from  nmning  together 
when  excessively  wet,  but  also  furnishes  a  sponge,  as  it  were,  which 
raises  the  water  up  toward  the  siu'face  by  capillary  attraction  in  case  of 
drought;  while  it  is  peculiarly  fitted  to  prevent  too  rapid  evaporation  of 
the  water,  and  to  secure  and  retain  the  ammonia  from  the  dew  and  rain. 
The  effect  of  this  vegetable  mold  is  greatly  beneficial  to  the  wheat  crop, 
giving  a  vigorous  g^o^vth,  and  preventing  winter-killing  by  heaving 
out ;  and  the  potato  crop  receives  even  more  benefit  than  corn  from  the 
decomposing  sod  and  gi-ass. 


STATE   REPORTS   OF  AGRICULTURE.  515 

IOWA. 

BEPORT  OF  THE   SECRETARY. 

Cattle. — The  report  of  Dr.  J.  M.  Shaffer,  secretary  of  the  State  Agri- 
cultural Society^  states  that  the  farmers  of  Iowa  have  made  slow 
progress  in  the  improvement  of  cattle,  and  that  the  possession  of  the 
Durham,  the  Devon,  or  the  Ayrshire  breed,  is  confined  to  very  few  per- 
sons, there  being  great  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  improved 
stock.  Total  number  of  cattle  of  all  ages,  956,169;  butter  made,  19,192,727 
pounds;  cheese,  1,403,864  pounds;  cattle  sent  east,  (over  the  several 
railroads  fi-om  which  returns  were  received,)  64,846  head,  being  one-fifth 
the  receipt  at  Chicago. 

Hogs. — Chester  White,  Magee,  Suffolk,  Poland,  and  Berkshire  are  the 
popular  breeds.  Number  of  hogs  in  the  State,  1,620,089;  shipt^ed  east, 
334,265,  (one-fifth  Chicago  receipts,)  not  including  11,119,880  pounds 
dressed  hogs,  7,365,606  pounds  pork,  and  2,679,398  pounds  lard,  shipped 
east  and  west,  the  lard  making  up  one-fourth  of  the  Chicago  receipts. 

Sheep. — Eemarkable  fluctuation  is  noted  in  sheep  raising.  Importa- 
tions of  sheep  in  1863,  70,118;  1864,  159,519;  1865,  33,116;  1866,  5,972; 
1867,  4,368.  Exports:  1863,  6,289;  1864,  16,585;  1865,  20,755;  1866, 
52,589;  1867,  30,461.  Number  of  sheep  m  the  State,  about  2,000,000 ; 
wool  exported,  2,086,147  pounds;  whole  wool  clip,  nearly  8,000,000 
pounds — an  increase  of  more  than  2,500,000  pounds  over  1866.  Loss  of 
sheep  by  dogs  in  1864,  $126,148;  in  1866,  $88,267;  amount  for  1867  not 
ascertained.  In  this  connection  it  is  stated  that,  while  a  few  years  ago 
Iowa  was  entirely  dependent  upon  other  States  and  countries  for  woolen 
goods,  this  state  of  things  is  now  changed  to  a  considerable  degree,  the 
manufactures  of  the  State  reaching  $25,000,000  in  1867  against  $2,751,805 
in  1862,  and  $15,957,599  in  1866,  a  large  proportion  of  which  were  woolen 
goods. 

Wlieat. — The  crop  is  stated  to  have  been  unparallele.d  in  quantity  and 
unsurpassed  in  quality.  The  exports  for  the  year  over  six  raih-oads 
named  reached  6,539,628  bushels,  being  one-fourth  of  the  receipts  at 
Chicago.  The  secretary  deprecates  attention  to  wheat  to  the  exclusion  of 
a  diversity  of  crops ;  and  says  that,  with  a  good  crop  under  thorough 
cultivation,  Iowa  alone  could  raise  sufficient  wheat  for  the  whole  coun- 
try, adding:  "I  can  name  ten  jDrairie  counties  in  Iowa  with  5,000,000 
acres,  which,  at  ten  bushels  per  acre,  would  produce  wheat  enough  for 
home  consumption,  and  supply  a  larger  amount  of  wheat  and  flour  than 
passed  through  Chicago  in  1867,  which  facts  justify  our  cautious  lookout 
for  cheap  wheat.  Diversify  agriculture  and  regard  grasses  and  ani- 
mals, which  promise  good  profits,  and  leave  wheat-raising  to  the  young 
pioneer  on  virgin  soil,  and  to  farmers  in  close  proximity  to  railroads." 

Corn. — Crop  about  70,000,000  bushels;  shipments  by  rail,  1,701,866 
bushels,  a  large  proportion  of  the  crop  being  consumed  at  home. 

Oats  shipped  by  rail,  617,689  bushels;  rye  and  barley,  621,565  bush- 
els: other  gTains  and  seeds,  about  6,250,000  pounds. 

Sorghum. — In  1858  the  acreage  of  sorghum  was  5,606,  product  410,776 
gallons,  or  74  gallons  per  acre;  1862,  37,607  acres,  3,442,390  gallons,  or 
96  gallons  per  acre;  1864,  21,452  acres,  1,543,604  gallons,  or  67  gallons 
per  acre ;  1866,  25,796  acres,  2,090,557  gallons,  or  81  gallons  per  acre; 
1867,  product  about  3,000,000  gallons.  Product  of  sugar  in  1862  was 
21,469  pounds,  one  to  140  gallons  of  sirup;  in  1864,  8,386  pounds,  one 
to  172  gallons;  1866,  14,697  pounds,  one  to  143  gallons.  The  produc- 
tions of  sugar  are  rather  the  results  of  accidents  than  of  any  well-digested 


516  ACJEICULTUKAL    REPORT. 

system  for  its  extraction  from  the  sirup ;  but  these  figures  show  that 
sugar  really  exists  in  the  sirup.  One  gallon  of  siiiip  should  furnish 
five  pounds  of  marketable  sugar,  and  leave  half  a  gallon  of  excellent 
sirup,  a  result  which  would  have  realized  10,452,785  pounds  from  the 
crop  of  186G,  and  probably  more  from  that  of  1867.  Counting  the  sugar 
at  15  cents  per  i^omid,  the  crop  of  Iowa  alone  would  amount  to  $2,250,000. 
The  people  are  not  generally  aware  of  the  extent  of  this  crop,  and  do 
not  ajipreciate  its  value;  but,  in  the  experience  of  the  past,  there  are 
abundant  reasons  for  more  enlightened  effort  to  establish  the  crop  as  a 
staple  western  product,  as  it  is  no  more  liable  to  failure  than  Indian 
corn. 

County  societies. — Forty-five  county  societies  made  reports  for  the  year 
Number  of  members,  11,375;  receipts,  825,477;  paid  out  in  premiums, 
818,180;  leaving  an  average  of  8162  50  to  each  society  for  current 
expeuses. 

State  fair.^— At  the  fourteenth  annual  State  fair  there  were  1,796 
entries,  462  more  than  ever  before;  receipts  89,528;  paid  in  premiums, 
84,350. 

Railroads. — In  1863  there  were  574  miles  of  railroad  in  the  State,  793 
miles  in  1865,  and  1,152  in  1867. 

Timber. — The  secretary  states  that  among  the  wants  of  Iowa  are  arti- 
ficial groves  of  timber,  and  carcfiil  husbandry  of  the  natural  forests* 
In  1863  there  were  in  the  State  8,360  acres  of  timber,  and  4,786,886  acres 
of  inclosed  lands,  being  one  of  timber  to  each  260  inclosed  land;  in  1866, 
45,774  of  timber,  8,263,174  inclosed  land,  one  to  170 — an  encouraging 
increase  of  timber.  To  illustrate  the  importance  of  more  general  cidti- 
vation  of  timber,  it  is  stated  that  the  raih'oads  of  Iowa  consume  about 
35,000  cords  of  wood,  and  those  of  the  whole  country,  6,700,000  cords; 
and  that  for  repair's  of  existing  roads  in  the  State,  including  bridges, 
ties,  &c.,  the  annual  expense  is  not  less  than  8670,000.  From  the  sev- 
eral sources  from  which  figures  were  attainable,  119,166,307  feet  of  lum- 
ber and  84,980,958  shingles  and  laths  were  imported  for  use  in  the  State 
during  the  year.  The  secretary  afiii'ms  that  the  profit  from  a  five-acre 
grove  will  be  greater  than  from  any  other  product,  and  lu-ges  legislative 
encouragement  for  more  general  cultivation  of  forest  trees. 

REPORTS  OF  ST^VNDING  COJIMITTEES  ON  FARM  STOCK. 

Cattle. — The  standing  committee  on  cattle  report  a  series  of  sub-reports 
from  counties,  all  indicating  limited  though  increasing  attention  to  im- 
provement of  stock.  Durhams  everywhere  rank  highest  for  beef  The 
Adams  County  correspondent,  after  thirty  years'  experience  in  raising 
cattle  and  in  dairying,  considers  the  Durhams  best  for  beef,  Devons  for 
the  yoke,  and  Ayrshires  for  milk,  and  adds:  "In  raising  cows,  feed  the 
calf  until  a  cow,  on  the  food  that  will  make  the  cow  give  most  milk,  and 
you  will  have  a  milker.  In  raising  a  steer  never  If^t  him  get  poor;  change 
feed  frequently;  and,  in  feeding  high,  give  plenty  of  salt,  as  nine-tenths 
of  all  the  diseases  of  animals  are  brought  on  by  want  of  salt.  It  is  just 
as  easy  to  have  the  steer  at  four  years  old  weigh  2,000  pounds  as  1,300. 
There  will  be  from  300  to  500  pounds  difference  between  a  common  scrub 
and  a  tall,  long,  wide-s]iread  Durham."  The  reporters  for  Fremont  and 
Jasper  prefer  the  Durhams  for  beef,  and  the  half-breeds  for  the  yoke  and 
milk.  Another  writer  says  that  Diu^hams  make  an  earlier  growth,  and 
are  more  perfect  in  form ;  and  the  steers  two  and  a  half  years  old  wiU 
bring  more  than  scrub  stock  at  three  and  a  half  years  old.  Shorthorn 
steers  may  be  got  ready  for  the  shambles  at  two.  years  old,  if  required. 


STATE   EEPORTS    OF    AGRICULTURE.  517 

weighing  from  1,100  to  1,300  pounds  gross,  wliile  common  stock  -will  not 
weigh  more  than  500  to  800  at  the  same  age,  and  not  he  lit  for  market  at 
that.  A  Lee  Comity  correspondent  says  the  Durhams  are  best  for  the 
shambles,  and  for  the  yoke  a  cross  between  the  Devon  and  Durham,  the 
former  adding  activity  and  si)eed  to  the  latter,  making  pretty  working 
cattle,  easily  matched.  For  milk,  if  feed  is  plenty,  the  Durham ;  if  not, 
the  Devon  or  Ayrshii^e;  or,  if  short  hill-side  i^astiu-e  is  to  be  the  feed, 
an  Alderney. 

Horses. — The  report  on  horses  exhibits  a  want  of  interest  in  thorough- 
bred stock  in  Iowa,  and  a  general  inclination  among  farmers  to  use  the 
nearest  and  cheapest  stallions.  James  Grant,  of  Davenport,  wiites  that 
not  one  in  ten  of  their  farmers  woidd  breed  with  a  thorough-bred  horse 
at  ten  dollars  if  he  could  get  a  cheaper  horse,  though  aware  that  the 
colt  of  the  former  will  command  more  money.  Blackbird  stock  and  the 
Bashaw-Messenger  are  held  in  the  highest  estimation.  With  others  the 
Morgan  stock  ranks  first,  and,  for  heavy  horses  the  Coimestoga,  Bell- 
founder,  and  Printer.  The  increase  in  population  requires  more  than 
the  natural  increase  of  horses;  hence  there  is  inducement  for  horse- 
raisers. 

Mules  and  jacks. — Increased  attention  is  being  given  to  mule-raising, 
and  blooded  jacks  are  becoming  more  numerous.  The  value  of  mules,  for 
work,  in"ofit,  ik.Q.,  is  estimated  at  fi-om  twenty-five  to  thirty-three  per  cent. 
ovBr  that  of  horses,  and  a  mule  three  years  old  is  considered  as  good  as  a 
horse  at  four  or  five.  Those  having  mares  of  good  blood,  speed,  and  sym- 
metry shoidd  breed  horses,  but  from  common  mares  it  is  more  profitable  to 
raise  mules.  One  reporter  says  the  proper  method  of  raising  colts  is  to 
feed  them  aU  the  hay  and  oats  they  wiU  eat ;  teach  them  to  eat  by  feed- 
ing with  the  mare,  and  they  wiU  not  mind  weaning;  by  this  coiu'se  they 
will  seU  out  of  the  pa^^ture  at  common  prices  for  two-year  olds.  It  is 
stated  that  mules  do  not  get  their  full  gTowth  till  in  llieir  teens,  and 
that  they  should  not  be  x)ut  to  their  greatest  effort  before  they  are  ten 
years  old. 

Sicine. — The  rex^ort  on  sv.ine  is  made  up  chiefly  of  statements  of  local 
correspondents,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  Magee,  Chester  ^^^lite, 
Sufiblk,  Poland,  Berkshire,  and  China,  with  their  crosses,  are  the  most 
popular  and  profitable  breeds,  each  finding  preference  in  certain  locali- 
ties. One  writer  thinks  the  Magee  the  best  breed  without  a  cross,  but 
that  it  is  imijroved  by  crossing  Vvith  the  Chester  White,  the  i^ork  selling 
for  25  cents  per  100  i)ounds  more  than  common  hogs;  also,  that  four 
bushels  of  meal  cooked  is  better  than  five  bushels  of  corn  in  the  ear; 
that  no  kind  of  stock  pays  better  than  hogs,  if  properly  managed;  but 
that  they  should  never  be  wintered,  but  marketed  at  from  eight  to  ten 
months  old.  Another  writer  says  that  it  pays  better  to  raise  hogs  than 
sheep,  but  not  half  so  well  as  to  raise  cattle  or  horses;  that  it  costs 
more  to  produce  8100  worth  of  hogs  than  $150  worth  of  cattle;  that  15 
bushels  of  corn  will  produce  100  pounds  of  pork,  worth  8-1,  and  00 
bushels  of  corn  will  produce  1,100  pounds  cf  beef,  worth  800,  making 
corn  fed  to  hogs  bring  2G  cents,  and  that  fed  to  cattle  73  cents  per 
bushel.  The  statement  from  Monona  County  names  cattle  as  the  most 
profitable  stock  to  raise,  horses  next,  sheep  third  best,  and  hogs  fourth. 
In  Jefferson  County  the  relative  i)rofits  are  estimated  as  follows :  A 
hog  of  best  breed,  320  pounds,  costs  $11  50  and  sells  for  810,  profit 
$4  50,  or  thirty -nine  per  cent,  on  cost;  common  breeds  yield  no  profit; 
to  raise  and  fatten  ii  grade  Dmiiam  steer,  four  years  old,  1,000  i^ounds, 
costs  851),  worth  in  market  80G,  profit  $37,  or'  sixty-two  per  cent,  on 
cost;  a  scrub  steer  costs  $48  80,  worth  $G0,  profit' $11  20,  or  twenty- 


518  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

tliree  per  cent,  on  cost;  farm  horse,  four  years  old,  costs  S85,  worth  $125, 
profit  $40,  or  forts'-seven  ])er  cent,  on  cost;  a  good  roadster  costs  $100, 
worth  $1*00,  profit  $100,  or  100  per  cent,  on  cost.  The  same  correspondent 
deprecates  the  practice  of  breeding  hogs  in-and-in  as  a  fruitfid  source  of 
disease  ;  and  thinks  that  proper  breeding,  feeding,  shelter,  and  general 
good  treatment  of  swine  woiUd  do  more  as  a  preventive  of  hog  cholera 
than  all  the  drugs  in  the  shops.  To  cure  hogs  really  taken  with  the  cholera 
he  knows  no  remedy,  but  effort  shoidd  be  turned  to  preventing  its  spread. 
The  sick  hogs  should  be  immediately  separated  fi'om  well  ones,  and 
given  some  simple  medicine,  say  saltpeter  one  part,  sulphur  two  parts — 
a  large  spooufid  three  times  a  week.  Hogs  that  die  should  always 
be  buried  where  no  others  can  get  at  them,  lest  the  disease  be  extended 
by  the  carcasses  being  eaten  by  well  hogs. 

Sheep. — The  committee  on  sheeji  and  wool-gi'owing  report  that  farmers 
have  becoijie  greatly  discouraged  in  this  branch  of  husbandry ;  that  many 
inexperienced  in  the  business  had  failed;  but  that  few  who  really  under- 
stand it  are  willing  to  give  it  up;  and  it  is  believed  that,  if  those  who 
are  experienced  will  persevere,  they  will  ultimately  receive  fair  remuner- 
ation lor  their  labors.  One  coiTCspondent  estimates  the  cost  of  winter- 
ing at  80  cents  to  $1  per  head,  and  the  value  of  sheep  for  mutton  at 
$3  50  to  $1  per  head  at  home. 

REPORTS  OF  STANDING  COMMITTEES  ON  FAEM  PRODUCTS. 

Wheat. — The  report  on  grain  shows  that  of  spring  wheat,  preference 
is  given  to  the  China  Tea,  Fife,  Canada  Club  or  Goose,  Eio  Grande,  and 
Italian;  and  of  fall  varieties,  to  the  Mediterranean,  White  Winter,  Early 
May,  Blue  Stem,  White  Genesee,  Smooth  "SMiite-chaff",  Smooth  Golden- 
chaff',  and  Tappahannock,  the  latter  having  been  recently  introduced  from 
the  Department  of  AgTicultiu-e,  and  promising  well.  In  answer  to  a 
question  as  to  whether  wheat  is  as  remunerative  as  a  crop  of  corn 
or  the  grasses,  the  sub-reports  are  pretty  evenly  balanced,  the  num- 
ber preponderating  against  the  wheat  crop,  however,  taking  a  series 
of  years.  One  ^Titer,  Avith  fourteen  years'  experience  in  testing  the 
comparative  profits,  thinks  either  corn  or  meadow  grass  more  remunera- 
tive than  wheat.  Drilling  is  gaining  favor  generally,  though  in  some 
cases  the  system  has  been  discarded. 

Cor7i. — Yellow  corn  a«d  White  Dent  corn  are  chiefly  grown  through- 
out the  State.  The  cost  of  raising  is  about  $5  50  per  acre,  taking  the 
average  of  about  twenty  estimates  ti'om  different  sections.  AU  report  it 
a  remunerative  crop.  One  farmer  says  he  has  raised  ten  successive 
crops  of  corn  without  deterioration  of  yield;  and,  as  a  rule,  no  fertilizers 
are  used,  though  the  almost  universal  testimony  is  that  cultivation 
largely  increases  the  crop,  frequently  doubling  the  yield. 

Eye. — But  little  raised ;  when  not  distilled,  it  is  used  for  stock.  With 
but  one  exception  it  is  reported  a  profitable  crop  where  tried. 

OaU. — The  common  white  variety  is  principally  grown,  with  Black 
Horse  Mane,  Side,  Poland,  and  common  black,  in  less  quantity.  The 
crop  is  largely  consumed  at  home,  for  which  it  is  considered  as  profita- 
ble as  other  small  gi-ains.  Some  correspondents  say  it  does  not  pay  as 
a  market  crop,  while  others  quote  the  price  at  25  to  35  cents,  and  report 
it  "veiy  remunerative." 

BiiclcKheat. — Not  extensively  growia,  and  chiefly  for  home  consump- 
tion. In  Jefferson  it  is  reported  ''tender  and  uncertain."  In  most 
counties  it  does  well,  and  nearly  all  reports  rate  it  a  paying  crop ;  one 
says,  "  profitable,  but  troublesome.'*  La  a  few  counties  it  is  cultivated 


I 


STATE   REPORTS   OF   AGRICTTLTtTRE.  519 

for  the  bees.  Tlie  Floyd  reporter  says:  "We  sow  tlie  gray  buckwheat, 
and  average  ■10  bushels  to  the  acre." 

Barley. — In  many  counties  little  or  none  gi'own.  In  the  vicinity  of 
breweries  it  is  considered  a  profitable,  as  well  as  a  pretty  sure  crop ;  and 
several  report  very  favorably  of  it  as  a  crop  for  stock  feeding,  pronounc- 
ing it  better  than  corn  and  oats  for  horses  and  hogs.  One  reporter  says 
it  pays  to  raise  it  at  70  cents  per  bushel.  The  spring  varieties  are  gen- 
eralh-  sown. 

A  correspondent  justly  complains  of  the  confusion  of  names  for  cereals 
and  root  crops,  the  same  wheat  having  a  dozen  different  names,  and 
potatoes  as  many  more.  A  neighbor  went  eighty  miles  for  a  new  variety 
of  the  Goklen-straw  wheat,  which  was  sown  and  found  to  be  Scotch 
Fife.     Such  instances  are  frequent. 

tSorghinn. — The  destructive  frosts  of  18G6,  and  the  high  price  of  smaU 
grains,  the  backward  si)ring,  and  poor  seed  in  many  cases,  together  with 
the  want  of  market  for  smi)lus  product,  and  the  exi)ense  of  good  appara- 
tus for  manufactni'iug  the  sirup,  are  named  as  the  causes  of  the  decline 
in  the  cultivation  of  this  crop.  The  White  and  the  Eed  Imphee,  and  the 
Chinese  cane  are  the  varieties  preferred.  In  Louisa  County  the  Eed 
Imphee  is  considered  the  best  for  sirup,  and  the  White  for  sugar.  The 
reporter  says :  "  The  Eed  will  not  make  sugar;  the  White,  all  that  I  have 
made,  went  to  thick  mush  sugar  immediately,  some  of  it  before  it  was 
entirely  cold."  Another  says  the  Chinese  is  the  best  variety ;  upland 
produces  the  finest  sirup;  bottom  land  the  longest  growth  of  stock.  In 
Humboldt  the  China  and  the  Otaheitan  are  preferred,  the  former  for 
large  yield,  the  latter  for  granulation:  "Poor  cultivation  deteriorates 
the  quality  of  the  product;  .fertihzers  hasten  maturity,  increase  the 
yield,  and  improve  the  quality  of  the  sirup.  There  is  7io  lasting 
impediment,  unless  it  be  laziness,  to  the  profitable  raising  of  sor- 
ghum. Light  sandy  soil  produces  the  best  sirup,  while  a  rich  soil 
produces  a  gi'eater  quantity  of  a  darker  quaUty."  James  Pemble,  of 
Louisa  Couuty,  wiites  that  the  cane  should  go  to  mill  fiesh  from  the 
stalk,  and  that  he  commences  making  as  soon  as  the  seed  is  in  the  milk. 
He  uses  Skinner's  mill,  with  pans  of  his  own  contrivance,  his  whole 
apparatus  costing  8125,  and  makes  125  gallons  per  day,  and  from  2,500 
to  3,000  gallons  the  season,  selling  last  season  at  90  cents  per  gallon  by 
the  barrel,  with  ready  sales.  It  is  uot  thought  profitable  for  each 
farmer  to  have  a  miU ;  one  being  suflicient  for  a  neighborhood,  and  is 
thus  made  profitable. 

REPORTS  OF  STAXDIXG  C0M3IITTEES  ON  FRUITS. 

Grapes. — A  large  majority  of  the  sub-reports  pronounce  the  Concord 
first  ou  the  list,  all  things  considered.  The  counties  report  in  substance 
as  follows : 

Beutou  County:  Concord,  Hartford  Prolific,  Clinton,  Delaware,  and 
Eogers's  Hybrid,  No.  4,  esteemed  most  highly;  Concord  and  Clinton, 
mixed  before  crushing,  best  for  'wine.  Des  Moines  Comity :  Concord 
for  profit;  Delaware,  lona,  and  Creveling  for  quality;  Concord  and 
Catawba  for  \une;  8 1,-SOO  realized  from  six  acres  last  year.  Dubuque 
County:  Concord  and  Delaware.  Fremont  Coimty :  Concord  the  favor- 
ite; Isabella' and  Catawba  do  well.  J efferson  County :  Delaware  and 
Concord  for  table;  lona,  Isabella,  Diana,  and  Hartford  Prolific  success- 
fid  ;  Clinton,  splendid  wine  grape;  one  vintner  made  350  gallons  to  the 
acre,  woitli,  when  sold  by  the  gallon,  $700 — put  up  in  bottles,  81,100,  after 
deducting  extra  expense  and  labor.   Fairfield  County :  the  reporter  raised 


520  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

5,000  i^oiuids  per  acre,  sold  at  15  cents  per  pound,  $750  per  acre.  Jones 
County:  Catawba  best  for  wine;  Concord,  Diana,  and  Delaware  for 
table ;  Diana  for  packing  for  winter ;  Hat'tford  Prolific  and  Isabella  also 
favorites.  Lee  County:  Catawba  best  for  wine  and  table.  Harrison 
County :  Concord,  Diana,  Isabella,  and  lona  for  table.  Henry  Coimty : 
Concord  best ;  Hartford  Prolific  and  Creveling  stand  next  for  liardiness; 
Concord  and  Clinton  for  wine;  crop  of  the  county  14,500  pounds;  050 
gallons  of  wine,  chiefly  Concord.  Humboldt  County :  ,  Concord  and 
Chuton.  Mahaska  Coimty:  Concord,  Delaware,  Clinton,  ELsingburg, 
and  Catawba  for  wine ;  Concord  and  Delaware  for  table ;  16,000  vines 
in  the  county,  5,000  bearing  fi"uit ;  yield,  32,000  pounds ;  cost  of  vine- 
yards: preparing  gTound  8100  per  acre,  vines  S150,  trellising  vines 
$150,  tending  foiu-  years  till  first  crop  $300,  $700  before  returns ;  one 
man  can  tend  three  acres  of  gTapes  as  easily  as  twenty  acres  of  corn ; 
the  three  acres  will  yield  $1,200,  besides  about  $1,000  worth  of  cuttings; 
800  vines  to  the  acre,  which  at  foiu-  years  old  yiekl  8,000  ])ounds,  at  five 
cents  per  pound,  making  $100  per  acre.  Marion  County :  Delaware, 
Concord,  Diana,  Eogers's  Hybrids  Xos.  2,  3,  1,  13,  19,  and  42,  Perkins, 
and  Baldwin.  Story  County:  Concord  and  Delaware.  Taylor  County: 
Concord.  Union  County  :  Delaware  and  Diana  for  wine ;  lona  for  table. 
Washington  County :  Concord ;  00,000  \ines  in  county,  nearly  all  Con- 
cord ;  eight  tons  per  acre  the  average  crop  of  Concords,  which  will  make 
1,200  gallons  of  wine;  the  Concord  needs  no  protection;  the  Clinton 
is  a  good  wine  grape ;  3,000  gallons  of  wine  made  in  the  county  in  1807, 
principally  Concord;  the  Concord  has  not  suffered  from  mildew  or  rot; 
aU  other  varieties  subject  to  disease.  Considerable  injury  was  reported 
in  various  sections  from  sun-scald,  mildew,  rot,  lice,  beetles,  &c.  Clin- 
ton and  Isabella  much  injiu'cd  by  rot. 

Raspberric^'i. — Purple  Cane,  Black  Cap,  Philadelphia,  Kirtlaud,  and 
Catawissa  are  the  only  varieties  reported  entirely  successtul.  Several 
report  having  tried  the  Red  and  the  YelloAv  Antweri),  Fastolf,  Knevitt's 
Giant,  Large  Fruited  Monthly,  Brinkle's  Orange,  and  several  other  varie- 
ties, but  have  found  them  all  tender. 

kStraicberrics. — Vv'ilson's  Albany,  Eussell's  Prolific,  Triomphe  de  Gand, 
are  mentioned  with  favor  by  the  few  reporting.  Our  correspondent  says 
Eussell's  Prolific  is  the  favorite,  with  a  few  of  Wilson's  Albany  set  near 
for  fertilizers.  Another  writes  that  the  best  early  varieties  are  Jenny 
Lind,  Downer's  Prolific,  McAvoy's  Superior,  and  Wilson's  Albany;  but 
for  shipping,  the  Agiiculturist. 

Cherries. — The  Early  May  or  Richmond  is  held  in  highest  esteem, 
maturing  early  and  adapted  to  all  localities,  and  is  of  excellent  flavor, 
and  a  profitable  tree.  Eight  bushels,  from  three  ten-year-old  trees,  sold 
for  $32.  For  a  late  cherry,  the  English  Morello  is  a  hardy  and  good 
bearer. 

Currants. — The  Common  Red,  Red  Dutch,  ^Yhite  Dutch,  Wliite  Grape, 
Gondouin  White,  Cherry,  Versailles,  and  Fertile  de  Palluau  are  named  as 
successfully  grown.  One  reporter  says  the  Common  Red  and  the  Gon- 
douin \Mii'te  are  the  sweetest,  and  the  Red  D|utch  and  White  Grape  the 
largest,  he  has  tried.  Another  values  the  Cherry  currant  for  size  and 
yield,  but  thinks  the  old  Red  Dutch,  with  good  ground  and  thorough 
cidtirre,  hard  to  beat. 

Gooseberries. — Houghton's  Seedling  and  Downing's  Seedling  appear  to 
stand  at  the  head  of  the  list,  followed  in  order  by  Hickson's  Favorite, 
American  Seedling,  and  Chester  ^Tiite.  The  worms  have  done  much 
injury  to  the  bushes,  and  mildew  has  seriously  affected  the  English 
varieties. 


STATE  REPORTS  OF  AGRICULTURE.      '     621 
COUNTY  REPORTS. 

Apples  and  jjcars.— rln  the  county  reports  to  the  secretary  the  follow- 
ing varieties  are  named  as  successfully  tested  apples :  Eed  Astrachan, 
Wine  Sap,  Sweet  June,  Oldenburg-,  Sexton,  St.  Lawrence,  Fameuse, 
Tolman's  Sweeting,  Golden  Eusset,  Summer  Pearmaiu,  Eambo,  Maiden'a 
Blush,  Eawles's  Janet,  "WTiite  Winter  Pearmahi,  Eomanite,  Pennock, 
Winter  Sweet,  Eed  Jmie,  Limber  Twig,  Jonathan,  Kcw  York  Pippm, 
Eoman  Stem,  Eed  Transcendent  Crab,  Yellow  Transcendent  Crab,  Har- 
ris's Fall  Eusset,  Seek-no-further,  Gros  Pommier,  Dominie,  Spitzen- 
burg,  Small  Eomanite,  Yaridevere  Pippin,  Willow  Twig,  Duchess  of 
Oldenburg,  St.  Lawrence,  Y'ellow  Harvest,  Prince's  Harvest,  Hess, 
Yellow  Ingestrie,  Yellow  Bellflower,  Keswick  Codliu,  Cole's  Quince, 
Early  Harvest,  Early  June,  Summer  Queen,  Snow  Apple,  Perry  Eus- 
set, Saxon,  Eed  June,  Beuoui,  Eoman  Stem,  White  Bellflower.  Pears: 
Gray  Doyenne,  White  Doyenne,  Bartlett,  Flemisli  Beauty. 

Fniits  ill  Jefferson. — There  are  in  this  county  142,422  fruit  trees, 
59,720  of  whicli  are  in  bearing;  and  Madison  has  over  100,000  fruit  trees 
planted.  Want  of  success  in  api)le  culture  is  attributed  to  injudicious 
selections,  poor  cidtivation,  and  the  ravages  of  the  borer  and  cater- 
pillar. A  reporter  says  the  ravages  of  the  latter  luay  be  prevented  by 
tying  a  bundle  of  oat-straw  around  the  tree,  with  the  tops  down,  so  that 
when  the  worms  begin  to  climb,  they  v^iU.  cluster  in  the  oats,  when  the 
sheaf  can  be  removed  and  bm-ned. 

S:\IAiL  FRUIT   CULTURE. 

Currants. — In  a  jiapru'  on  Small  Fruits,  M.  Cousins,  jr.,  recommends 
the  old  Eed  Dutch  as  the  most  reliable.  It  has  superiors  in  size  and 
delicacy  of  taste,  but  none  in  its  eaj^ly  responsive  iaitlifahiess  to  the 
husbandman's  care.  The  Yersailles,  White  Grape,  White  Dutch,  Black 
asTaples,  and  Yictoria  are  also  highly  approved  for  their  respective  qual- 
ities. CuiTants  can  be  made  a  profitable  crop.  Set  them  three  by  four 
feet,  4,000  to  an  acre.  One  quart  to  a  buth  will  give  4,000  quarts,  which 
at  iive  cents  per  quart  (they  brought  twenty  in  Chicago  last  summer) 
make  $200  pw  acre.  The  cuttings  and  roots  will  [jay  expenses,  l^o 
danger  of  glutting  the  market.  The  cheapest  method  of  propagation  is 
by  cuttings.  Layers  may  be  made  by  bending  down  and  covering  the 
new  gTowths  or  shoots,  by  which  one  year  may  be  saved,  and  strong 
plants  secured. 

Cherries. — Of  this  fruit,  he  says,  only  the  red  or  acid  varieties  suc- 
ceed well  in  the  west.  He  never  saw  a  bearing  Bigarreau,  Heart,  or 
Black  cherry  tree  in  the  prairies,  the  tart  Kentish  varieties,  the  Early 
May,  and  the  IMorellds  being  the  only  hope.  The  Early  May  never 
totally  fails. 

Strmcberrics. — On  a  patch  of  several  acres  near  Bui'lington,  containing 
forty  varieties,  Downer's  Prohfic,  Wilson's  Albany,  McAvoy's  Superior, 
and  Jenny  Lind  are  pronounced  the  best  four  varieties.  EusseU's  Pro- 
lific also  fi'uits  yell.  The  Wilson  enjoys  the  widest  reputation,  and  it 
seldom  fails. ' 

SUEL  FOSTER  ON  FRUIT  CULTURE. 

Upon  this  subject  Suel  Foster  says  that  an  acre  of  good,  rich  land, 
planted  in  the  spring  with  Wilson's  Albany,  in  rows  three  feet  apart  and 
one  foot  in  the  row,  carefully  hoed  and  ciiltivated,  and  covered  lightly 


522  AGRICULTUEAL   EEPOET. 

with  straw  in  December,  after  the  ground  freezes,  the  straw  raked  into 
the  middle  of  the  rows  in  spring  for  mulching,  will  produce  twenty 
bushels  the  second  and  the  third  year,  and  sometimes  one  hundred  to  the 
acre,  worth  from  $3  to  S-S  per  bushel. 

Grapes. — Mr.  Foster  expresses  the  opinion  that  grape-growing  will  be 
overdone  in  Iowa ;  not  by  the  farmers,  but  by  vineyard  planters ;  the 
supply  of  wine  will  be  greater  tban  the  demand.  The  fiiiit  will  be 
profitable  to  raise  near  large  cities,  but  he  thinks  L'OO  to  500  miles  trans- 
portation will  not  pay  when  prices  get  do^m  to  five  cents  per  pound. 
Ever>'  farmer,  however,  should  have  at  least  twenty-five  vines  for  home 
supply.  Plant  a  few  Bartford  Prolific  or  Creveling  for  early  fruit,  but  the 
priucii)al  variety  should  be  Concord. 

Plums  are  pronounced  not  very  profitable,  the  trees  being  apt  to  blight 
and  die.    Pears  do  best  on  clay  sod. 

Cherries. — The  Early  Kichmond  (or  Early  May)  is  the  only  variety  of 
any  profit  in  the  hard  winter  climate  of  Iowa.  Fruit  second  rate,  but 
tree  veiy  hardy  and  productive;  a  profitable  fruit  to  plant  by  the  acre 
for  market,  feet  trees  about  fomteen  feet  apart,  and  let  them  bear  low 
for  convenience  in  picking. 

Apples. — The  best  of  all  our  fruit,  and  most  profitable  for  the  labor 
bestowed.  He  thinks  Iowa  one  of  the  best  fruit  regions  in  the  Union, 
and  names  the  Yellow  Bellllower,  Eawles's  Janet,  Kome  Beauty,  Wine 
Sap,  Willow  Twig,  Ben  Davis,  Sweet  Komanite,  Virginia  Greening,  as 
varieties  he  would  recommend,  though  there  are  others  as  good.  To 
prevent  rabbits  gnawing,  wash  the  trees  with  lime  and  tobacco.  For 
the  canker-woiTu  use  sorghum  molasses,  thickened  with  flour,  and  rub 
on  the  tree  from  the  bottom  one  foot  high,  or  bm-n  the  worms  by  spread- 
ing a  very  light  wad  of  straw  under  the  tree;  beat  and  shake  the  worms 
ofl";  scrub  the  bark  oft"  trees,  it  is  a  harbor  for  insects.  Wash  Avith  soap 
and  water. 

THE  PEOPAGATION  OF  EYEE GREEKS. 

In  another  paper  Mr.  Foster  urges  all  nurserymen  of  the  i)rairie  country 
to  commence  iinmecbately  and  earnestly  the  propagation  of  evergreens, 
and  thus  to  cheapen  their  i)rice.  Varieties  recommended  for  timber: 
[Norway  pine,  Scotch  pine.  White  pine;  for  wind-breaking  screens 
and  ornamental  hedges :  Norway  spruce,  hemlock,  balsam,  and  fir.  He 
does  not  value  the  red  cedar  or  the  white  as  highly  as  before  trying 
them.  It  is  not  advisable  to  idant  api)les  among  evergreens,  as  the 
former  are  likely  to  rim  too  high ;  but  there  should  be  a  row  on  the 
north  au«l  west  to  break  the  winds  of  both  winter  and  summer ;  and, 
instead  of  planting  one  row  six  or  eight  feet  apart,  plant  two  rows  twice 
the  distance. 

SHOEING  PEAIEEE  FAK3I  HOKSES. 

W.  W.  Beebee,  in  a  paper  upon  this  subject,  says  that,  for  common 
fann  work,  and  all  usual  adjacent  travel,  horses  need"  no  shoes.  God 
has  made  an  amazingly  light  but  wonderfully  strong  hoof  for  the  horse, 
fully  adequate  to  all  ortUuaJW,  and,  by  constant  care  and  use,  to  many 
extraordinary  necessities.  Mr.  Be^-bee  drives  and  works  a  sj)an  of  one 
thousand  pound  horses  that  have  not  had  shoes  on  their  fore-feet  for  five 
years,  and  never  on  their  hind  feet,  lie  avoichs  hea\y  haiding  while  ice 
I)re\  ads,  but  drives  them  then,  even  up  and  tlown  hill,  as  fast  as  the  best  of 
shod  horses.    They  were  made  lame  by  shoeing,  but  never  since,  and  their 


STATE    EEPORTS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  .  523 

hoofs  are  now  Tvell  nigli  as  hard  as  iron.  Therefore,  keep  shoes  off  ot 
colts  and  young  horses  as  long  as  possible ;  and,  if  their  feet  become 
tender  upon  frozen  gToimd,  let  nature  have  a  few  days  to  increase  her 
power  of  resistance.  Mr.  Beebee  also  deprecates  the  practice  of  bind- 
ing down  ui)on  the  forehead,  under  heavy  or  close  bridle  reins,  that  fore- 
toji  which  was  e\'idently  designed  to  fly  loose  in  the  breeze. 

EAISESTQ  SWINE. 

Causes  of  disease. — L.  W,  Stuart,  in  an  article  upon  hogs,  expresses 
the  opinion  that  the  great  causes  of  disease  among  this  class  of  animals 
are  the  want  of  improvement  in  breeding,  breeding  in-and-in,  and  breed- 
ing too  young,  impairing  the  ])hysical  qualities  of  the  animals  and  ren- 
dering them  unable  to  endure  the  hardships  to  which  they  are  exposed, 
from  lack  of  care  and  protection. 

Feeding. — In  reference  to  teeding  he  says:  Give  pigs  plenty  to  eat 
while  they  are  young,  as  it  wUl  ]}ay  twenty-five  per  cent,  more  to  feed 
well  then  than  at  a  more  advanced  age.  Strict  regularity  in  feeding  is 
recommended  ;  hogs  fattening  should  have  just  what  they  will  eat  and 
no  more ;  be  fed  three  times  a  day,  and  be  kept  where  they  can  get 
clean  fresh  water.  To  make  the  greatest  amount  of  pork  in  a  given 
time,  obtain  the  best  breeds — such  as  will  not  break  down  on  a  plank 
floor — keep  their  pens  clean,  and  feed  regularly  three  times  a  day  until 
ten  months  old,  when  they  should  weigh  400  pounds. 

On  the  2d  of  June  ]Mr.  B.  put  up  three  pigs  eight  weeks  old,  and 
fed  them  until  September  18.  At  the  end  of  the  sixth  week  one  of  the 
three,  a  sow  of  a  good  native  breed,  had  to  be  removed  fi^om  the  floor, 
showing  signs  of  breaking  doT\Ti.  At  the  commencement  of  the  exjier- 
iment  this  pig  weighed  4:5  pounds,  increased  to  SO  pounds  July  10.  The 
other  two,  Chester  white  boar  and  sow,  weighed  oo  pounds  each  at  pen- 
ning, 115  and  111  pounds  respectively  at  the  end  of  the  six  weeks ;  and 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteen  weeks  258  pounds  and  250  pounds  respectively. 
The  highest  weekly  increase  was  21  pounds,  the  average  for  the  boar 
13^  pounds,  and  for  the  sow  about  12i  j^ounds. 

In  feeding  100  hogs  Mr.  B.  has  made  a  saving  of  two  fifths  of  the  grain 
by  grinding  it  up  into  meal  and  feeding  it  (by ;  and  finds  still  better  results 
by  souring  the  meal  before  feeding ;  and  by  steaming  food  the  best  re- 
sults are  attained,  making  a  saving  of  over  oue-half.  The  opinion  is 
also  expressed  that  the  man  who  feeds  blooded  stock  gets  just  about 
double  Ibr  his  gi-ain  that  the  man  does  who  feeds  native  stock. 

MISSOURI. 

REPORT  OF   THE   SECRETARY. 

L.  D.  Morse,  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
reports  that  the  year  18G7  was  one  of  general  prosperity  to  the  farmer ; 
that  the  iumiigi-ation  to  the  State,  especially  diuing  the  faU,  was  so 
large  as  to  make  a  remunerative  home  market  for  food  crops  in  many 
localities ;  and  that  agriculture  now  presents  one  of  the  most  profitable 
and  certain  fields  open  to  capital  and  labor.  In  evidence  of  the  general 
prosperity  it  is  stated  that  the  total  value  of  taxable  property  in  the 
State  in  1860  was  $295,552,800,  while  in  18G7  it  reached  $454,863,895, 
being  an  increase  of  thirty-five  per  cent.,  whOe  the  number  of  polls  taxed 
in  1867  falls  nearly  12,000  short  of  the  number  in  1800.  This  increased 
valuation  is  mainly  attributable  to  an  improved  condition  of  agriculture. 


524  .  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Manufactures. — Tlie  rapid  growtli  of  the  man ufacturiug  interest  is  also 
remarked  upon,  and  the  fullest  euconragement  to  its  further  develop- 
ment urged  as  of  ^-ital  importance  to  theState,  the  true  policy  being  to 
bring  the  i:)roducer  and  the  consumer  as  nearly  together  as  possible ; 
and  to  this  end  the  suggestion  is  made,  that  the  State  exemi)t  capital 
invested  in  manufacturmg  establishments  from  taxation  for  a  period  ot 
ten  years. 

Wool-groiciug. — The  secretary  claims  unequaled  advantages  for  wool- 
groTving  in  Missouri,  and  assumes  that  wool  can  be  groAvn  at  less  than 
one-half  the  cost  for  which  it  is  produced  in  Xew  England.  Xot  less 
than  50,000  sheep  were  driven  into  the  State  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  year,  from  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  "Wisconsin,  and  even  Ver- 
mont. As  in  other  sheep-gTowing  districts,  a  dog  law  is  demanded  for 
the  protection  of  tlocks. 

Cisterns. — The  secretary  quotes  the  protracted  drought  of  the  sum- 
mer as  a  practical  argTiment  in  lavor  of  cisterns  for  rain  water,  to  insiu'e 
a  supply  for  almost  any  emergency.  For  household  use  one  cistern  at 
least  should  be  dee})  enough  to  keep  the  water  cool  in  summer,  not  less 
than  sixteen  feet  deep,  but  twenty  foct  is  better.  Such  a  cistern  should 
be  walled  up  v.ith  brick  or  stone  laid  in  cement  mortar,  to  exclude  the 
Rirrface  di^ainage  or  other  filth  whicli  passes  through  the  soil  into  wells. 
The  cistern  for  family  use  should  be  pro^ided  with  a  filter,  for  which 
puii)ose  1  good  method  is  to  dig  a  small  cistern  adjoining  the  large  one, 
about  live  feet  wide  by  tive  feet  deep,  connected  about  a  foot  above  the 
bottom  wiih  the  large  one  hy  a  pipe,  and  fi^lled  two-thirds  full  of  sand 
and  gravel.  Into  this  the  water  fi-oni  the  roof  is  discharged,  and  filters 
thi'ough  into  the  deep  cistern.  Small  cisterns  may  be  made  in  clay  soils 
by  cementing  on  the  earth.  Ponds  may  be  constructed  in  most  locali- 
ties, which  will  contain  an  abundance  of  water  for  stock. 

Forest  trees. — To  guard  i)osterity  against  the  excessive  droughts  which 
must  foUow  the  denuding  of  the  country  of  timber,  farmers  are  urged 
to  save,  as  far  as  possible,  all  young  trees,  and  to  begin  in  earnest  the 
planting  of  fruit  trees,  making  it  a  ])oint  to  plant  some  every  spring.  In 
a  fevr;.ears  they  will  grow  to  a  size  to  be  of  im})ortant  service.  Shelter 
belts  along  the  sides  of  iarms  are  useful  in  a  prairie  country,  and  are 
soon  appreciated  by  farm  stock  as  shelter  from  chilling  winds  and  rains, 
ameliorating  the  seveiity  of  winters  and  the  drought  of  summers.  The 
following  is  given  as  the  average  growth  in  twelve  years  of  some  of  the 
leading  desiral)le  varieties  of  forest  trees :  White  ma])le,  one  foot  in 
diameter  and  ^0  feet  high  ;  ash-leaf  maple,  one  foot  diameter,  20  feet 
high ;  white  willow,  1^  foot  diameter,  40  feet  high ;  yellow  willow  l^^ 
foot  diameter,  33  feet  high ;  Lombardy  poplar,  10  inches  in  diameter,  40 
feet  high ;  l)lue  ash  and  white  ash,  10  inches  dianu^ter,  2o  feet  high ;  black 
walnut,  white  walnut,  elm,  and  chestnut  about  the  same;  hickory,  eight 
inches  in  diameter,  25  feet  high.  EvergTcens  make  an  average  growth 
of  20  inches  in  height  annually,  and  many  make  more. 

GRAPE  CULTURE  IN  IVHSSOLTIL 

An  article  ou  grape  cultiu-e  iii  Missouri,  by  Professor  Swallow,  shows 
that  the  State  possesses  many  species  of  native  grapes,  and  the  vines 
are  so  abundant  and  large  as  to  form  a  cons])icuous  part  of  every  copse 
and  thicket  throughout  the  State  ;  and  that  both  scientific  examinations 
and  exi^eriencc  prove  that  the  vine  can  be  cultivated  with  entire  success 
in  favorable  localities  in  all  parts  of  the  Slate. 

The  vineyards  of  Booneville  yielded  last  year  about  G,000  gallons  ot 


STATE    REPORTS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  525 

vriiie,  woitli  $ll*,000 ;  five  acres  gave  a  clear  profit  oi"  8-,000,  and  a  yine- 
yard  of  three  acres  yielded  1.550  gallons  of  "svine.  The  vintage  of  Her- 
mann was  about  100,000  gallons  from  less  than  200  acres,  which,  at 
$1  per  gallon,  gives  a  profit  of  $400  per  acre.  One  small  vineyard  at 
Hauibm-g  produced  over  1,000  gallons  per  acre.  The  cost  of  vineyards 
for  preparing  the  soil,  setting  and  training  the  vines  till  they  come  into 
bearing,  varies  fi'om  $200  to  $300  per  acre ;  subsequent  cost  of  cultiva- 
tion, $50  to  $00  per  acre ;  ten  per  cent,  on  first  cost,  $20  to  $30  per  acre ; 
total  exi)ense  for  each  year,  $70  to  $90  per  acre;  so  that  an  income  of 
$100  per  acre  will  pay  interest  on  first  cost  and  exj^eus^s  of  cultivation. 
The  writer  supposes  the  vineyards  of  the  State  have  \ielded  an  average 
of  at  least  250  gallons  per  acre  since  1849,  which,  at  $1  60  per  gallon, 
would  give  an  annual  income  of  $400,  and  a  net  profit  of  $300  per  acre. 
One  vintner  of  Hermann  is  said  to  have  made  over  400  gallons  per  acre 
for  the  last  ten  years,  and  an  annual  profit  of  more  than  $500  per  acre. 
Millions  of  acres  of  land  slopes  and  ridges  in  central  and  in  southern 
Missouri,  now  considered  worthless,  are  in  fact  the  most  valirable  lands 
in  the  State  for  gi-ape  crJtui'e ;  and  it  is  stated  that  5,000,000  acres 
might  be  selected  in  the  most  desirable  locations,  and  devoted  to  vine- 
yards without  encroaching  upon  the  lands  most  desirable  for  other 
branches  of  agTicultm^e,  and  that  these  5,000,000  acres  in  the  highlands 
of  southern  ^Missouri  present  rare  inducements  to  the  vine-dresser. 

"^VIXE  DISTRICTS   OF  3IISS0URI. 

In  an  article  on  the  wine  districts  of  Missoiu-i,  J.  Yancleve  Phillips 
ranks  the  lands  in  St.  Louis  County  as  third  and  fourth  rate  wine  lands, 
since  they  lack  the  proper  oxides  of  ii'on  to  grow  gxapes  to  any  gTcat 
extent.  Washington,  in  Franklin  County,  and  Hermann,  in  Gasconade 
County,  are  similarly  designated;  it  being  remarked  that  when  the 
vines  are  first  planted,  say  for  six  or  eight  years,  the  ±i"uit  wUl  be  com- 
paratively perfect,  as  the  distribution  of  elements  through  the  clay  has 
been  sufficient  for  the  temporary  support  of  the  vine ;  but,  as  soon  as 
these  are  exhausted,  the  leaves  will  be  attacked  by  blight,  and  the  berry 
by  mildew  and  rot.  On  the  dividing  ridge  between  the  Maramec  and 
Bourleuse,  fi-om  St.  Clair  to  Knob  View,  may  be  found  choice  lands  for 
planting  ^'ines.  The  district  around  Potosi,  Missouri,  is  represented  as 
peculiarly  favorable  for  vine-growing.  The  writer  states  that  there 
are  2,000,000  acres  of  natural  vine  lands  on  the  northern  slope  of  the 
great  watershed,  dividing  the  waters  of  the  rivers  that  flow  north  to 
the  jVlissouri,  and  the  rivers  that  flow  south  to  the  Arkansas.  This 
dividing  ridge  being  known  on  the  maps  as  the  Ozark  ^fountains, 
extending  west  from  the  Iron  Mountains.  The  belt  of  the  true  vine 
lands  commences  at  about  400  feet  altitude,  and  extends  up  to  800  feet, 
as  demonstrated  by  the  gTowth  of  vnld  grapes ;  and  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  lauds  planted  in  St.  Louis  County,  and  at  Hermann,  and  other 
points  in  the  counties  of  Franklin.  Washington,  and  Jefierson,  except 
at  Massey's,  St.  Claii*,  are  below  400  feet.  From  all  information  gained 
in  the  author's  survey  of  this  region  the  lands  that  contain  all  the  ele- 
ments necessary  to  gTow  vines  permanently,  and  are  of  the  proper  alti- 
tude, are  in  the  ii-on  fields  of  Frankliu,  Crawford,  and  Dent.  Xext,  the 
lands  in  the  lead  fields  in  Washington,  St.  Francois,  St.  Genevieve,  and 
Madison  ;  the  sloping  uplands  along  the  sides  of  limestone  ridges,  where 
deep  red  clays  are  foimd,  being  the  best ;  and  the  next  in  St.  Louis, 
Jefl:erson,  Frankhn,  Perry,  and  Cape  Girardeau,  where  the  lands  have 
the  greatest  altitude,  and  the  clay  over  the  rock  is  red,  and  contains  a 


526  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

good  supply  of  the  oxide  of  iron.  The  first-named  lands,  when  prop- 
erly cultivated,  will  produce  500  gallons  of  Catawba  wine  per  acre  the 
fourth  year  from  planting,  increasing  annually. 

PEACH  CULTURE. 

W.  0.  Flagg,  in  an  essay  on  peaches,  says  that  fi'om  his  experience 
and  observation  the  variety  with  the  fewest  objections  is  the  Old  Mixon 
Freestone  ;  and  that  for  a  list  of  four  market  varieties  which  will  nearly 
cover  the  season,  and  against  which  few  objections  can  be  ui'ged,  he 
names  Troth's  Early,  large  Early  York,  Old  JNIixon  Freestone,  and  Smock 
Freestone.  He  also  states  that  in  that  latitude  peach  orchards  should 
be  i^lanted  on  the  highest  eminences  or  ridges,  both  on  account  of  the 
frosts  in  cold  weather,  and  good  ventilation  in  warm  ;  that  the  ground 
should  be  plowed  deep  for  i)eaches  and  all  other  fruits ;  and  that  tha  best 
distance  is  twenty  feet  apart,  unless  special  pruning  is  resorted  to.  In 
reference  to  pruning,  he  says  that  somethhig  like  j^yramidal  pruning  is 
best  for  the  peach  tree ;  that  in  his  warm  climate  it  is  not  necessary  to 
leave  a  hollow  head  to  admit  the  sun,  and  that  he  finds  trees  with  leaders 
standing  up  to  their  work  better,  lasting  longer  without  splitting  down, 
and  freer  from  disease  both  of  tree  and  fruit.  For  marketing  peaches, 
boxes  are  objected  to,  for  the  reason  that  the  corners  bruise  the  peaches, 
and  a  return  to  baskets  is  recommended.  A  basket  that  is  highly  ap- 
proved is  made  much  like  a  firkin,  with  three  hoops.  It  can  be  shipped 
by  railway  without  damage,  holds  one-third  of  a  bushel,  and  is  intended 
to  be  returned  two  or  three  times.  The  sides  are  tulip  tree  wood,  the 
cov^ers  and  bottoms  pine.  It  is  made  upon  a  frame,  formed  by  setting 
three  disks  of  iron  upon  a  spindle.  The  inner  and  the  outer  hoops  are  set 
in  the  top,  and  a  lath  set  in  place,  and  this  continued  all  round.  Some- 
times the  staves  are  made  with  holes  to  let  in  aii',  as  M'ell  as  by  the 
spaces  between  the  staves.  These  baskets  pack  better,  particularly 
when  the  peaches  are  large,  than  the  usual  boxes.  It  was  stated  that  a 
member  of  the  society  had  set  out  10,000  peach  trees  in  Calhoun  County, 
intending  to  can  aU  the  fruit. 

FLAX  AND  HEMP. 

S.  A.  Clemens,  in  an  article  on  flax  and  hemp,  states  that  subsequent 
to  1860  the  high  prices  paid  for  tlax-seed  induced  a  largo  increase  of 
this  crop  in  Ohio,  and  its  general  extension  in  other  western  States, 
while  the  demand  for  flax-tow  during  the  Avar  led  to  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  flax-tow  mills  in  the  West.  In  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan, 
Illinois,  Wiscouvsiu,  and  Iowa,  there  are  about  ninety,  fully  one-half 
being  in  Ohio ;  their  aggregate  capacity  is  given  as  8,000  tons  of  tow 
amiually,  but  13,500  tons  are  named  as  tha highest  figiu'es  reached  at  any 
time.  Since  the  war  the  importation  of  jute  from  India  has  driven  west- 
em  flax-tow  from  the  market,  and  this  foreign  competition  would  have 
been  fatal  to  the  western  flax-lint  business  but  for  the  sal^  of  tow  to  sup- 
ply the  small  local  factories,  and  to  afibrd  material  for  mixing  A^ith  hemp 
in  the  rope  and  bagging  factories  of  Louisville  and  St.  Louis.  The  culti- 
vation of  flax  for  seed  only,  or  mainly,  has  been  greatly  extended,  how- 
ever, now  amounting  to  not  less  than  2,500,000  bushels,  giving  02,500,000 
pounds  of  fiber  for  the  last  year,  of  which  less  than  3,000,000  ])ounds 
have  been  saved  and  prepared  for  use,  the  remamder  having  been  burned 
in  the  straw,  or  otherwise  wasted,  all  for  the  want  of  a  reliable  market, 
destroyed  by  ruinous  foreign  competition.  The  hemp  crop,  which  once 
amounted  to  30,000  tons  in  Missouri  and  Kentucky,  has  fallen  to  7,500 


STATE   REPORTS    OF   AGRICULTURE.  527 

tons,  thougli  the  crop  coiild  be  returned  to  its  former  maximum  by 
proper  eneom^agement. 

Id  ISGo  the  impoitation  of  jnte  and  of  its  mannfaotnred  products 
reached  91.540,800  pounds.  This  inchided  6,875.1*15  gimnv  bags  and 
11,GJ:1,200  pounds  of  unmanufacnired  jute.  Most  of  these  products  are 
consumed  in  the  western  States,  where  flax  and  hemp  would  be  far 
more  generally  produced,  and  their  mauufacnire  into  a  better  quality  of 
the  needed  tabrics  would  be  established,  but  for  tlie  competition  of  this 
flimsy  India  fiber,  which  is  gTown  where  less  than  ten  cents  a  day  is  paid 
for  labor.  The  opinion  is  expressed  that  tarifl'  duties  of  two  cents  per 
pound  on  any  form  of  the  unmanufacmred  fibers  of  impoited  jute,  hemp, 
and  flax,  with  three  cents  per  pound  on  jute  butts,  and  four  cents  on  the 
coarse  fabrics  of  these  fibers,  would  eftectnally  build  uji  these  western 
industries. 

Few  cultivated  plants  find  a  wider  congeniality  of  soil  and  climate 
than  flax:  and,  with  generous  culture,  it  would  flourish  from  the  Gulf  to 
the  Red  Eiver  of  the  2s  orth  on  clay  lands  and  sandy  loams,  uplands  and 
alluvial  bottoms,  timber  lands  and  prairies.  The  special  coutlitions  of 
soil  requisite  are  good  depth,  good  heart,  Avell  drained  by  nature  or  ait, 
good  tilth,  and  fi^ee  fi'om  weeds.  The  exceptions  to  this  are  lands  of 
deep  sandy  or  gravelly  subsoil,  in  which  flax  will  sufler  in  diy  seasons, 
and  in  mucky  or  new  lands,  which  hold  an  excess  of  vegetable  mold,  or 
are  deficient  in  silieious  matter,  in  which  the  flax,  from  rank  growth  and 
deficient  strength  of  stem,  -^-iU  be  liable  to  fall  and  lodge  before  matur- 
ing. Hemp  culture  requires  a  rich,  kindly  soil,  in  good  heart,  free  of 
weeds,  and  capable  of  enduring  extremes  of  wet  and  also  di-y  seasons, 
to  find  which  the  subsoil  must  be  examined  as  well  as  the  snrface,  as 
millions  of  acres  of  fertile  corn  lands  in  the  western  States  have  siu-fac€ 
soils  entirely  suited  to  hemp  cidtiu-e,  but,  from  the  retentive  nature  of 
their  clayey  subsoils,  hemp  cannot  be  successfully  cultivated  year  by 
year,  without  thorough  imder-tbaining.  Favorable  soils  are  found  in 
great  perfection  on  the  allu\ial  bottoms  of  the  ^'tlississippi  and  the  Mis- 
souri River,  and  some  of  theii"  branches.  If  the  ground  is  rich,  does  not 
hold  water  staufUng  on  the  surface  after  hea^-y  rains,  and  in  (bought 
does  not  bake  and  crack,  but  has  moist  earth  within  two  or  three  inches 
of  the  surface,  it  possesses  the  subsoil  for  hemp  culture. 

BEOOM  COEX. 

In  a  brief  chapter  on  broom  com  it  is  stated  that  of  the  foinr  or  five 
huntlred  tons  of  broom  corn  used  in  St.  Louis,  only  about  torty  tons  are 
grown  in  Missomi,  though  it  is  claimed  that  the  home  product  is  supe- 
rior to  that  brought  from  Illinois.  The  bottom  lands  of  Missomi  are 
suited  to  its  gi-owth,  and  the  writer  urges  a  larger  cultivation  of  the 
crop.  Land  that  will  produce  a  rapid  and  tall  gi-owth  of  Indian  corn 
t\t11  grow  good  broom  com.  As  a  general  thing  a  gTO^rth  of  head  of 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  is  the  most  profitable  crop  for  manufac- 
tui'ers;  yet  for  "hmi."  or  those  brooms  made  from  the  brush,  without 
using  any  of  the  stalk  under  the  ^"ire,  which  are  the  most  desirable 
brooms,  a  growth  of  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  is  necessary.  An 
average  crop  is  about  one-fourth  of  a  ton  per  acre,  worth  about  $150  per 
ton.  The  seed  is  ahnost  equal  to  oats  for  all  kinds  of  stock.  The  seeds 
average  forty  bushels  to  the  acre,  woith  $30;  total  product  of  the  acre, 
$07  50;  and  the  labor  involved  will  not  exceed  that  reqiured  for  an  acre 
of  Indian  corn.  The  demand  is,  of  course,  limited,  and  the  price  of  the 
brush  will  depend  on  supifly  and  demand. 


528  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

SHEEP  HUSBANDRY  IN  ^nSSOTTRI. 

S.  P.  Boardumii,  in  an  article  upon  this  subject,  claims  that  sheep  hus- 
bandrj^  will  be  found  more  profitable  than  in  the  eastern  States,  for  the 
reasons:  1.  The  greater  cheapness  of  Missouri  lands.  2.  Their  greater 
fertility.  3.  The  less  amount  of  labor  necessary  to  produce  an  equal 
quantity  of  winter  feed.  4.  The  greater  milduess  of  the  climate,  render- 
ing less  winter  feed  necessary.  5.  The  great  extent  of  "range''  open  to 
the  use  of  the  Missouri  wool-grower  for  pasture.  Among  the  incidental 
advantages  of  wool-gi'owing  i;^  mentioned  the  small  cost  of  getting  to 
market,  as  two  horses  will  walk  off  as  easily  with  a  thousand  dollars' 
worth  of  wool  as  with  twenty  dollars  worth  of  corn,  the  same  dift'erence 
holding  good  when  shipped  by  rail.  Sheep  are  recommended  for  "  shrub- 
bing out"  and  clearing  up  rough,  bushy  lands;  as,  by  feeding  on  them 
in  winter,  they  will  kill  alders,  hazel  bushes,  small  wild  crab-trees,  black 
berry  bushes,  «&c.  In  a  timber  pasture  they  also  cause  the  blue  gTass 
to  spread  much  faster  than  other  stock.  Prairie  grass,  too,  is  quite 
easily  killed  out  by  close  pasturing  with  sheep,  which  is  frequently 
quite  an  advantage  when  one  has  part  of  his  farm  "  lying  out,"  and 
which  he  would  like  to  break  ais  cheaply  as  possible  before  fencing  in. 

In  discussing  the  general  management  of  sheep,  the  writer  recommends 
tagging  the  whole  flock  before  turning  out  on  the  range  in  the  spring ; 
and  also  at  the  same  time  the  cutting  of  all  long  hoofs.  In  a  flock  of 
1,000  or  more  it  is  better  to  herd  the  breeding  ewes  by  themselves,  par- 
ticularly if  compelled  to  raise  lambs  on  the  range.  It  is  better,  if  jjossi- 
ble,  not  to  fold  sheep,  but  to  give  them  a  held  of  considerable  size  in 
which  to  choose  their  place  to  lie.  If  lambs  are  to  be  raised  on  the 
range,  it  will  not  do,  in  any  part  of  Missouri,  to  have  them  come  in 
until  the  worst  cold  storms  are  past,  and  there  is  a  good  bite  of  grass. 
Docking  and  castrating  should  be  done  before  the  lambs  are  four  weeks 
old.  When  herded  on  the  prairies,  early  weaning  is  preferal)le ;  say, 
wean  April  lambs  fi'om  the  10th  to  the  loth  of  August.  The  best 
method  of  washing,  the  easiest,  and  cheapest,  and  the  cleanest,  is  by 
swimming  them  three  times  across  a  running  stream,  with  an  hour's 
interval  between  the  swims.  One  swimming  soaks  the  wool,  and  the 
second  and  third  clean  out  the  tilth.  When  so  situated  as  not  to  be  able 
to  wash  by  swimming,  the  writer  prefers  to  shear  without  washing.  In 
Missouri,  sheep  should  be  washed  from  the  10th  of  May  to  the  1st  of 
June,  and  shearing  commence  in  six  to  twelve  da;>s  thereafter. 

The  American  Merino  and  the  Cotswold  are  designated,  respectively, 
as  the  best  representatives  of  tine-wooled  and  mutton  sheep.  Bucks 
ought  to  be  kept  by  themselves  the  year  romid,  except  when  ser\ing 
ewes,  which  period  should  not  exceed  five  weeks.  Lambs,  even  though 
on  good  grass,  shoidd  he  fed  much  sooner  in  the  fall  than  old  sheep ;  and 
the  latter  must  be  fed  as  soon  as  it  is  found  they  are  not  doing  well 
without  feeding.  Lambs  must  be  wintered  by  themselves ;  and,  when 
practicable,  yearlings  also. 

PRAIRffi  LANDS. 

A  writer,  speaking  in  reference  to  what  prairie  lands  can  do,  claims  that 
prairie,  broken  in  time  and  sown  in  the  fall  with  wheat,  is  sure  to  yield 
}i  crop  which  will  i)ay  for  plowing,  fencing,  and  the  cost  of  the  land  the 
first  year.  Sni)i)0se  a  farmer  pays  for  forty  acres,  8320,  call  the  fencing 
$3i:o5  labor  $200,  with  $00  niore  for  extras,  the  whole  costing  $900. 
Suppose  he  gets  twenty  bushels  of  Avheat  to  the  acre,  equal  to  eight  hun- 


STATE    REPOETS    OF    AGRICULTURE.  529 

dred  bushels,  worth,  say  81  50  per  busbel,  equal  to  $1,200,  being  $300 
more  than  cost  of  land,  feucino-,  labor,  &c.  Tbe  land  will  not  only  pay 
for  itself  the  lirst  year,  but  will  also  increase  in  cash  value  for  years  to 
come. 

THE  Pl'LOGIiESS  OF  SIISSOUKI  AND  ILLINOIS  COKTP.ASTED. 

The  same  writer  states  that,  in  1820,  Missouri  had  a  larger  population 
than  Illinois  by  10,000,  while  now  the  latter  has  double  the  number 
of  the  former.  In  1850  Missouri  had  $137,247,707  real  valuation;  Illi- 
nois $150,205,000.  In  1800  iiiinois  had  increased  her  valuation  475  per 
cent.;  Missouri  gained  only  205  ])ercent.  In  1800  Illinois  bad  13,251,473 
acres  of  imjjroved  lands,  and  Jlissouri  0,240,871 ;  tlie  cash  value  of 
farms  in  the  former  was  $432,531,072:  in  the  latter  $230,032,120;  vvdiile 
the  value  of  farming  implements  in  Jlissouri  vras  about  $10,000,000  less 
than  in  Illinois;  all  of  v/hicli  the  writer  attributes  to  the  difterence  of 
institutions,  freedon)  and  shnxny,  during  the  forty  years  included  in 
the  record,  since  Illinois  has  no  advantage  for  which  Missouri  has  not 
some  compensation.  Since  the  State  pronounced  for  freedom,  not  less 
tlian  150,000  emigrants  have  poured  in,  and  the  tide  is  increasing. 

THE  MINERALS  OF  MISSOURI. 

In  an  address  u])on  the  minerals  of  Missouri,  it  is  estimated  that  the 
coal  fields  of  the  State  extend  over  20,880  square  miles,  with  an  average 
thickness  of  five  feet  of  workable  coal,  making  an  aggregate  store  of 
over  134,000,000  of  tons.  The  iron  mines  not  only  contain  ores  in  unex- 
ampled quantities,  but  their  ores  are  even  more  remarkable  for  quality 
than  abundance;  the  resources  are  sim])ly  inexhaustible,  sufficient  to 
supply  the  whole  Union  for  generations.  There  are  now  seven  furnaces  in 
the  State,  smelting  iron  ores  with  charcoal,  and  a  beginning  has  been 
made  in  smelting  with  mineral  coal,  with  entire  success.  Lead  is  found 
in  greater  or  less  quantity  throughout  the  metalliferous  regions  of  the 
State;  and  it  is  asserted  that  in  no  part  of  the  world  is  there  so  large 
an  area  of  lead-bearing  rocks,  so  uniformly  disposed,  so  regular,  so 
readily  identified,  or  on  so  grand  a  scale.  Copper  is  also  believed  to 
exist  in  quantity,  but  as  yet  has  not  been  developed  to  any  great  extent, 
Tin,  cobalt,  nickel,  zinc,  «S;c.,  exist  in  limited  quantities. 


34 


FOREIGN  EXCHANGES. 


Tills  Departmeut  recently  entered  upon  a  system  of  excliauge  witli  for- 
eign governments,  societies,  and  individuals.  Brief  as  lias  been  tlie 
lieriod  since  this  system  was  iuaugmatcd,  it  has  been  attended  vritli  the 
most  gratifying  results.  Correspondence  has  been  had  with  the  princi- 
X)al  agricultural  societies  and  academies  of  Eiu-ope,  societies  of  natural 
history,  horticultural  societies,  public  libraries,  and  individuals  Avell 
known  for  their  attainments  in  agricultiu'al  science.  The  system  has 
thus  far  met  with  the  approval  of  all  that  practical  and  sagacious  class 
of  men  who  are  the  representatives  of  foreign  agricultural  interests,  to 
whom  it  has  been  presented. 

Already  the  increase  of  the  library  of  the  Department  by  this  means 
has  been  considerable.  Valuable  books  and  periodicals,  English,  Ger- 
man, French,  Spanish,  Italian,  Danish,  and  Swedish,  have  been  added,  in 
exchange  for  our  own  publications.  Contributions  to  the  museum  have 
also  been  received.  Many  societies  have  offered  to  exchange  vines, 
Ijlants,  and  seeds,  of  various  descrii)tions. 

It  is  the  design  of  the  Commissioner  to  extend  this  system  of  exchange 
to  embrace,  if  possible,  all  civilized  countries,  expecting  to  receive  iu 
retiu^u  for  the  agricultm-al  works  of  the  Dei)artment,  and  valuable  speci- 
mens of  American  growth  and  production,  contributions  of  interest  and 
value.  The  adv;mtages  of  such  a  system  cannot  be  overestimated,  add- 
ing, as  it  does,  to  our  own  experience  the  practical  and  theoretical 
knowledge  of  other  countiies.  It  is  within  the  scope  of  this  design  to 
exchange  specimens  of  mineralogy,  botany,  entomology,  horticulture,  &c., 
with  the  couhdeut  exjiectation  of  enricliing  and  adding  to  the  practical 
value  of  the  museum  of  the  Department. 

A  few  references  to  the  manner  in  which  the  sj'stem  of  exchange  has 
been  received  arc  ]iresented : 

In  a  communication  fi-om  the  central  directors  of  the  agronomical 
societies  of  the  gTand  duchy  of  Posen,  dated  September  14,  ISGS, 
acknowledging  the  receipt  of  books  and  seeds  from  this  Department,  for 
which  a  suitable  exchange  was  returned,  the  directors  express  earnestly 
a  desire  ''to  continue  for  the  futiu'e  and  to  enhance  the  custom  so  hajj- 
pily  commenced  of  communicating  to  each  other  the  fruits  of  labor  upon 
a  common  lield.'- 

Alexander  Buchan,  secretary  of  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society, 
in  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  reports  of  this  Department,  and  commu- 
nicating an  offer  of  a  set  of  the  ''Transactions"  of  his  society,  says,  in 
relation  to  a  system  of  exchange:  "I  aiii  much  gratified  to  see  the 
actiWty  with  v.hich  you  have  taken  up  and  work  at  this  imx)ortant  prac- 
tical ])roblem." 

James  Phiisher,  president  of  the  Meteorological  Society  at  Blackheath, 
England,  thus  writes:  "In  addition  to  the  oliicial  letter  sent,  acknowl- 
edging the  ieceii)t  of  the  l)ooks  with  which  you  liave  kindly  favored  the 
Meteorological  Society,  I  am  desirous  of  carrying  out  the  wislies  of  the 
council  of  three  by  mentioning  how  much  the  interesting  series  of  youi- 
Department  publications  is  appreciiUed.  Xot  only  are  there  many  valu- 
able pax>ers  on  general  science,  but  there  is  also  much  meteorological 


FOKEIGN   EXCHANGES.  531 

informatiou.  As  president  of  the  society,  I  beg  to  add  the  expression  ot 
my  own  satisfaction,  and  the  gTeat  interest  with  -which  I  witness  the 
intercommunication  v.iiich  you  have  kindly  suggested,  and  with  which 
the  Meteorological  Society  most  gladly  co-operate." 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  a  letter  dated  Melboiu-ne,  September 
1,  1868,  from  George  E.  Latham,  United  States  consul,  to  the  Commis- 
sioner of  AgTicultiu'C ; 

"I  may  here  remark  that  an  exchange  of  publications  with  the  Agri- 
cultural Department  of  the  United  States  "^"ill  be  appreciated  by  none 
more  highly  than  by  the  scientific  agriculturists  of  this  colony.  The 
annual  reports  of  yoiu"  Department  are  regarded  by  them  as  the  most 
valuable  agiicultural  pubhcatious  in  the  world." 

The  folloMTiig  is  an  extract  ti'om  a  letter  of  M.  Jules  Joubert,  secre- 
tarv  of  the  Agiicultural  Societv  of  Xew  South  Wales,  dated  November 
6,  1868 : 

"  One  of  the  most  useful  works  we  have  had  placed  before  us ;  and  with- 
out any  exception  tlic  most  valuable  to  our  colonists,  for  all  matters  con- 
nected with  agTiculture,  is  the  report  pubhshed  annually  by  your  office." 

Mr.  David,  dii'ector  of  the  Statistical  Bureau  of  the  kingdom  of  Den- 
mark, iu  giving  notice  to  ^.Ir.  Yeaman,  United  States  minister  resident 
at  Copenhagen,  of  the  transmission  of  reports  of  his  bureau,  onagTicul- 
tui-al  statistics,  to  this  Department,  exj^resses  very  warmly  the  "utmost 
interest"  which  he  feels  in  maliing  exchanges  of  works  upon  agTiculture, 
and  conveys  his  bearty  thanks  for  the  ofler  of  exchange. 

The  meteorological  committee  of  the  Royal  AgTicultiu-al  Society  of 
Great  Britain  has  signitied  its  appreciation  of  the  mutual  benefits  oi 
exchange  by  accejftiug  the  offer  of  this  Department ;  and  in  return  for 
some  recent  volumes  of  departmental  reports,  has  transmitted  forty-nine 
vohimes  of  great  interest  and  value,  constituting  a  series  of  its  own  re- 
ports, with  atlases.     It  has  also  sigiiified  a  desire  for  futm-e  exchanges. 

Mr.  F.  F.  Cavada,  United  States  consul  at  Trinidad  de  Cuba,  in  a 
letter  requesting  of  this  Department  seeds  of  cereals,  vegetables,  &c.,  and 
promising  others  of  choice  varieties  in  return,  on  behalf  of  American 
citizens  employed  in  agriculture  iu  Cuba,  speaks  of  the  great  and  recip- 
rocal benefits  to  be  derived  li'om  such  exchanges  between  Cuba  and  the 
United  States — benefits  of  which  this  country  will  naturally  reap  the 
sujjerior  share. 

William  S.  Mechling,  of  Belize,  Eiitish  Honduras,  joins  iu  the  imiform 
recommendation  of  a  system  of  exchange.  As  between  this  country 
and  British  Honduras,  he  expresses  the  opinion  "that  such  an  arrange- 
ment would  be  highly  beneficial  to  both  countries;"  and  touching  the 
productions  of  Honduras,  writes:  "I  am  satisfied  that  I  could  send 
many  rare  and  valuable  seeds." 

Dr.  Jos.  D.  Hooker,  duector  of  the  Eoyal  Gardens  at  Kew,  England, 
in  semling  seeds  of  trees  gathered  from  the  Himalayas,  and  acknowl- 
edging the  receipt  of  seeds  of  shrubs  and  trees  from  this  countiy, 
also  speaks  warmly  of  the  benefits  of  exchange.  He  promises  a 
large  collection  of  seeds  of  European  and  Asiatic  shrubs  and  trees, 
and  of  such  seeds  native  here  he  says:  '-You  caimot  go  wrong  in  send- 
ing them." 

Eugene  Schuyler,  United  States  consul  at  Moscow,  Eussia,  writes  as 
foUows : 

'•  I  inclose  you  a  specimen  of  hemp,  prepared  by  a  new  process,  by 
Mr.  Michael  Puzauof,  in  the  government  of  Kui'sk.  I  have  not  yet  been 
able  to  learn  the  details  of  the  process,  but  will  send  them  to  you  as 
soon  as  I  can  prociu"e  them  from  Mr.  Puzanof. 


532  AGRICULTUEAL   REPORT. 

"Some  parts  of  Smolensk  and  other  western  governments  are  very 
s-^ampy.  and  tlie  Priuce  Mesteliersky  lias  tliouglit  it  would  be  well  to 
try  to  introduc6  there  Zizania  aquatica.  or  Ludian  rice,  which  is  said  to 
be  largely  eaten  by  the  Northwestern  Indians.  He  has  requested  me  to 
procure  him  some  of  the  seed.  Is  it  in  yoiu'  x)Ower  to  inclose  me  a  pack- 
age of  this  seed  for  the  prince?  I  shall  be  very  happy  to  obhge  him, 
and  am  much  iudebted  to  you. 

"It  may  interest  you  to  knovr  that  there  appeared  in  the  February 
number  of  the  Eussian  ]\Iessciiger,  the  chief  monthly  journal  here,  a  loug 
and  very  flattering  article  on  the  Agrrcultural  Department  over  which 
you  preside." 

Transmitting  seeds  from  Asia  Minor,  E.  J.  Smithers,  United  States 
consid  at  Smyrna,  writes  to  the  Department  as  follows,  under  date  of 
April  10,  ISGi): 

"I  have  the  honor  to  inform  you  that  I  have  transmitted  to  your  De- 
partment, through  the  United  States  dispatch  agent  at  London,  a  small 
box  containing  three  kinds  of  seed  of  tlie  most  delicious  melons  grown 
in  Asia  Elinor.  These  seeds  were  kindly  procured  by  his  excellency 
Ismail  Pasha,  governor  general  of  this  vilayet,  and  forwarded  to  tlds 
consulate  for  transmission  to  your  Department. 

"I  may  remark  in  regard  to  these  A'arieties  of  melons,  that  when  kept 
in  a  dry  place  they  will  remain  perfect  till  mid-winter.  Especially  is 
this  the  case  in  regard  to'  the  Magnesia  and  Kir  Kagatch  varieties.  As 
the  climate  of  Asia  Minor  is  a  ery  dry  after  the  middle  of  April  or  the 
first  of  May,  imtil  the  latter  part  of  September,  I  would  recommend 
California  as  the  most  suitable  section  of  our  country  for  the  successful 
cidtivatiou  of  these  melons.*' 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  Ismail  Pacha's  letter  to  31r.  Smithers,  trans- 
mitting the  seeds  referred  to  in  the  preceding  extract: 

"Vilayet  of  AiDm,  Smynm,  April  A,  1S69. 

"  SiE :  It  has  been  to  me  an  agreeable  duty  to  be  able  to  realize  your 
desire  concerning  melon  seeds.  I  have  iiroeui'ed  three  kinds,  which 
you  will  receive  ^ith  this  letter. 

"I  will  be  happy  if  the  committee  of  agricidture  of  the  United  States 
succeeds  in  the  ciiltivation  of  our  delicious  melons  in  the  Xew  World, 
and  I  will  feel  flattered  every  time  the  eminent  members  of  this  com- 
mittee require  my  feeble  help,  which  will  always  be  accorded  to  them  so 
far  as  I  am  able.'  On  their  side,  if  they  would  sometimes  send  us  seed 
capable  of  being  acclimatized  in  these  line  regions  of  Asia  ]Minor,  I  would 
feel  gratefid. 

"Please  to  accept,  sir,  the  assurance  of  mv  high  consideration. 

"ISMAn.. 

"E.  J.  Smithers,  Esq.,  United  States  Consul.^ 

Auguste  Dupuis  writes  from  Village  des  Aulnaies,  L'Islet  County, 
province  of  Quebec,  as  follows : 

"  You  have  been  kind  enough  to  send  me  the  report  for  18C7.  This 
valuable  report  to  the  agriculturists  of  the  United  States  would  be 
profitable  to  farmers  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  farmers  of  your 
beautifid  country  ought  to  be  proud  of  being  represented  by  men  who 
are  elevating  agricultiu'e  to  its  proper  position. 

"  They  receive  in  this  report  lessons  numcroTis  and  profitable.  They 
can  make  comparisons  between  the  methotls  pui-sued  in  States  adjoiiuug 
their  own. 

"  You  deserve  nuich  from  your  countrymen  for  this  great  work.'' 


FOREIGN   EXCHANGES.  boo 

Jose  ^lartiuez  de  Hor,  president  of  the  Eural  Society  of  the  Argen- 
tiue  Eepublic,  South  America,  writes  as  follows: 

"•  It  affords  me  pleasure  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  esteemed 
favor  of  the  2ath  September,  1808,  and  to  return  you  iufinite  thanks  for 
the  books  which  you  have  sent  to  this  society.  This  courtesy  has  been 
highly  apju'eciated,  and  in  retiu-n  you  will  receive,  through  Dr.  C.  H. 
Trumbull,  the  second  volume  of  the  annals  of  the  society.  We  will 
send  each  year  the  volume  containing  the  pubHcations  of  the  society, 
and  hope  to  merit  in  return  i^ubhshed  works  and  reports  of  your 
Department,  because  of  their  interest  to  a  body  like  oiu's,  which  has  for 
its  object  the  illustration  and  stimidation  of  the  rural  prosperity  of  the 
country. 

"With  great  satisfaction  we  accept  yotu'  offer  to  send  certain  seeds, 
&c.,  for  trial  in  our  soil,  and  are  happy  to  respond  to  your  in'S'itation  to 
send  samples  of  the  products  of  this  country,  and  have  ah'eady  taken 
measures  to  send  you  a  shipment  in  May,  187U. 

'•  Preparations  are  being  made  for  an  Argentine  exposition  at  Cor- 
dova, about  the  ITtli  of  April,  1870.  We  shall  improve  that  occasion  to 
prepare  a  collection  of  all  seeds  considered  useful  or  desirable  for  trial 
in  the  United  States,  and  shall  notify  you  promptly  of  shipment,  and  at 
the  same  time  forward  instiiictions  in  reference  to  their  cultivation.  We 
have  asstu'ances  that  a  number  of  intelligent  agricultuiists  are  preparing, 
as  well  to  exhibit  their  products  at  the  exposition,  as  to  send  selected 
samples  to  your  Department. 

"  Understanding  the  imjiortauce  to  this  country  of  a  reciprocal 
exchange  of  agricultiu'al  proditctious  with  your  Dejiartment,  and  appre- 
ciating fully  the  honorable  intention  of  your  propositions,  the  Eural 
Society  of  the  Argentine  Eepublic  acknowledges  yoiu*  cotirtesy,  and 
salutes  you  with  an  expression  of  its  most  distinguished  consideration." 

Exchanges  of  seeds,  plants,  and  native  productions  have  been  pro- 
posed and  agreed  upon  Ijetween  this  Department  and  the  following  for- 
eign governments,  societies,  and  individuals : 

Austria. — The  Imperial  Agricultural  Societs*. 

Australia. — Botanical  gardens,  Melboiu^ue. 

Argentine  Ecjjublic. — Agricultural  Society  of  the  Aigentine  EepubKc. 

Brazil — Dr.  Joseph  Cooper  Eeinhart.  Campinas. 

British  Honduras. — W.  S.  Mechbug,  Esq.,  Belize. 

Bavaria. — Eoyal  gardens  of  Bavaria. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope. — Cape  of  Good  Hope  AgTicultural  Society. 

China. — The  Chinese  government. 

Benmarh. — The  Statistical  Bureau  of  Denmark. 

England. — India  jJuseum,  London  5  Kew  gardens,  do.;  Eoyal  ^leteoro- 
logical  Society,  do. 

France. — Jardin  des  Plantes,  Paris. 

Guatemala. — The  government  of  Guatemala. 

Japan. — The  Japanese  government. 

Poland. — Polish  Agriciiltiual  Society,  Poseu. 

Porto  Pico. — George  Latimer,  Esq.,  St.  John's. 

iScotlaiid. — Scottish  Meteorological  Society, Edinburgh. 

^pain. — Eoyal  gardens  of  Madrid. 

The  foreign  societies  to  which  reports  of  this  Department  have  been 
forwarded,  with  reference  to  exchange  of  ptiblications,  are  as  follows : 

APKICA. 

Ca])e  Town. — Agricultural  Society. 

Mauritius. — Societe  d'Histoire  XatiQ'cUe  de  Tile  Matuice. 


534  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


AMEEICA,  EXCLUSIVE  OF  BRITISH  AMERICA. 

Bogota,  Xcic  &raiiada. — Sociedad  deNaturalistas  Xeo-Grauadiuos. 

Georgetoicn,  British  Guiaria. — Eoyal  Agiiciiitural  and  Commercial 
Society. 

Havayia,  Cuba. — Real  Sociedad  Economica  de  la  Habaua. 

Mexico.  Mexico. — Escnela  de  Agricultiira  -,  Sociedad  Mexicaua  de  Geo- 
grafia  y  Estadistica. 

Rio  Janeiro^  Brazil. — Sociedad  Aaxiliadora  de  ludustria  Nacioual. 

ASIA. 

Bataviu. — ^Natiiurkundige  Yereeuiging"  in  Xederlaudscli  Indie. 
Calcutta. — Agricultm"al  and  Horticultural  Society  of  India. 
Manilla. — Eoyal  Economical  Society  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

AUSTRALIA. 

Melbourne. — Acclimatization  Society;  Botanic  garden. 
Sydney. — Austi^alian  Horticultural  and  Agricultural  Society ;  Entomo- 
logical Society  of  Xevr  South  Wales. 

BELGnm. 

Brussels. — Societe  Centi-ale  d' Agriculture  de  Belgique ;  Societe  Ento- 
mologique  de  Belgique  ;  Societe  de  Flora  ;  Societe  Palteontologique  de 
Belgique ;  Societe  lioyale  de  Botanique  de  Belgique ;  Societe  Eoyale 
protectiice  des  Animaus. 

Ghent. — Societt^  Eoyale  d'Agiiculture  et  de  Botanique. 

Kamur. — Society  Agricole  et  Forestiere  de  la  Province  de  ]Samur. 

DENMARK. 

Copenhagen. — Botaniske  Forening;  Bureau  Eoyal  de  la  Statistique; 
Danske  Landmands-Forsamling,  (Association of  Danish  Agriculturists;) 
Kongelige  Bibliothek,  (Eoyal  Library:)  Kongelige  Danske  Viden- 
skabernes-Selskab,  (Eoyal  Danish  Society  of  Science:)  Kongelige  Land- 
huusholdniugs-Selskab,  (Eoyal  Society  of  Eural  Economy;)  Naturhisto- 
riske  Forening ;  Xaturhistorisk  Tidsskrift ;  Tidskrift  for  Yeterimer,  (Yet- 
erinary  Journal :)  Yeterin^r-Selskab,  (Yeterinary  Society.) 

FRANCE. 

Association  Scientifique  de  France. 

Ahbcrille. — Soci^^t6  Linneenne  du  Xord  de  France. 

Aix. — x\cademie  des  Sciences,  d'Agi-iculture,  Arts  et  Belles-Lettres. 

Angers. — Societe  d"Agriculture,  Sciences  et  Arts ;  Society  Linneenne 
du  Departcmcnt  de  ]Maine-et-Loire. 

Angonlcme. — Societe  d'Agricidture,  Sciences,  Arts  et  du  Commerce  du 
D(?p.*dela  Charente. 

Bayeux. — Societe  d' Agriculture,  Science,  Arts  et  Belles-Lettres. 

Bordeaux. — Soci^t6  d'Horticulture  de  la  Gironde ;  Soci^t^  Linneenne 
de  Bordeaux, 

Caen. — Societe  d'Agricidture  et  de  Commerce  de  Caen;  Soci^t^  des 
Antiquaires  de  Normandie. 


FOREIGN   EXCHANGES.  535 

Chalons-sur-Mafnc.—^oci6t6  cVAgricidtrje,  Commerce  et  Sciences  de 
la  Mariie. 

Cherbourg. — Societe  Academique  de  Cherbourg. 

Bijon. — Societe  d'Agriculture  et  d'lndustrie  Agiicole  du  Departemeat 
de  la  Cote  d'Or. 

Bonai. — Association  Ydterinaire  des  Dcpartements  dii  I^sord  ct  du  Pas- 
de-Calais  ;  Societe  Imperiale  d'Agriculture,  Sciences  et  Arts  de  Douai. 

i;r>-e2<.r.— Societe  Libre  d'AgTiculture,  Sciences,  Arts  et  Belles-Lettres 
de  I'Eure. 

Le  iliaws.— Societe  d'Agriculture,  Science  et  Arts  de  la  Sartbe. 

Xj7?e.— Societe  Imperiale  des  Sciences,  de  I'AgTiculture  et  des  Arts. 

Lyons.— Societe  Imperiale  de  PAgiiculture,  Histoire  i^atiuellc  et  Arts 
Utiles  de  Lyon. 

il/«con.— Academic  de  Macon :  Societe  des  Arts,  Belles-Lettres  etd'Agri- 

CUltlU'C.  , 

lfe?jr7e.— Soci^t^  d'Agriculture,  Industrie,  Science  et  Arts  du  D^parte- 
meut  de  la  Lozei^. 

Metz. — Academic  Imperiale  de  Metz. 

i{/o/i//;e//ier.— Societe  Ceutrale  d'Agi'iculture  du  Departcmcnt  de  la 
Herault ;  Societe  G^n^rale  d'Encouragement  ii  la  Sericultui'e ;  Le  Mes- 
sager  AgTicole. 

MoitUns. — Soci(^te  d'Horticulture  de  I'Allier. 

P«ris.— Gustave  Bossange  et  Co.;  American  Libraiy ;  Bibliotbeque 
Imperiale ;  Ministere  du  Commerce  et  Agilculture  ;  Ministere  de  TEti-an- 
ger  (Dep.  de  Statistique;)  Society  Botanique  de  France;  Societe  Ento- 
mologique;  Societ6  Imperiale  et  Centrale  d'Agxiculture  de  France; 
Society  Imperiale  H  Centrale  d'Horticiiltiu-e  de  Paris;  Soci«§te  Imperiale 
et  Centrale  de  Medecine  Vet^rinaire;  Soci6t6  Imperiale  Zoologique 
d'Acclimatation. 

Pi(7/.— Societe  d'AgTiculture,  Sciences,  Arts  et  Commerce. 

Saint  ^j{e;if»2.— Societe  Acad<5mique  des  Sciences,  Arts,  Belles-Lettres 
et  d'Agi-icidture. 

Strasbourg. — Societe  des  Sciences,  Agriculture  et  Arts  du  Bas-Ebin. 

To  Mrs.— Societe  d'AgriculUu-e,  des  Sciences,  des  Arts  et  des  Belles- 
Lettres, 

Valenciennes. — Soci6t6  d'Agriculture,  Sciences  et  Arts. 

GEE3IA^'Y,   INCLUDING  AUSTRIA  AND   PRUSSIA. 

Yerein  der  Siiddeutscben  Forstwirtbe;  Yersammlung  Deutscber 
Land-und  Forstwirtbe;  Yersammlung  Deutscber  Naturtbrscber  und 
Aerzte. 

Agram,'  Austria.— K.  K.  Kroatiscb-Slavoniscbe  Landwirtbscbafts- 
Gesellscbaft. 

Altenbvrg,  <Srt.re-J.rfe??Z>JOY/.— Xaturforscbende  Gesellscbaft  des  Oster- 
lau  des  Pomologiscbe  Gese  llscbaft. 

AroJscn^  TTaWec/v.— LandwirtbscbaftUcber  Yerein  ini  Fiirstentbiim 
Waldeck. 

Augsburg,  Ba ?•«>-/«.— Latidwirtbscb.  Yerein  Ton  Scbwaben  und  Neu- 
burg-  Naturbistoriscber  Yerein;  Redaction  der  Wocbenscbrift  fiir 
Tliierbeilkunde  und  Yiebzucbt. 

Bamberg,  Bavaria. — Xatiirtbrscbende  Gesellscbaft. 

Berlin. — Acclimatisations- Yerein  fi,\r  die  Preuss.  Staaten;  Botan- 
iscber  Yerein  tiir  die  ProAiuz  Brandenburg,  etc. ;  Deutscbe  Geologiscber 
Gesellscbaft;  Entomologiscber  Yerein;  Gesellscbaft  liir  Erdkimde; 
Gesellscbaft  Xaturforscbender  Freunde;    Kbnigiicbe  Bibliotbek;  Ko- 


536  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

nigliclies  Laudes-OeconoDiie-Collegium ;  Kouiglicli  Miuisterium  fiir 
Landwirtliscliaftl.  Angelegeiilieiteu ;  Meteorologisclies  Instit;  Eedac- 
tion  des  Archivs  fiir  Path.  Anatomie ;  Redaction  der  Landwirtlischaft- 
licbe  Zeitimg  fur  ISTord-  imd  Mitteldeutscliland ;  Redaction  des  Laud- 
wirthscliaftliclies  Centralblatt  fiir  Deutschl and ;  Redaction  des  Statis- 
tisclien  Central- Arcliivs,  (Dr.  O.  Hlibner,)  Statistisclies  Biu-eau ;  Verein 
fiir  deutsclie  Statistik ;  Verein  zur  Beforderuug  des  Gartenbaues  5  Yerein 
zur  Beforderiing  des  Gewerbefleisses  in  Preussen. 

Blanl'C7ihurg,  Brunsiciclc. — Naturwissenscliaftliclier  Yerein  des  Harzes. 

Bonn. — Landwii'thscliaftliclier  Central- Yerein  fiir  Rlieinpreussen ; 
Natiirhistorischer  Y^erein  der  preussischen  Rheinlande  und  Westphalens ; 
Niederrheinisclie  Gesellscliaft  fiir  Natur-  u.  Heilkimde ;  Redaction  des 
Wiegmanns'chen  Arcliivs  fiir  JSTaturgeschiclite. 

Brunsioick.,  BrunsicicJc. — Garten- Yerein  imHerzogtlium.  Braunscliweig. 

Br  cm  en. — Natnrwissenscliaf tliclier  Yerein . 

Breslati,  PrMss-m.^Landwirthscliaftliclier  Central- Yerein  fiir  Sclilesien : 
Sclilesische  Gesellscliaft  fiir  vaterliindische  Cultnr ;  Sclilesisclier  Yerein 
fiir  Berg-  imd  Hiittenkunde ;  Yerein  fiir  scUesiscbe  Insektenkunde. 

Bregenz,  Austria. — Natnrforscliender  Yerein. 

Bromberg^  Prussia. — Landwirthschaftlicher  Central- Yerein  fiir  den 
Ketze-District. 

Briinn,  Austria.— K.  K.  Miihriscli-sclilesisclie  Gesellscliaft  fur  Acker 
ban,  Natui'-  nnd  Landeskunde ;  Naturforscliender  Y'erein. 

Chemnitz,  8axo7iy. — Redaction  der  Deutsclien  Industrie  Zeitung. 

Celle,  Hanover. — Landwirtlischaftliclie  Gesellscliaft. 

Clempenow  hei  Anclam,  JPrussia. — Baltisclier  Yerein  zur  BefiJrdening 
der  Landwirtliscliaft. 

Czernoicitz,  Austria. — Yerein  fiir  Landeskultur  nnd  Landeskunde  im 
Herzogthumo  Bukowina. 

JDantzic,  Prussia. — Laudwirtliscliaftliclicr  Central-Yercin ;  llfaturfor- 
scliende  Gesellscliaft. 

JDarmstadt,  Hesse. — Gartenbau- Yerein ;  Grossberzogiicli  Hessiscbe 
Central-Stelle  fiir  die  Laudes-Statistik;  Grosslierzogliclie'^Hof-Bibliotliek ; 
Mittelrlieiniscli-Geologiscber  Yerein. 

Beidesheim,  Bavaria. — Poliiciiia :  ITaturwissenscLiaftlicIier  Yerein  der 
bayerischen  Pfalz. 

Bresdcn,  fSaxony. — Seine  Majestat  der  Konig  von  Saclisen;  Flora: 
Gesellschaft  fiir  Botanik  und  Gartenbau ;  Gesellscliaft  fiir  Botanik  und 
Zoologiej  Konigliclio  Bibliotkek ;  Statistisclies  Bureau  5  Yerein  fiir  Erd- 
kunde. 

Bldena,  Prussia. — Gartenbau- Yerein  fiir  Neu-vorpommcrn  und  Riigen ; 
K.  P.  Staats-  und  Landwirtbscliaftl.  Alcademie. 
'    Bmden,  Hanover. — Naturforscliendo  Gesellscliaft. 

Erfurt.,  Prussia. — Akadeniie  Gemeinniitiiiger  Wissenscliaften ;  Gar- 
tenbau-Yerein. 

Franlcfort  on  the  Oder,  Pn^ssia.— Historiscli-Statistisclier  Yerein. 

Franlfort  on  the  Main,  Prussia. — Gartenbaugesellscliaft  "Flora;" 
Senckenbergisclie  naturforscbende  Gesellscbaft. 

Freiberg,  JSaxony. — Koniglicb  Siicbsiscbo  Bergakademie. 

Gorlitz,  Pr?«s,sifl.— Natnrliorscbende  Gesellscbaft. 

Gottingen,  Hanover. — Koiiigliche  Gesellscbaft  der  TVissenscbaften. 

Gotha,  ISaxe-Coburg. — Tliiiriuger  Gartenbau- Yerein. 

Griitz,  Austria. — K.  K.  Steienuiiakiscbe  Landwirtbscbafts-Gesellscbaft; 
Steiermiirkiscbe  Landes-Ober-Rciilscbule.. 

Gumbinnen,  Prussia. — Landwbrtbscbattlicbtu^  Central- Yerein  fiir  Lit 
tauen  und  Masmen. 


FOREIGN   EXCHANGES.  537 

Halle,  Fnissla. — Xatiuforsclieude  Gesellscliaft. 

Hamburg,  Hanse-Toicn. — Stadt-Bibliotliek ;  Tliierscliutz-Yerein. 

Hanover,  Hanover. — Konigliclie  Bibliothek ;  Statistisclies  Bureau. 

Heidelberg,  Baden. — Landwirthselialtlicher  Bezirks-Yereiii. 

Hermannstadf,  Austria. — Yerein  fiir  Siebenbiirgisclie  Laudesknnde. 

Holienlicim,  Wilrtemberg. — KGniglick  Wiirtembergische  Land-  imd 
Forstsvirtliscliaftlicke  Akademie. 

Innsbruel;  Austria. — K.  K.  Laud-wirtliscIiafts-Gesellscliaft  flir  Tirol 
imd  Yorarlberg. 

Jena,  Saxe-Weimar. — Landwirtliscliaftlickes  lustitiit;  Eedaction  der 
ZeitvSckrilt  liir  deiitsche  Landwirtlic ;  Statistisclies  Bureau  der  Yereiuig- 
ten  TMiiiiigisclien  Staateu. 

Karlsruhe,  Baden. — Centralstelle  fiir  die  Landwirtliscbai't ;  Grosslierz. 
Badisches  Statistiscbes  Bureau  des  Haudeis-^Iimsterium ;  Grossberzog- 
bcbe  Hoi'bibliotbek. 

Kassel,  Hesse. — K.  Coimuissiou  fiir  landwirtbscbaftlicbe  Angelegeu- 
beiten  in  Kurbesseu ;  Yerein  fiir  Hessiscbe  Landeiskunde.  . 

Kiel,  Holstein. — Landwiilbscbaftlicber  Generalverein  des  Herzog- 
tbums  Holstein. 

Klagenfurt,  Austria. — K.  K.  Landwirtbsebafts-Gesellscbaft. 

Koblentz,  Prussia. — Xaturbistoriscbcr  Yerein. 

Kbln,  Prussia. — LandwirtbscbaftUcber  Yerein. 

Kijnigsberg,  Prussia. — Centralstelle  der  Land-vrirtbscbaftlicber  Yereine 
des  Eegicrungs-Bezu'ks  Konigsberg. 

Laibach,  Austria. — K.  K.  Landwirtbscbafts-Gesellscbaft.  . 

Leipsig,  Saxony. — Dr.  Felix  Fliigel,  (agent  Smithsonian  Institution;) 
Botaniscbe  Zeitung ;  Jabrbiicber  liir  ^visseuscbaftliebe  Botanik ;  ifatur- 
tbrscbende  Gesellscbaft ;  Redaction  der  Zeitscbrift  fiir  deutscbc  Land- 
wirtbe ;  Yerein  von  Fremiden  der  Erdkunde. 

Liegnitz,  Prussia. — Land^nrtbscbaftlicber  Yereiu. 

Linz,  Austria. — K.  K,  LandTvirtbscbafts-Gesellscbaft. 

3IcntZj  Hesse. — Ebeiuiscbe  iN'atuiforscbende  Gesellscbaft. 

Mariemccrder,  Prussia. — Yerein  Westpreussiscber  Landwirtne. 

Jleiningen,  Saxe-Meiningcn. — Yerein  fiir  Pomologie  und  Gartenbau. 

Meisseii,  Saxony. — i!>^atur\vissensebaftbcbe  Gesellscbaft  '-Isis." 

Mengeringhausen,  Waldeck. — Landwirtbscbaftlicber  Yerein  im  Fiirsten- 
tbume  Waldeck. 

Merseburg,  Prussia. — Landwiiiiiscbaftlicber  Central- Yerein  fiir  die 
Provinz  Sacbsen. 

Miinclien. — Baieriscbe  Gartenbau-Gesellscbaft ;  Konigl.  Botaniscber 
Garten  ,•  Konigl.  Statistiscbes  Bureau ;  Landvrirtbscbaftlicber  Yerein ; 
Yerein  fiir  Naturkunde. 

Miinster,  Prussia. — Landwirtbscbaftlicber  Provinzial -Yerein  fiir  West- 
pbalen  und  Lippe. 

Keutitschcin,  Austria. — Land'^irtb^cbaftlicber  Yerein. 

Passati,  Bavaria. — Praktiscbe  Gartenbau-Gesellscbaft  in  Baiem. 

Pesth. — Geologiscbe  Gesellscbaft  flir  Ungam. — Kiralyi  Magyar  Ter- 
meszettudomanyi  Tiirsulat. 

Potsdain,  Prussia. — Laudwirtbscbaftlicber  Pro"\inzial- Yerein. 

Prague,  Austria  — K.  K.  Patriotiscb-okonouiiscbe  Gesellscbaft. 

Begensburg,  Bavaria. — K.  Baieriscbe  botaniscbe  Gesellscbaft. 

Bostocl;  Mecklenburg. — Mecklenburgiscber  Patiiotiscber  Yerein. 

Salzburg,  Anstria. — K.  K.  Landwirtbscbafts-Gesellscbaft. 

Sch icerin,  2Iecldenburg-ScJi icerin. — Grossberzoglicbe  Landes-Yermes- 
sungs-Commissiou  ;  Grossberzoglicbes  Statistiscbes  Bureau. 

Sigmaringen,  Prussia. — Landwiitbscbaftlicbe  Centralstelle  des  Yereins 


538  AGEICULTURAL   EEPORT. 

zur  Beforderung  der  Land\nrthscliaft  nnd  der  Gewerbe  fiii'  die  Holien- 
zollemscheu  Lande. 

Sondershansen,  Sclncarzhurg-Sondcrshmisen. — Yerein  zur  Befiirdemng 
der  Laudwiithscliaft. 

Stettin,  Prussia. — Entomologisclier  Yerein. 

Stuttgart,  in/r/ewiter/;.— Garteubau-Gesellscbaft  "Flora;"  Gesell- 
scliaft  tiii-  die  Weiuverbesserimg  ui  Wiii-teinberg ;  K.  Central stelle  fiir 
Gewerbe  und  Handel ;  K.  Ceutralstelle  liir  die  Laudwirtbscbaft ;  K. 
Oeiieutlicbe  Bibliotbek ;  K.  Statistiscb-topograpbiscbes  Bureau :  Kedac- 
tion  des  "Tbiergarten,''  (Dr.  B.  F.  Weinland.) 

Tharand,  Saxony.— Koniglich  Siicbs.  Akaderaie  fiir  Forst  und  Land- 
"wirtbe. 

Trieste,  Austria. — Gartenban-Geseilscbaft  des  Litorale. 

Tubingen,  WUrtenibcrg. — Landwirtbscbaftbcber  Yerein. 

Vienna,  Austria. — Comit(5  der  Allgemeinen  Yersammlung  von  Berg 
und  Hiitteumiinneni ;  Entomologiscber  Yerein:  K.  K.  Central- Au- 
stalt  liii"  Meteorologie  und  Erd-]\Iaguetism  ;  K.  K.  Dire<ition  des  Ad- 
ministrativen  Statistik;  K.  K.  Gartenbau-Gesellscbaft;  K.  K.  Geologi- 
scbe  Reifbsanstalt ;  K.  K.  Landwirtbscbafts-Gesellscbaft ;  K.  K.  Statis- 
tiscbe-Central-Commission. 

Weimar  Saxe-  Weimar. — Yerein  ixii  Blnmistik  und  Gartenbau. 

Wiesbaden,  Nassau. — Yerein  fiir  Isaturkunde;  Yerein  Nassauiscber 
Land-  und  Forstwirtbe. 

Wilrzburg,  Bavaria. — Pbysikaliscb-Medicinisebe  Gesellsebaft. 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

Bath. — Batb  and  West  of  England  Agricultiu'al  Society. 

Belfast. — Cheniico-xVgricultural  Society  of  Ulster. 

Cork. — Cu^ierian  Society. 

Cirencester. — Royal  AgTicuitural  College. 

Dublin. — Cbemical  Society  of  Dubliu :  Natural  History  Society  of 
Dublin ;  Eoyal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland. 

Edinburgh. — i3otanical  Society;  Caledonian  Horticultural 'Society ; 
Higbland  aiul  Agiicultural  Society  of  Scotland. 

Keighley. — Keigbley  Agricultural  Society. 

Keic. — Library  of  Kew  Garden. 

London. — William  Wesley,  (agent  Smitbsonian  Institution ;)  Acclim- 
atization Society ;  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  History ;  Britisb 
Association  for  tbe  Advancement  of  Science ;  Cbemical  Society  of  Lon- 
don ;  Entomological  Society ;  Geological  Society  of  Londou ;  Linuican 
Society ;  iMuseum  of  Practical  Geology ;  lloyal  xVgricultural  Society  of 
England ;  lloyal  Botanic  Society ;  Royal  College  of  Yeteriuary  Sur- 
geons; Royal  Geograpbical  Society  of  London;  Royal  Horticidtiu-al 
Society  of  London. 

York. — Yorksbire  AgHCultural  Society. 

GREECE. 

Athens. — Observatory. 

HOLLAND. 

Amsterdam. — Kouinklijkc  Akademie  van  Y'etenscliappon,  (Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences;)  Koniuklijk  Zoologiseb  Genootscbap  "Natura 
Aitis  ?tlagistra,"  (Royal  Zoological  Society;)  Stadsbibbotbeek,  (City 
Library;)  Yereeniging  voor  Statistiek  in  Nederlaud,  (Statistical  Asso- 
ciation of  tbo  Netberlauds.) 


FOREIGN  EXCHANGES.  539 

Arnlicm. — Yreincl  van  den  Landman. 

The  Hague. — Bureau  de  la  Statisticxue ;  Koninklijke  Bibliotlieek, 
(Koyal  Library.) 

Groninrjen. — Genootscliap  ter  Berordering  der  Natnnrkimdig  Weten- 
scbappen,  (Society  for  the  Advancement  of  ISTatural  Sciences.) 

Harlem. — HoUandsche  Maatscliappij  der  Wetenscliappen,  (Society  of 
Sciences  of  Holland.) 

Ley  den. — Nederlaudsche  Entomologisclie  Yereeniging,  (Entomological 
Society  of  the  Xetherlauds :)  Eijk-s  Museum  van  Natuurlijke  Geschie- 
denis,  (National  Museum  of  iSTatural  History;)  Yereeniging  voor  de  Flora 
van  Nederland  ;  University  Library. 

Rotterdam. — Bataafscb  Genootscliap  der  Proefondervindejijke  Wils- 
begeerte,  (Bataviau  Society  of  Experimental  Philosophy.) 

Utrecht. — Koninklijk  Xederlandsch  Meteorologisch  Instituut. 

ZicoUe. — Overysselsche  Yereeniging  tot  Outwikkeling  van  Provinciale 
Welvaart,  (Overyssel  Society  for  Promotion  of  Provincial  Welfare;) 
Yriend  van  den  Landman. 

ITAX.Y. 

Bologna. — Societa  AgTaria  deUa  Provincia  di  Bologna. 

Florence. — Academia  Economico-agraria  dei  Georgofili. 

Milan. — Associazione  Agricola  Lombarda  di  Corte  del  Palasio;  Eeale 
Instituto  Yeterinario. 

Naples. — P.  Orto  Botanico  di  NapoU. 

Palermo. — E.  Istituto  d'lncorragiamento  di  Agricoltura,  Arti  e  Mani- 
fatture  in  Sicilia ;  Societa  di  Acclimazione  e  di  Agricoltura  in  Sicilia. 

Pesaro. — Accademia  Agi-aria  di  Pesaro. 

Turin. — ^Accademia  Eeale  di  Agiicoltura;  Bureau  Eoyale  Statistique  j 
Ministero  di  Agiicoltura,  Industria  e  Commercio. 

Udine. — Associazone  Agraria  Friolana. 

Terona. — Accademia  de'AgTicoltura,  Commercio  ed  Arti  di  Yerona. 

NORWAY. 

Christiania. — Physiographiske  Forening. 

Drontheim. — Kongelige  Norske  Yidenskabernes-Selskab,  (Eoyal  K'orth- 
ern  Society  of  Science.) 

POLYNESIA. 

Honolulu,  SandicicJi  Islaiids. — Eoyal  Ha-^aiian  Agricultural  Society. 

POETUGAX.. 

Lisbon. — Academia  Eeal  das  Sciencias. 

RUSSIA. 

Dorpat. — Dorj^ater  Katurforscher-Gesellschaft. 

Helsingfors. — Magnetisches  und  Meteorologisches  Observatorium ; 
Societas  Scieutiarum  Fennica. 

Moscoic. — Imper.  Obshtshestvo  Selskago  EZhozaistva,  (Imperial  Ag- 
ricidtural  Society;)  Societe  Luiieriale  des  Xaturalistcs  de  Moscou. 

Odessa. — Glavnoe  Outchilitche  Sadovodstva,  (Central  Horticultural 
School ;)  Obshtshestvo  Seljskago  Khozjaistva  Joujnoi  Eossii,  (Society 
of  Eiual  Ecouomy  of  Southern  Eussia.) 

J?i</fl.— Gesellschaft  Praktischer  Ai'zte;  Naturforschender  Yerein; 
Technischer  Yerein. 


540  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

St.  Fetersburg. — Entomologisclie  GesellscLaft ;  Kais.  Euss.  Minera- 
logisclie  Gesellscliaft;  Statistitslieskii  Tsenti\aluii  Komitet,  (Central 
Statistical  Committee.) 

SCAXDtD.-AVIA. 

Skandinaviske  IS'aturforskeres  Forsamling,  (Scandinavian  Associa- 
tion of  Katiiralists.) 

SPAIN. 

Barcelona. — Eeal  Acadcmia  dc  Buenos  Letras  de  Barcelona. 
Madrid. — Eeal  Academia  Espafiola  Archeologia  y  Geografia;  E*al 
Academia  de  la  Historia. 

Lund. — Physiograpliiske  Foreiiing,  (Pliysiograpluc  Association.) 
SfocJcholm. — Bureau  Central  de  Statistique  de  Suede ;  Bureau  de  la 
Recherche  Geologique  de  la  Suede ;  Kongliga  Landhruks-Akademien, 
(Eoyal  Academy  of  Agriculture;)  Kongliga  Svenska  Yetenskaps-Aca- 
demien,  (Eoyal  Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences.) 

U^sala. — Kongliga  Vetcnskaps-Societeten,  (Eoyal  Society  of  Science.) 

SWITZERLAND. 

Basel. — Xaturibrschendc  Gesellschaft. 

Bern. — yaturforschende  Gesellschaft;  Okonomische  Gesellschaft  des 
Kantons  Bern.    • 

Chiir. — Is'aturforschende  Gesellschaft  Graubundens. 

Geneva. — Institut  National  Genevois;  Observatoire ;  Societe  Gene- 
voise  d'TJtilite  Publique ;  Societe  dc  Physique  et  d'Histoire  Xaturelle ; 
Soci^te  Ornithologique  Suisse. 

Kexifcliatel. — Societe  des  Sciences  Xaturelles. 

Sion. — Societe  Yalaisanne  des  Sciences  Xaturelles. 

Zurich. — Bureau  Central  Meteorologique  Suisse;  Xaturforschende 
Gesellschaft. 


OUR  INDUSTRIAL  COLLEGES. 


The  last  Annual  Eeport  of  this  Deparrment  contained  a  briei  ausrraut 
of  all  attainable  information  relative  to  the  Industi'ial  Colleges  which 
had  been  organized  under  the  act  of  Congress  donating  lands  for  their 
eucom-agemeut  and  support.  In  that  preliminary  history  was  traced 
the  progress  of  public  sentiment,  and  of  the  elibrts  made  iu  some  of  the 
States  to  promote  the  interests  of  those  engaged  in  agrictilttire,  e?;pe- 
cially  of  the  etforts  to  awaken  a  desire  for  a  more  intelligeut  preparation 
for  the  vocation  of  the  farmer.  It  is  gratifying  to  learn  that  S'^reral 
States,  which  had  hitherto  done  no  more  tbau  to  accept  the  grant,  have 
taken  preparatory  steps,  diuing  the  past  year,  toward  cstabhshing  agri- 
cultural colleges.  .  iMier  by  making  sale  of  lands  alloted  to  them,  or  by 
orgauizing  boards  of  trustees,  and  commencing  the  erection  of  the 
necessary  buildings.  Colleges  already  organized,  and  those  iu  which  a 
coiu'se  of  study  has  -been  marked  out,  have  manifested  a  desire  to  per- 
fect then-  plans,  and  to  render  the  institutions  more  complete  and  use- 
ful. While  these  institutions  are  thus  gi\iiig  evidence  of  ju-ogress,  there 
has  been  exhibited,  on  the  part  of  the  pubhe,  a  demand  for  such  instruc- 
tion as  they  are  fitted  to  impart.  Although  these  colleges  are  still  in  their 
infancy,  their  coiu-ses  of  studj  but  imperfectly  matured,  their  boards  of 
instruction  filled  only  in  part,  and  iu  some  instances  by  a  teiiiporary 
provision  of  teachers,  and  although  they  are  not  yet  provided  with  suit- 
able conveniences  for  students,  still  the  attendance  has  been  large,  and 
the  stndents  have  made  gratifying  i^rogress  in  the  branches  to  which 
they  have  given  attention. 

It  is  proposed  to  give  such  additional  information  as  this  Department 
has  been  able  to  procure;  and  the  subject  will  be  recurred  to  fiom  year 
to  year,  until  the  colleges  are  all  organized,  and  a  list  of  the  facidty'^and 
the  course  of  study  in  each  can  be  given.  This  will  be  done  because  it 
IS  believed  that  these  institutions  will  become  co-laborers  with  this  De- 
partment in  elevating  the  vocation  of  the  farmer,  and  giving  him  scien- 
tific as  well  as  practical  instruction  in  his  i^iu-suits. 

COXXECTICUT. 

The  object  aimed  at  in  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  in  its  '•  Course 
of  Agriculture,"  is  to  prepare  the  student  for  the  successful  management 
of  a  farm,  by  putting  him  in  possession  of  a  knowledge  of  the  most  ap- 
proved methods  of  cultiu^e  at  present  employed,  and  "by  explaining  the 
reasons  for  these  methods.  This  course  is  adapted  to  those  who  are 
already  familiar  with  the  employments  of  the  farm.  Lectures  are  given 
on  the  theory  and  practice  of  agricultiu-e  in  all  its  branches,  on  chem- 
istry, botany,  geology,  zoology,  and  fi-ee-hand  di-awing.  Hortictdture 
and  forestry  receive  particular  attention.  Excursions  under  the  direction 
of  the  professors  are  made  usefid  to  the  students  in  the  observation  of 
plants  and  insects  useful  or  injurious  to  the  farmer.  The  course  of  agTi- 
cultural  instruction  is  under  the  direction  of  Professors  Brewer  and 
Johnson.  The  goveiTiing  board  of  the  Shefaeld  Scientific  School  con- 
sists of  President  A\  ooisey,  Professors  Dana,  Xorton,  LjTnan,  Sillhnan, 


542  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Whitney,  Brush,  Gilman,  Jolmson,  Brewer,  Eaton,  Marsh,  and  Verrill. 
They  believe  it  to  be  more  ser\iceable  to  the  State  and  the  country  to 
maintain  a  hijjh  grade  of  scholarship,  and  say:  "We  cannot  expect  to 
equal  the  si)ecial  schools  of  agTiciiltui-e  in  the  very  desuable  work  of 
training  jiractical  farmers,  though  we  hope,  by  the  prosecution  of  the 
science  of  agriculture,  and  by  the  training  of  scientitic  professors  and 
agricultuiisfs,  to  contiibute  to  the  progress  of  agiiculture." 

ILLINOIS. 

The  last  annual  report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  contains  an 
account  of  the  liberal  provision  made  for  the  Industrial  University  ot 
this  State.  The  legislatm-e,  ou  the  29th  of  March  last,  passed  an  addi- 
tional act',  making  provision  for  the  benetit  and  completion  of  tho  insti- 
tution. Sixty  thousand  dollars  were  appropriated  for  this  pm-pose,  as 
follows:  To  the  agricultiu*al  department,  for  the  erection  of  barns, 
houses  for  farm  laborers,  for  fencing  and  ikaining,  teams,  tools,  fruit  trees 
and  forest  trees,  and  stock  of  several  breeds  and  varieties,  $12,500  annu- 
ally for  two  years ;  to  the  horticultiu'al  department,  including  buildings 
and  structures,  house  for  the  gardener,  tool-house,  fencing  and  under- 
draining,  fi'uit  trees,  shrubs,  and  ])lants,  $10,000  per  annum  for  two 
years;  to  the  chemical  department,  85,000;  and  for  other  apparatus,  and 
for  books,  810,000. 

This  appropriation  indicates  the  appreciation,  by  the  people  of  tho 
State,  of  the  importance  of  the  new  university,  and  augiu-s  well  for  its 
futui'e  prosperity  and  usefulness. 

KANSAS. 

Professor  John  S.  Hougham  has  been  called  to  the  chaii*  of  agricul- 
tural science  in  the  college  at  Manhattan.  He  had  previously  taught 
agricultural  chemistry  in  Franklin  College,  Indiana,  for  several  years. 
Eighty  acres  of  the  farm  have  been  inclosed  bj'  a  substantial  stone 
fence,  and  about  half  the  inclosed  laud  was  under  cultivation  diunng 
the  last  summer.  An  orchard,  embracing  sixty-three  varieties  of  fruit, 
has  been  planted.  One-fourth  part  of  the  laud  under  cultivation  will  bo 
planted  and  tilled  under  the  special  direction  of  Professor  Hougham,  and 
it  is  expected  that  an  illustration  will  thus  be  afibrded  to  the  students 
of  the  best  methods  of  culture  in  the  various  departments  of  farming, 
gardening,  and  horticulture.  Miniature  farming  by  the  students  will  be 
encouraged  under  his  direction,  each  bestowing  his  particular  attention 
on  the  portion  allotted  to  him,  careful  records  of  which  will  be  preserved. 

One  hundred  and  sixty-eight  students  have  been  in  attendance  dur- 
ing the  year,  seventy-one  of  whom  were  ladies.  The  institution  has 
already  fiumished  eighty  teachers  for  the  schools  of  the  State. 

INIAINE. 

The  farm  connected  with  the  College  of  AgTicultiu'c  and  the  Me- 
chanic Arts  is  situated  in  a  populous  county,  and  near  the  geograph- 
ical center  of  the  State.  It  has  a  sufticieut  diversity  of  soil  and  aspect 
to  render  it  suitable  for  experimental  purposes.  It  is  especially  suited 
to  fi'uit-culture  and  horticultiux'.  The  tlormitory  building  has  been  com- 
pleted, the  rooms  of  which  are  large  and  well  ventilated.  A  chemical 
laboratory,  modeled  after  that  at  Brown  University,  has  been  erected, 
and,  when  comi)leted,  will  afford  superior  facilities  for  instruction  in 


INDUSTKIAL   COLLEGES.  543 

analytic  chemistry,  and  its  application  to  agriculture  and  the  industrial 
arts.  Professor  Fernald,  a  graduate  of  Bowdoin  College,  has  been 
elected  professor  of  mathematics,  and  has  entered  upon  the  duties  to 
which  he  has  been  assigned.  Samuel  Johnson,  also  a  graduate  of 
Bowdoin  College,  has  been  appointed  farm  superintendf^nt.  Thirteen 
students  have  received  instruction  who,  during  the  hours  allotted  to 
labor,  have  rendered  valuable  assistance  in  grading  the  grounds  and  in 
farm  work.  One-fourth  to  one-half  the  expenses  of  the  students  has  been 
defrayed  from  the  avails  of  their  labor. 

In  arranging  the  course  of  study  two  leading  ideas  are  kept  in  view ; 
first,  to  prepare  the  students  to  become  good  citizens  by  a  right  moral 
and  intellectual,  and  social  training;  and,  secondly,  to  attend  to  "those 
branches  of  study  which  are  directly  connected  with  the  various  indus- 
tries which  form  the  basis  of  the  wealth  and  iirosperity  of  the  State." 
The  trustees  intend  that  the  instruction  giveu  shall  be  "of  such  a  char- 
acter as  to  secure  to  the  student  the  discipline  of  mind,  and  the  practical 
experience  necessary  for  entering  upon  other  callings.*'  It  will  be  a 
special  object  of  the  trustees  to  counteract  the  increasing  disinclination 
towards  manual  labor,  and  to  ^'indicate  its  dignity  by  showing  that  it 
is  comijatible  with  intellectual  culture  and  social  refinement. 

The  course  of  study  will  occupy  foiu'  years.  Its  essential  features  are 
indicated  by  the  following  outline :  "  English  language  and  literature, 
mathematics,  including  trigonometry,  smweyiug,  ci^^l  engineering, 
drawing,  chemistry,  auimal  and  vegetable  physiology,  botany,  horticul- 
ture, the  veterinary  art,  entomology,  stock-breeding,  book-keeping,  his- 
tory, and  moral  and  intellectual  philosophy.  The  French  and  German 
languages  will  also  be  taught." 

The  act  of  the  legislatui-e  organizing  the  college  requires  the  trustees 
to  "  encoiu'age  and,  with  reference  to  other  exercises,  to  require  all  the 
students  to  engage  in  actual  labor  upon  the  lands  and  in  the  work-shops 
with  which  the  college  may  be  furnished,  and  shall  provide  suitable  over- 
sight and  direction  in  such  labor,  so  that  they  may  become  habituated 
to  skillful  and  productive  industry."  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  char- 
ter makes  pro^■ision  for  labor,  and  that  the  trustees  intend  to  combine 
practice  with  theory — manual  labor  with  scientific  culture.  They  desire 
"  to  preserve  habits  of  industry  where  they  exist,  and  to  encourage  stu- 
dents to  form  them  where  they  do  not  exist." 

Tuition  and  room-rent  are  free  to  all  students  from  the  State. 

SIASSACHUSETTS. 

Daring  the  first  twelve  months  from  the  opening  of  the  college,  ninety- 
six  students  were  admitted  on  written  examinations,  seventy-four  of 
whom  were  acquainted  with  f  arm-vrork.  Their  average  age  was  eighteen 
vears.  The  college-farm,  consisting  of  four  hundred  acres,  is  well  adapted 
to  the  uses  of  the  institution,  containing  a  diversity  of  soil  and  aspect, 
and  is  well  fitted  for  larm-culture,  for  forestry,  for  the  formation  of  plan- 
tations of  fruit  trees  and  forest  trees,  for  the  cultivation  of  botanical 
plants,  and  for  horticulture.  On  a  portion  of  it,  an  arboretum  will  be 
planted,  in  which  all  the  varieties  of  trees  suited  to  the  climate  will  be 
grouped  according  to  their  natural  affinities,  and  the  principles  of  land- 
scape gardening.  Professor  Snell,  who  temporarily,  during  the  last 
year,  gave  instruction  in  mathematics  with  entire  acceptance,  now  gives 
place  to  a  permanent  professor  in  that  department,  IMr.  S.  F.  Miller,  who 
is  a  graduate  of  Amherst  college,  and  who  has  had  several  years'  expe- 
rience as  a  civil  engineer.    Mr.  C.  A.  Goessmann,  a  graduate  of  the 


544  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

University  of  Gottingen,  has  been  appointed  i^rofessor  of  elieinistry. 
Hon.  C.  L.  Flint  lectures  on  iliury  farmino:;  Dr.  Calvin  Cutter,  on  the  laws 
of  health;  Dr.  J.  H.  Stickney,  on  the  diseases  of  domestic  animals;  Dr. 
Jabez  Fisher,  on  market-.eardeniup: ;  Dr.  Edward  Hitchcock,  on  compar- 
ative anatomy;  and  Hon,  Marshall  P.  ^yilder,  on  the  culture  of  fruits 
and  flowers.  Hon.  Levi  Stockbridge  is  f;irni-superiutendent  and  in- 
structor in  agriculture  ;  and  President  Clark  is  also  professor  of  botany 
and  horticulture,  and  director  of  the  botanic  garden. 

The  annual  report  m;ule  to  the  legislature  of  the  State  represents 
that  there  is  an  abundant  demand  for  the  education  which  this  institu- 
tion is  designed  to  afl"ord.  The  students  have  nia-:i -'ostcd  a  deep  interest 
in  their  stutlies,  and  their  progress  has  been  commendable.  It  is  highly 
desirable  that  students  should  ])uvsue  and  complete  the  regular  course 
of  study;  but  provision  is  made  for  those  who  choose  to  follow  a  select 
course  adapted  to  their  circumstances  and  necessities. 

:\ncniGAX. 

The  last  year  vras  a  prosperous  one  for  the  State  AgTicultural  College, 
at  Lansing.  The  Tuimber  of  students  was  eighty-two,  representing 
twenty-six  counties  of  the  State.  Sixty  of  the  number  were  sons  of 
farmers.  Three  hundred  and  tifty  acres  of  the  farm  are  now  cleared,  and 
a  large  part  freed  from  stumi)s,  Koads  and  fences  have  been  built,  and 
a  large  amount  of  grading  and  ditching  has  been  done.  The  organic 
law  of  the  college  says :  ''  Th.ree  hours  of  each  day  shall  be  devoted  by 
every  siudent  of  the  college  to  labor  upon  the  farm,  and  no  person  shall 
be  exemj^t  except  for  physi<'al  disabiiity.*'  The  officers  of  the  college 
personally  superintend  the  work,  and  illustrate  in  the  garden  or  the  held 
the  principles  learned  from  the  books.  The  Junior  class  work,  dmnng  their 
entire  year,  under  the  (hrection  of  the  professor  of  practical  agriculture, 
and  the  sophomores  work  under  the  professor  of  botany  and  horticultiu-e; 
The  students  do  not  find  the  labor  irksome,  but  are  interested  by  its 
variety  and  its  relation  to  their  studies.  They  have  actual  practice  in 
the  laboratory,  in  tne  use  of  the  compass  and  level,  in  gTafting  and  bud- 
ding fruit  trees,  and  in  the  work  generally  of  the  garden  and  the  larm. 
The  trustees  regard  the  labor  system  as  succeeding  better  every  year. 

The  lands  donated  by  Congress,  and  which  are  located  witliin  the 
bounds  of  the  State,  are  now  in  the  market,  but  no  income  from  this 
source  has  yet  been  received.  It  has,  thus  far,  been  supj^ortcd  by  the 
State.  The  minimum  price  of  the  lands,  established  by  law,  is  82  GO 
per  acre.  "NVhen  the  sale  is  efl'ected,  a  large  fund  will  be  created,  which 
>\ill  greatly  aid  the  college  in  giving  increased  facilities  for  instruction. 

The  fa(mlty  of  instruction  is  constituted  as  follows :  T.  C.  Abbott, 
president,  and  professor  of  mental  philosophy  and  logic;  Manley  Mdes, 
professor  of  animal  physiology  and  practical  agricultiu-e,  and  su])eriu- 
tendent  of  the  farm ;  11.  C.  Kedzie,  professor  of  chemistry ;  W.  AV.  Tra- 
cey,  professor  of  botany  and  horticulture,  and  superintendent  of  the  gar- 
dens; George  T.  Fairchild,  professor  of  English  literature. 

Several  years'  experience  in  giving  instruction  in  the  State  Agricul- 
tural College  has  convinced  its  officers  that  a  ''  delined  course  of  study 
shoidd  be  insisted  ui)on."  Students  are  not  permitted  to  leave,  at  will, 
a  study  half-completed.  At  the  same  time  various  courses  of  study  are 
presented  to  them,  agTeeing  in  the  main,  yet  sufficiently  divergent  to 
meet  the  wants  of  those  who  have  in  view  jiarticular  departments  of 
labor  in  futiu-e  life.  A  regular  course  of  study  extends  through  four 
years.    It  embraces  a  wide  range  of  study  and  inquiry,  and  appears  to 


'INDUSTRIAL  COLLEGES.  545 

be  well  adapted  to  promote  the  ends  which  the  institution  has  in  view. 
It  embraces  the  following  departments : 

Chemktry. — The  elementary  forces — heat,  light,  electricity,  &c. ;  the 
laws  of  chemical  combination;  elementary  substances,  their  history, 
properties,  combinauons,  and  uses ;  application  of  chemistry  to  the  arts, 
anal\-sis  of  soils,  minerals,  and  manures ;  use  of  the  blowpipe.  In  the 
study  of  analytical  chemistry,  the  student  spends  three  hours  daily  in 
the  laboratory,  under  the  direction  of  the  professor  of  chemistry,  secur- 
ing in  this  manner  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  science.  In  agricul- 
tural chemistry,  iustruction  is  given  on  the  formation  of  soils ;  the  rela- 
tion of  air  and  moisture  to  vegetable  gTowth ;  the  nature  and  soiu'ces  of 
t'ood  for  plants;  preparation  of  manures,  with  their  application  to  soUs. 

Practical  agrwulture. — Laying  out  farms,  arrangement  of  farm-build- 
in  gs,  fiU"m  implements,  general  jmnciples  of  tillage,  construction  of 
drains,  principles  of  stock-breeding,  breeds  of  domestic  animals,  succes- 
sion of  crops,  management  of  grass  lands,  care  of  animals  and  j)rinciples 
of  feeding,  fattening  of  animals,  management  of  sheep. 

Botany. — Physiological  and  systematic,  the  geogTaphical  distribution 
of  plants,  and  their  relative  importance ;  the  genera  and  si^ecies  of  those 
having  agricultiu-al,  commercial,  medical,  or  ornamental  value,  and 
those  which  are  noxious  or  detrimental.  Living  specimens  are  dissected 
by  the  students,  and  the  structure  of  plants  is  illustrated  by  diagrams 
and  by  the  use  of  the  microscope. 

Horticulture. — The  sophomore  class  is  occupied  dimug  the  year  in  the 
gardens  and  college  grounds,  and  have  ample  opportunity  to  apply  the 
instruction  received  in  the  class  rooms. 

Animal  physiologij. — Particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  domestic  animals,  and  the  course  of  instruction  is  illus- 
trated by  anatomical  preparations  and  diagrams. 

Entomology, — The  course  in  this  department  is  illustrated  by  a  valua- 
ble collection  of  native  and  of  exotic  insects.  Sx)ecial  attention  is  paid 
to  the  study  of  species  injurious  to  vegetation,  and  the  best  methods 
of  checking  their  ravages. 

Mathematics  and  civil  engineering. — The  coiu'se  in  this  department  em- 
braces all  those  studies  which  x)r<?pare  the  student  for  the  successful 
practice  of  siu'veying,  leveling,  bridge  and  road  building,  including  field 
practice,  under  the  supervision  of  the  professor. 

English  literature. — The  course  of  instruction  is  by  text-books  and 
lectui'es,  and  is  intended  to  be  of  suc<i  a  chai-acter  as  will  give  the  stu- 
dents an  enlarged  acquaintance  with  the  best  writers  in  the  language, 
and  fit  them  for  the  reputable  performance  of  the  duties  which  will  de- 
volve upon  them  in  their  future  Ufe. 

MINNESOTA. 

Some  stej)S  have  been  taken  toward  organizing  the  agricultui-al  col- 
lege. A  farm  has  been  purchased  near  the  college  buildings,  which  will 
be  inclosed  during  the  coming  season.  A  plan  of  organization  is  now 
being  prepared  by  the  trustees,  who  will  also  report  a  course  of  study  to 
be  pursued  in  the  institution. 

NEW  HA^aPSHIEE. 

The  jSTew  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts, 
established  in  1SG6,  was  opened  to  students  in  September,  1868.    It  has 
two  terms,  corresponding  with  the  fall  and  the  spring  term  of  Dart- 
35 


546  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT^ 

mouth  College,  thus  giving  opportunity  to  students  to  spend  the 
summer  months  at  home  in  agiictdtural  or  mechanical  employment. 
Topics  are  given  to  them  at  the  close  of  the  spring  term,  on  which 
papers  are  to  be  prepared,  from  observation,  exiieriment,  or  study,  for 
the  fiill  term.  Farmers  can  thus  give  to  their  sons  facihties  for  educa- 
tion in  the  most  favorable  seasons  for  study,  and  still  enjoy  the  advan- 
tage of  their  services  in  the  period  of  gi-eatest  agiicultural  activity. 

Candidates  for  admission  must  be  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  pass  a 
satisfactory  examination  in  the  branches  of  English  study  taught  in 
common  schools. 

The  course  of  study  embraces  three  years :  the  first  including  mathe- 
matics, botany,  physical  geography,  chemistry,  physics,  and  book-keep- 
ing: tbe  second,  trigonometry,  practical  botany,  organic  and  analytical 
chemistry,  histoiy,  rhetoric,  mensuration,  zoology,  geology,  and  miner- 
alogj":  tiie  thii-d,  agricultural  chemistry,  zoology,  astronomy,  and  mete- 
orology-, rural  economy,  political  science,  and  intellectual  and  moral 
X)hilosoiihy. 

The  library  contains  five  hundred  volumes  of  scientific  works,  pur- 
chased in  Europe,  about  one  hundred  of  which  are  from  the  private 
library  of  the  late  Professor  Faraday.  Students  h;ive  access  to  the  col- 
lege library,  cabinets,  observatory,  and  gymuasiiun.  A  State  museum 
of  general  and  applied  science  is  proposed  ui  connection  with  the  insti- 
tution. There  are  twelve  free  scholarships,  covering  the  chqrge  for 
tuition,  one  for  each  senatorial  distinct.  Tuition  is  fifteen  dollars  per 
term.    The  number  of  students  in  the  first,  or  junior  class,  is  ten. 

The  faculty  consists  of  President  Smith,  and  Professors  E.  W.  Dimond, 
(agricultiu-al  chemistrv,)  T.  E.  Crosbv,  (animal  and  vegetable  phvsiologv,) 
D.' J.  l^oyes,  E.  D.  Sanborn,  C.  A.' Young,  E.  T.  Quimby,  C.  H.  Hitch- 
cock, and  C.  F.  Emerson. 

^'EW  YORK. 

The  Cornell  University-,  the  institution  which  received  the  congres- 
sional grant,  was  opened  for  the  reception  of  students  in  September, 
1868.  ^o  doubt  is  entertained  that  the  expectations  of  the  pubUc,  re- 
garding the  usefulness  of  this  institution,  will  be  fully  realized.  The 
board  of  instruction  has  been  filled,  in  part,  with  professors  of  a  high 
reputation,  and  an  able  corps  of  non-resident  professors  has  been  ap- 
pointed, who  will  deliver  courses  of  lectures  on  the  subjects  assigned 
them.  The  munificent  endowment  of  its  founder,  the  Hon.  Ezra  Cornell, 
with  the  princely  addition  of  the  congressional  grant  of  lands,  enables 
its  trustees  to  open  the  institution  with  the  fairest  prospects  of  success 
and  usefulness. 

The  facultv  of  the  agiicultural  department  of  the  university  includes 
President  a'.  D.  White,  and  Professors  G.  C.  Caldwell,  B.  G.  Wilder, 
A.  N.  Prentiss,  James  Law,  C.  F.  Hartt,  and  J.  S.  Gould. 

In  this  department  there  are  three  courses  of  study,  one  of  which  re- 
quires four  years  for  its  completion,  and  entitles  the  student  to  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  science ;  the  other  two  are  abridged  courses,  one 
of  three  and  the  other  of  two  years,  comprising  all,  or  nearly  all,  the 
agricultural  instraction  given  in  the  full  course. 

The  requirements  for  admission  to  the  first  two  of  these  courses  are 
the  same  as  for  admission  to  the  freshman  class  in  the  scientific  course, 
namely,  a  good,  sound  English  education,  including  algebra  to  quad- 
ratics; for  admission  to  the  third  course  of  two  years,  a  knowledge  of 
algebra  will  not  be  insisted  upon. 


INDUSTEIAL   COLLEGES.  547 

If  any  one  should  wish  to  attend  one  course  or  more  of  lectures  in  the 
department,  and  work  in  the  laboratories  or  the  garden,  or  on  the  farm, 
under  the  direcrion  of  the  respective  professors  in  charge,  he  may  be 
permitted  to  do  so,  at  the  discretion  of  the  faculty  of  the  <lepartment. 
Of  such  a  student  it  will  be  required  that  he  pay  the  usual  tuition  fee 
of  ten  dollars,  and  also  that  his  time  be  as  fully  occupie<l  in  study  and 
work  as  that  of  other  students. 

In  the  instruction  given,  both  laboratory  and  field  practice  are  com- 
bined with  the  usual  iecmi-e-room  work,  to  the  utmost  extent  possible ; 
to  this  end,  land,  laboratories,  live  stock,  tools,  models,  and  apparatus 
are  supphed.  With  the  aid  of  these  apphances  and  means  of  dlustra- 
tion.  and  his  own  powers  of  observation,  intelligently  directed  by  his 
teachers,  the  student  may  become  familiar  with  the  chemical  properties 
and  relations  of  the  substances  composing  sofls.  plants,  and  animals, 
with  the  domestic  plants  and  animals  themselves,  and  their  conditions 
of  health  and  disease,  and  with  the  best  methods  of  agTiciiluiral  practice. 

PEJSTNSYLYAXIA. 

An  entiie  change  iu  the  faculty  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  this 
State  has  recently  been  made.  It  is  thought  that,  after  a  long  struggle 
against  adverse  circumstances,  the  college  is  now  in  a  position  to  eti^t 
the  great  objects  for  which  it  was  established.  Thomas  H.  Burrowes  has 
been  appointed  president,  and,  in  an  adilress  issued  to  the  public,  he 
says :  '•  Each  student  shall  be  made  to  know  thoroughly  what  he  studies; 
he  shall  have  the  opportunity  to  acquire  an  education  equal  to  any 
attainable  elsewhere :  he  shall  be  prepared,  as  far  as  depends  on  careful 
instruction,  properly  to  perform  his  duties  as  a  citizen,  and  shall  be  in- 
formed iu  the  principles  of  oiu"  common  Christianity."  He  also  sets  forth 
the  general  principles  of  the  course  of  instruction  which  will  be  pursued. 

EHODE  ISLJJNT). 

Brown  University  has  received  the  land  gi-ant  for  industrial  colleges, 
and  made  provision  for  a  course  of  scientific  and  practical  instruction, 
extending  through  a  period  of  three  years.  The  first  year  embraces 
chemistry,  physiology,  geometry,  and  algebra,  as  required  studies:  and 
civil  engineering,  analytical  chemisny,  or  the  French  language,  iis  op- 
tional stuthes:  the  second,  natural  philosophy  and  rhetoric^ with  applied 
chemistry  and  civil  engineering,  at  the  option  of  the  student  j  the  third, 
moral  philosophy,  pohtical  economy,  and  geology,  with  the  same  optional 
studies  as  for  the  second  year. 

The  requirements  for  admission  include  a  knowledge  of  arithmetic, 
algebra.  En gbsh  grammar,  and  modem  geography.  Provision  will  idso be 
made  for  lectures,  especially  diuiiig  the  winter  months,  embracing,  among 
other  subjects,  the  following:  The  action  of  air  and  water  upon  sods; 
the  influence  of  drainage  and  a  proijer  degree  of  pidverization :  the  pre- 
paration, apphcation,  and  office  of  mantles  and  other  fertilizers;  the 
elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  vegetables;  the  form  in 
which  they  are  presented  to  the  growing  plant;  the  varying  propoitions 
in  which  they  are  required  by  difierent  crops;  the  laws  of  "climate,  and 
the  influence  of  situation  and  exposure :  modes  aud  luinciples  of  culture: 
noxious  insects,  and  the  means  of  their  destruction;  the  general  princi- 
ples of  metallurgy;  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  calico  printing:  principles 
of  wanning,  draft,  and  ventilation;  the  composition  and  proi>erties  ot 
mortars  and  cements:  composition  and  properties  of  oils,  paints,  and 


'>1R  vSGRICULTUKAL    REPORT 

ciaraishes:  the  manufacture  of  chemical  re-agents;  the  art  of  kyanizmg 
wood,  and  of  preserving  yicat.^,  firuits,  and  vegetables  from  decomposition. 

WISCONSI>-. 

In  our  last  Annual  Eeport  was  given  the  comse  of  iustruction  pur- 
sued in  tlio  college  of  this  State,  and  aunexe<l  is  a  list  of  the  faculty  of 
instruction  in  the  department  of  agriculture :  Paid  A.  Chadboume.  presi- 
dent; W.  AV.  Daniels,  professor  of  agriculture:  John  C.  Davies,  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  and  natmal  history :  Adilison  E.  Verrill,  professor 
of  comparative  anatomy  and  of  entomology. 

The  lands  granted  by  Congress  have  been  located,  but  are  not  yet  sold. 
The  college  is  now  in  operation  as  a  branch  of  the  University  of  "Wis- 
consin, and  has  the  benetit  of  a  farm  purchased  for  it  by  the  citizens  of  the 
Wtatc.  at  a  cost  of  forty  thousand  dollars.  The  course  of  study  is  .so 
arranged  that  iustraction  in  the  class-room  can  be  completed  in  a  single 
vear  "by  students  already  •vrell  acquainted  with  the  physical  sciences, 
■.vhile  an  opportunity  will  be  given  to  those  who  desii-e  it  for  extended 
laboratory  practice,  for  a  higher  course  in  botany,  and  for  instniction  in 
conducting  experiments  in  agriculture  and  horticidture,  thus  making  a 
full  three  yeai-s"  course  of  study .^ 

A  wide  range  of  oprioual  studies  is  given  in  this  department  in  order 
that  the  students  may  combine  thorough  mental  discipline  with  theoretic 
and  practical  knowledge  of  the  relation  of  science  to  agriculture. 

It  will  be  the  endeavor  of  the  professors  to  modily  their  course  of 
instruction  so  as  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  people.  Lectures  are  given 
by  the  president  and  resident  professors,  and  also  by  non-resident  pro- 
fessors, on  subjects  calcidated  to  illustrate  the  studies  and  promote  the 
intellectual  and  moral  advancement  of  the  students. 


MASSACHUSETT.S   AGR  ICri^TTK  Ali   COI^IiEGE. 

W.  S.  Clark,  President  of  the  Massachnsetts  A^gricultural-CoUege, 
supplies  th,e  following  facts  in  relation  to  the  history  and  present  status 
of  that  institution : 

niSTOSY. 

In  the  year  1S50  ex-Governor  Levi  Lincoln,  on  behalf  of  the  Worces- 
ter County  Agricultural  Society,  of  which  he  was  then  president,  pre- 
sented to  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  a  memorial  u]ion  the  subject 
of  agiicultural  education.  Wilde  admitting  that  much  had  been  done 
to  improve  the  modes  of  cultivation  and  increase  the  i>roducts  of  the 
farm,  he  says:  "The  advance  has  yet  been  rather  exjxjrimental  and  for- 
tuitous than  systematic,  scientific,  and  instructive.  The  deep  want  of 
the  husbandman  is  iustructioh  in  those  elementary  principles  which  give 
the  impress  of  mind  to  his  occupation.  *  *  *  j^i 

agricrJture  Ije  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  profession  rather  than  regarded 
as  the  destiny  of  condition,  and  the  labor  of  man  wUl  be  profited  as 
largely  as  the  character  of  society  will  assuredly  be  improved.- 

In  the  same  year,  Hon.  Marshall  P.  Wilder,  then  president  of  the 
Massachusetts  Senate,  introduced  a  series  of  resolves  concertiing  the 
establishment  of  an  agiicultural  school.  These  resolves  authorized  the 
governor  to  ai)point  a  board  of  commissioners  to  prepare  a  plan  for  such 


/  k 


INDUSTRIAL    COLLEGES.  541) 

3  school  or  college,  aud  to  select  aud  obtain  by  ^iift  or  piu-chase  a  suit- 
able farui,  and  appropriated  fifteen  thousand  dollars  to  defi*ay  necessary- 
expenses.  The  senate  passed  the  resolves  unanimously,  but  the  house 
of  representatires  failed  to  conciu'.  Nevertheless,  a  board  of  commis- 
sioners was  appointed,  of  vrhich  Mr.  Wilder  was  chairman,  to  consider 
the  subject  and  report  to  the  leoislature  of  1851.  Dr.  Edward  Hitcli- 
cock,  a  member  oi'  the  board,  visited  the  agricultural  schools  of  Europe, 
aud  made  an  elaborate  report  concerning  them.  The  report  of  the  com- 
missioners recommended  the  establishment  of  an  agi'icultural  college 
TAith  a  model  and  experimental  farm,  and  also  a  State  board  of  agTicul- 
ture.  As  the  latter  required  but  a  small  apj^ropriatiou,  and  might  be 
uselid  in  preparing  the  wav  for  the  former,  it  was  organized  in  the  vear 
LS51. 

This  board  consists  at  present  of  one  delegate  from  each  of  the  incor- 
porated agriciiltiu-al  societies  of  the  State,  three  members  at  large, 
appointed  by  the  governor,  and.  as  members  ex  oflicio,  the  governor, 
lieutenant  governor,  secretary  of  state,  and  the  president  of  the  ag- 
ricidtm-al  college.  The  number  of  societies  lias  gTa dually  increased, 
until  now  there  are  tliii'ty,  and  tlie  board  therefore  contains  thii-ty-seven 
membei'S.  Under  the  efdcient  management  of  its  excellent  secretary,  C. 
L.  Flint,  this  board  has  greatly  benefited  the  agricultural  iaterest  of  the 
Commonwealth,  and  its  annual  reports  have  been  eagerly  sought  and 
highly  vahled  by  tbe  farmers  of  Massachusetts,  as  well  as  by  the  intel- 
ligent fiiends  of  progxessive  agTiculture  throughout  the  country.  By 
the  inducements  olfered  for  the  organization  of  societies  and  aimual  exhi- 
bitions of  agTicuitui'al  implaments,  stock,  and  produce  of  all  kinds;  by 
the  aid  afforded  to  such  as  were  willing  to  form  farmers'  clubs  for  mutual 
improvement;  by  the  imblication  and  distribxition  of  usefid  information 
'upon  a  gTeat  variety  of  practical  topics;  and  especially  by  a  constant 
effort  to  awaken  in  the  iiublic  mind  an  intei'est  in  the  subject  of  agxicul- 
tural  education,  the  object  for  which  the  board  was  established  has  been 
most  successfully  accomjjlished. 

In  the  year  185G,  members  of  the  board  procured  an  act  of  incorpora- 
tion as  the  Massachusetts  School  of  AgTicidtiu'e,  whicli  would  probably 
have  gone  into  operation  in  Springfield,  in  ISGi',  but  for  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war. 

The  legishitnre  of  1S03  accepted  the  liberal  grant  of  Congress  of 
300,000  acres  of  public  land,  and  established  with  the  proceeds  of  tbe 
sale  of  nine-tenths  of  it  a  fund  for  the  promotion  of  education  in  agiicul- 
ture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  In  {accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
act  of  Congress,  one-tenth  of  the  scrip  was  sold,  and  the  proceeds  used 
for  tlie  i>urchase  of  a  model  and  experuuental  farm.  A  commissioner 
was  appointed  for  the  sale  of  the  scrip,  and  the  first  30,000  acres  sold  for 
the  sum  of  829,7  78  40,  or  about  eighty-three  cents  per  acre.  The  remain- 
ing 321,000  acres  vrere  sold  for  an  average  price  of  about  sixty  cents  per 
acre  ;  and  the  total  fund  now  in  the  St;ite  treasury,  derived  from  this 
source,  amounts  to  $207,121  05.  This  is  invested  as  follows:  United 
States  bonds,  $80,500;  Massachusetts  bonds.  $27,000;  bonds  of  cities 
and  towns,  801.200  ;  and  cash  in  treasury.  $5,721  05.  By  the  provisions 
of  the  land-giant  act,  the  State  is  required  to  maintain  forever  the  integ- 
rity- of  this  fund,  aud  to  pay  not  less  than  five  per  cent,  annual  interest 
to  the  institutions  selected  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are 
related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  After  thorough  discussion, 
the  legislature  decided  to  establish  the  Massachusetts  Agiicultural  Col- 
lege as  an  independent  institution,  and  to  endow  it  with  two-thnds  the 
income  of  the  above  fund,  while  the  remaining  third  was  given  to  the 


550  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Institute  of  Technology,  wliicli  had  already  begun  operations  in  the  city 
of  Boston,  ^th  the  special  object  of  teaching  science  in  its  applications 
to  the  useful  arts. 

The  college  charter  was  approved  April  29,  1863.  Its  most  important 
provisions  are  as  follows : 

First.  The  board  of  ti'ustees  shaU  consist  of  fourteen  members,  elected 
by  the  legislature  for  life,  or  until  removed  for  cause.  Of  the  original 
board,  one  member  was  selected  fi-om  each  county  of  the  State,  and 
vacancies  have  usually  been  filled  by  the  legislature  upon  this  principle. 
The  governor,  lieutenant  governor,  secretaries  of  the  boards  of  education 
and  agiieulture,  and  the  president  of  the  college  faculty,  are  members 
ex  officio. 

Second,  The  college  shallhave  a  farm  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  aeres, 
for  experimental  and  other  ptirposes,  and  shall  make  suitable  arrange- 
ments for  manual  labor  by  the  students. 

Third.  The  location  of  the  college  is  made  dependent  upon  a  subscrip- 
rion  of  87r>,000  for  the  eraction  of  buildings. 

Fourth.  The  location,  jnan  of  orgaiuzation,  and  course  of  study  are 
made  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  legislature ',  but  by  a  subsequent  act 
they  were  submitted  to  the  decision  of  the  governor  and  council. 

Finally.  By  an  act  approved  May  2G,  1806,  the  board  of  agriculture 
was  made  a  board  of  overseers  of  the  agricidtural  college,  with  advisory 
and  visitorial  jiowers,  but  with  no  authority  to  interfere  directly  with  the 
trustees  in  the  management  of  the  institution.  They  were  also  author- 
ized to  transfer  theiv^'aluable  cabinet  and  library  from  the  state-hotise 
to  the  college,  and  to  hold  their  meetings  in  Amherst  instead  of  Boston. 

The  secretary-  of  the  Board  of  Agrieidture  is  also  secretary  of  the  col- 
lege, and  one  of  its  regtdar  lecturers.  The  cabinet,  which  illustrates 
admirably  the  geology  and  natural  history  of  the  State,  has  been  removed 
to  the  college,  and  the  board  holds  one  of  its  two  annual  meetings  in 
Amherst.  An  examining  committee,  of  which  Prof.  Agassiz  is  the  i)res- 
ent  chairman,  attends  the  closing  exercises  of  each  term,  and  reports 
annually  to  the  boaal  upon  the  condition  of  the  institution. 

LOCATION. 

The  trustees,  with  the  approval  of  the  governor  and  cotmcil,  purchased, 
in  the  autumn  of  1864,  a  tract  of  land  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut, 
in  the  midst  of  the  best  farming  district  of  the  Commonwealth,  contain- 
ing three  hundied  and  eighty-three  and  one-half  acres,  and  situated  in 
the  towns  of  Amherst  and  Hadley.  The  portion  in  Hadley,  comprising 
about  one  hundred  acres,  is  low,  level  land,  bounded  on  the  west  by  ]Mill 
Eiver,  and  covered  originally  with  heavy  timber.  The  soil  is  black  and 
rich,  but  requires  drainage  for  profitable  cidtivation.  At  ijresent  about 
fifteen  acres  are  in  wood,  principally  white  and  yellow  pine  and  oak,  and 
the  rest  is  used  for  i)astitrage.  From  this  level  tract  the  land  giTiduaUy 
rises  toward  the  east,  imtil  in  about  the  center  of  the  estate  it  reaches  an 
elevation  of  one  huntlred  feet  above  the  stream  on  the  west  hne.  From 
this  central  ridge  there  is  a  gentle  slope  to  a  rivulet  which,  entering  the 
farm  on  the  south  line,  runs  north  to  the  center,  when  it  turns  at  right 
angles  and  flows  through  a  beautifid  wooded  ravine  due  west  to  Mill 
River.  Fi-om  this  rivulet,  now  named  Bucolic  Eiver,  the  land  rises  to  the 
wooded  summit  of  Mount  Pleasant,  near  the  east  line,  which  reaches  an 
elevation  of  nearly  three  hundred  feet  above  the  western  portion  of  the 
property.  From  a  prospect  tower  upon  this  eminence,  the  beholder  may 
survey  every  portion  of  the  college  estate,  and  looking  to  the  we^t. 


INDUSTRIAL  COLLEGES.  551 

across  tlie  valley,  lie  sees  two  miles  distant  tlie  granite  peak  called  ilonnt 
Warner,  -vrliose'  base  is  waslied  by  the  transparent  waters  of  tlie  Con- 
necticut. Then  following  with  his  eye  the  circuitous  course  of  the  river 
as  it  winds  through  the  broad  and  tertile  meadows  from  the  north,  he 
sees  the  red  sandstone  bluft'  called  Sugar-loaf  standing  like  a  sentinel  on 
the  plain,  while  twenty  miles  away  the  horizon  is  bounded  by  the  wooded 
slopes  of  the  Green  Mountain  range.  Directly  north  from  the  point  of 
view  is  a  gTOup  of  rounded,  conglomerate  peaks,  covered  with  timber, 
the  highest,  Metanampe,  rising  twelve  hundi-ed  feet  above  the  sea  level, 
and  distant  about  six  miles  from  the  college.  The  eastern  view  is 
boimded  by  a  ridge  of  metamorphic  character,  which  having  been 
stripped  of  its  woody  mantle  has  become  dry  and  unproductive.  Look- 
ing southward,  the  spectator  beholds  the  steep,  rocky  sides  of  the  trap 
range,  which  beginning  here  runs  south  through  Connecticut  to  i^ew 
Haven. 

This  remarkable  variety  of  geological  formation  admirably  adapts  the 
situation  for  the  study  of  natiu-al  science.  Along  the  river  are  found 
fossil  fish,  plants,  and  foot-marks  of  neai-ly  two  hundred  species ;  and 
within  a  few  miles  of  Amherst  are  mines  of  lead  and  baryta,  where  occur 
a  large  number  of  interesting  minerals.  The  soil  of  the  central  ridge  of 
the  estate  is  a  fine  sandy  loam  of  excellent  quahty,  adapted  to  the  culti- 
vation of  tobacco,  corn,  and  broom-corn,  or  to  the  crops  of  the  market 
gardener.  The  eastern  or  Mount  Pleasant  ridge  is  crowned  by  a  si)lendid 
grove  of  large  trees  of  many  dilferent  species,  as  chestnut,  oak,  birch, 
pine,  and  hemlock.  The  land  is  somewhat  stony,  with  gTavelly  subsoil, 
and  is  specially  suited  by  its  aspect  and  elevation  for  fruit  culture  and 
the  uses  of  the  arboretum,  nm-sery  of  fruit  and  ornamental  trees  and 
shrubs,  and  botanic  garden,  to  which  it  is  devoted.  From  a  reservoir  upon 
this  ridge  an  abundant  supply  of  excellent  water  is  distributed  to  the 
buildings  and  grounds. 

The  report  of  the  trustees  to  the  governor  and  council  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  location  says :  » 

"  Amherst  is  the  center  of  a  gTeat  agricultural  region  of  native  New 
England  fanners,  who  will  sympathize  with  the  pursuits  of  the  students; 
where  men  live  and  thrive  by  fair  farming,  with  no  side  business  of 
trade  or  manufactiu'cs;  where  students  will  find  agTiculture  a  respectable 
and  paying  business,  instead  of  seeing  it,  as  in  some  parts  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, despised  by  the  poor,  and  the  expensive  pastime  of  the 
rich." 

BUILDrN'GS  AXD  EXDOVTIIENT. 

The  institution  has  received  from  the  United  States  $168,000 ;  from 
the  town  of  Amherst,  $75,000 ;  from  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  $120,000 ; 
and  from  diftereut  individuals,  $1'5.000 ;  amounting  in  all  to  the  sum  of 
$388,000. 

This  has  been  applied  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  college,  as  follows, 
viz :  A  model  and  experimental  farm  of  381  acres  has  been  i)urchased 
for  $37,500.  The  buildings  now  on  the  estate  have  cost  in  the  aggre- 
gate about  $160,000.  There  are  two  brick  dormitory  buildings,  each 
one  hundred  by  fifty  feet,  and  together  accommodating  in  an  excellent 
mannei',  as  at  present  arranged,  one  hundred  and  ten  students.  Two 
students  occupy  a  suite  of  rooms,  having  a  study  in  eouimon,  and  a  bed- 
room and  closet  for  each.  There  are  seven  dwelling-houses,  one  of  which 
is  a  large  boarding-house :  three  are  occupied  by  professors,  one  by  the 
farm  superintendent,  and  the  others  by  employes  of  the  college.    College 


bbi 


AGRICULTURAL   EEPORT. 


Hall  is  a  large  building,  about  one  bundled  by  sixty  feet,  contain- 
ing in  the  Hpjjer  story  a  tine  armory  and  drill  ball  for  the  military  depart- 
ment. The  second  story  is  devoted  to  tire  departments  of  cbemistry, 
physics,  and  engineering.  Upon  the  first  floor  is  the  chapel  and  the 
rooms  occupied  Ijy  students  of  analytical  chemistry ;  and  in  the  base- 
ment is  a  general  repair  shop,  a  furnace-room,  &c. 

The  botanic  museum  contains  the  president's  office  and  lecture-room, 
and  the  Knowlton  herbarium,  Tvhich  is  an  admirably  mounted  collection 
of  more  than  lo.OOO  species  of  plants  from  all  parts  of  the  ■world.  Here 
are  also  a  unique  collection  of  filrv'  sections  of  the  trunks  of  trees  from 
the  Himalaya  Mountains,  numerotLs  specimens  of  native  woods  and  seeds, 
and  about  one  huncked  and  fifty  models  of  fruits.  The  Hills  fund  of 
$10,000  suppbes  the  means  for  the  continual  increase  of  these  collections, 
so  that  this  department  is  "weU  estabbshed  and  endowed. 

The  Diirfce  plant  house  is  a  beatitilul  structiu-e,  with  curvibnear  root 
and  conveniences  for  the  propagation  and  succ<?ssful  cultivation  of  all 
kinds  of  plants.  It  is  filled  with  specimens  of  those  species  which  are 
most  interesting  from  their  economic  A'alue,  their  beauty  of  flower  or 
fobage,  or  their  pecubarities  in  a  scientific  point  of  view.  ^Vhen  com- 
pleted according  to  the  original  design  it  will  cover  10,000  feet  of  sur- 
face. 

The  model  barn  is  one  hundred  by  fifty  feet,  with  an  L  seventy  five 
by  twenty-five  fef!t,  and  will  accommodate  fifty  neat  cattle  and  fifty 
sheep,  and  contain  more  than  a  hundred  tons  of  hay.  The  posts  are 
twenty-four  feet  high,  and  the  lower  floor  is  devoted  to  stalls  for  cattle 
and  a  root  room.  The  ui)per  floor  is  eight  feet  above  the  lower  and  is 
easily  reached  by  a  drive-way  rising  about  one  foot  in  ten.  ]S'ear  the 
entrance  is  a  platform  scale,  and  also  a  trap  door,  through  which  roots 
are  dumped  mto  the  root  room  below.  In  the  center  of  the  upper  story 
is  a  floor  extending  across  the  bam  with  a  well-lighted  room  on  either 
side  of  the  main  floor,  eighteen  by  fourteen,  and  sixteen  feet  high.  One 
of  these  is  designed  for  a  horse-power  to  cut  fodder,  and  the  other  for 
grain  bins  and  stairs  to  the  story  below.  Under  the  entire  barn  is  a 
cellar  eleven  feet  in  the  clear,  for  manure.  The  barn  stands  east  and 
west,  and  teams  drive  in  at  one  end  of  the  upper  story  and  out  at  the 
other.  The  lower  or  cattle  story  is  web  bghted  and  ventilated,  and 
opens  on  the  south  into  a  spacious  yard,  protected  from  the  west  winds 
by  the  L  which  contains  the  sheep  pens.  The  yard  is  abundantly  sup 
l)bed  with  soft,  runuiug  water. 

The  old  barns  upon  the  farm  have  been  moved  to  convenient  locations 
and  thoroughly  repaii'ed,  and  will  hold  about  one  huncb-ed  and  fiftj"  tons 
of  hay. 

COUESE  OF  STTDY  AXD  IN'STKrCTION. 

There  are  two  classes  of  students  which  the  college  is  designed  to 
benefit,  viz :  Those  who  wish.to  obtain  a  thorough  literary,  scientific,  and 
busiuess  education,  qnalifying  them  to  act  well  their  part,  not  onlj'  as 
farmers  and  gardeners,  but  also  as  citizens  and  men :  and  those  whose 
circumstances  or  wishes  induce  them  to  seek  a  more  limited  and  practi- 
cal course  of  instruction,  with  particular  reference  to  farming  as  a  pro- 
fession. For  the  accommodation  of  the  latter  it  is  proposed  to  have  a 
special  class  every  winter,  which  shall  be  under  the  immediat-e  charge  of 
the  professor  of  agricidture,  and  also  courses  of  lectures  upon  various 
branches  of  science,  and  special  departments  of  agricultiue  and  horti- 
culture, in  common  with  the  students  of  the  regular  classes. 


INDUSTRIAL  COLLEGES.  553 

The  full  course  of  study  occupies  four  years,  and  those  who  complete 
it  receive  the  degTee  of  Bachelor  of  Science.  Three  recitations,  or  their 
equivalent  in  lectures  or  literary  exercises,  are  assigned  for  each  day, 
except  Saturday  and  Sunday.  Saturday  is  devoted  to  scientific  excur- 
sions and  recreation.  On  Sunday  all  are  requked  to  attend  church  or 
Bible  class;  but  in  all  biblical  instruction  the  inculcation  of  denomina- 
tional Aiews  is,  as  far  as  practicable,  to  be  avoided. 

All  students  are  expected  to  engage  in  manual  labor  six  hours  per 
week  when  required,  without  comj)ensation,  for  the  purj^ose  of  learning 
the  various  operations  of  the  farm  and  garden ;  and  those  who  wish  to 
perform  additional  work  for  wages  will  be  allowed  to  do  so,  and  receive 
at  the  rate  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  cents  per  hour. 

Students  wishing  to  be  absent  from  any  assigned  duty  are  exj^ected  to 
ask  permission  beforehand,  whenever  that  is  practicable,  and  in  all 
cases  to  present  their  excuses  after  an  absence  to  any  officer  from  whose 
exercises  they  may  have  been  absent.  A  careful  record  is  kept  of  the 
attendance,  attainments,  and  deportment  of  every  student,  and  sent  to 
his  parent  or  guardian  at  the  close  of  each  term,  and  only  such  as  are 
faithful,  successful,  and  gentlemanly  are  allowed  to  continue  as  members 
of  the  college. 

Those  who  pui^sue  a  select  course  attend  recitations  and  lectures  with 
the  regular  classes ;  but  persons  properly  qualified,  and  desmng  special 
instruction  in  chemistry,  civil  engineering,  agriculture,  or  horticulture, 
may  make  private  arrangements  with  the  officers  having  charge  of  those 
departments.  Candidates  for  admission  to  the  freshman  class  are  exam- 
ined in  writing  upon  the  following  subjects:  English  grammar,  geography, 
arithmetic,  and  history  of  the  United  States.  Candidates  for  higher 
standing-  are  examined  as  above,  and  also  in  the  studies  gone  over  by 
the  class  to  which  they  may  desire  admission. 

iSTo  one  can  be  admitted  to  the  college  until  he  is  fifteen  years  of  age, 
and  every  student  is  required  to  fiu-nish  a  certificate  of  good  character 
from  his  last  pastor  or  teacher,  and  to  give  a  satisfactory  bond  for  the 
promjit  payment  of  term  bills.  Tuition  and  room  rent  must  be  paid  in 
advance  at  the  beginning  of  each  term ;  and  bills  for  board,  fuel,  and 
washing  at  the  end  of  every  term.  The  regular  examination  for  admis- 
sion is  held  at  9  o'clock  a.  m.  on  the  second  Thursday  of  September;  but 
candidates  may  be  examined  and  admitted  at  any  other  time  in  the  year. 
The  first  term  of  the  academic  year  begins  on  the  second  Thursday  of 
September,  and  continues  thuteen  weeks.  The  second  term  begins  on 
the  fourth  Thursday  of  January,  and  continues  thirteen  weeks.  The  third 
term  begins  on  the  first  Thiu^sday  of  May,  and  continues  thirteen  weeks. 

There  are  no  free  scholarships,  and  students  from  other  States  have 
the  same  privileges  as  those  from  Massacliusetts.  The  exi)enses  are  as 
follows:  Tuition,  Sl^  per  term;  room  rent,  $5  per  term;  incidental 
expenses,  81  per  term;  boarding,  $3  50  per  week;  washing,  fifty  cents 
per.  dozen ;  expenses  of  chemical  laboratory  to  students  of  practical 
chemistry,  83 per  term;  iniblic  and  private  damages,  including  chemical 
apparatus,  at  cost.  Total  expenses,  including  fuel  and  books,  about 
$250  per  annum. 

Most  of  the  agricultural  societies  of  the  State  pay  the  term  bills  of 
one  or  more  students  selected  from  the  applicants  within  their  respec- 
tive limits.  The  arrangement  of  studies  in  the  regular  course  is  as  fol- 
lows, viz : 

Freshman  year.-— First  term:  Algebra,  human  anatomy  and  j)hysiol- 
ogy,  chemical  physics.  Second  term:  Geometry,  French,  chemistry. 
Third  term :  Geometry,  French,  botany,  lectui^es  upon  hygiene,  chemis- 


554  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

tiy,  botany,  aud  agriculture ;  and  exercises  in  oitliograi»by,  elocution . 
and  English  composition  during  the  year. 

Sophomore  year. — First  term :  German,  agriciUture,  commercial  arith- 
metic, aud  book-keeping.  Second  term :  German,  trigonometry,  analyti- 
cal chemistTj',  -vnth  laboratory  practice.  Third  term :  Mensuration,  sui'- 
veying,  analytical  chemistry,  zoology,  dra\nng.  Lectures  upon  com- 
parative anatomy,  diseases  of  domestic  animals,  organic  chemistry,  dain, 
farming,  and  market  gardening :  and  exercises  in  English  composition  and 
declamation,  during  the  year. 

Junior  year. — First  term:  Physics,  French  or  German,  agricultural 
chemistry,  with  practice  in  the  laboratory  and  the  field,  drawing.  Second 
term :  Physics,  rhetoric,  horticulture,  th-awing.  Third  term :  Astronomy, 
systematic  botany,  French  or  German.  Lectures  upon  physics,  miner- 
alogy, the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  of  fruit  and  forest  trees,  and  upon 
iLseful  and  injurious  insects,  and  exercises  in  English  comjwsition  and 
debate,  duiing  the  year. 

Senior  year. — First  term:  LiteUectual  philosophy,  history,  physical 
geography.  Second  term :  Moral  philosophy,  poUtical  geography,  the 
civil  polity  of  Massachusetts  and  the  United  States.  Thud  term:  Geol- 
ogy, engineering,  political  economy.  Lectui-es  upon  stock  farming,  archi- 
tecture, landscape  gardening,  rural  law,  geology,  and  English  Uterattire, 
and  exercises  in  original  declamation  aud  debate,  during  the  year. 

Exercises  in  gymnastics,  military  tactics,  and  the  various  ©iterations 
of  the  farm  and  garden,  through  the  course. 

The  college  was  opened  for  students  October  2,  1867,  and  has  been 
nearly  full  ever  since.  The  average  age  of  its  members  is  about  eigh- 
teen years,  ai'd  the  majority  are  farmers.  Xearly  all  who  have  entered 
have  been  desirous  of  remaining  through  the  entire  course,  and  aU  have 
performed  their  vaiious  duties  with  cheerfid  readiness.  The  manual 
labor  has  been  so  far  performed  without  any  manifestations  of  dissatis- 
faction, and  has  been  regarded  as  an  important  part  of  the  education. 

The  faculty  consists  of  a  president,  who  is  also  professor  of  botany  and 
horticulture:  a  ijrofessor  of  agriculture ;  a  professor  of  military  science: 
a  professor  of  mathematics  and  physics;  a  professor  of  chemistiy:  a  pro- 
fessor of  modern  languages:  and  such  instructors  and  lecturers  as  are  re- 
quired to  teach  in  the  best  manner  the  various  subjects  of  the  regular 
course. 

The  college  is  generally  conceded  to  have  been  thus  far  remarkably 
successful,  and  it  is  confidently  expected  that  the  legislature  of  the  State 
and  the  wealthy  friends  of  progi-essive  agiiculture  will  fm-nish  funds  suf- 
ficient to  place  it  in  the  foremost  rank  of  the  educational  institutions  of 
Massachusetts. 


RECENT  AGRICULTURAL  BOOKS. 


The^  Elemkxts  of  Agriculture  :  A  Book  for  Youug  Faimeis.    By  C4oo.  E.  Wariug.  jr. 
l"2mo.    2o4  pages.    Xe^w  York :    The  Tribune  Association. 

Tliis  book  teaclies  yoiing  farmers  the  first  jjrinciples  of  tlieir  i)rofes- 
sioTi.  and  shows  theiu  in  phiin  language  what  science  has  discovered 
and  toUl  in  its  necessarily  technical  terms,  and  what  experience  has 
proved  to  be  of  practical  value.  The  facts  promulgated  lie  at  the  gTound- 
work  of  farming,  and  are  essential  to  the  business  education  of  every 
farmer.  Its  teachings  are  based  on  the  positive  facts  of  chemistry  and 
the  most  enlightened  practice  of  modem  agriculture.  The  constitution 
of  plants,  the  formation  and  character  of  soils,  the  character  and  varie- 
ties of  manures,  the  mechanical  character  of  soOs,  with  reference  to 
draining,  sub-soil  i:)lowing,  rolling,  mulching,  &c.,  are  discussed  with 
comparative  fi'eedom  from  technical  terms. 

A  scientific  description  of  chemical  and  mechanical  manures  is  fol- 
lowed by  suggestions  on  their  relative  value,  their  manufacture,  preser- 
vation and  api:)lication ;  on  the  means  of  restoring  deficiencies  of  soils ;  on 
absorbents,  various  organic  and  mineral  manures,  atmospheric  fertilizers, 
leaching,  &c.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  '•  singular  fact  concerning  leaching, 
that  water  is  able  to  cai-ry  no  part  of  the  organic  constituents  of  vegeta- 
bles to  any  considerable  distance  below  the  surface  in  a  ferrile  soO. 
They  would  probably  be  caiTied  to  an  unlimited  dei>th  in  pure  sand,  as 
it  contains  nothing  which  is  capable  of  arresting  them;  but  in  most  soils 
the  clay  and  carbon  retain  all  of  the  ammonia  and  neai-ly  all  of  the  mat- 
ters which  go  to  form  the  ashes  of  plants,  very  near  the  siuface  of  the 
soU.  K  such  were  not  the  case,  the  fertility  of  the  earth  must  soon  be 
destroyed,  as  all  of  those  elements  which  the  soil  must  supj)ly  to  grow- 
ing plants  would  be  carried  down  out  ef  the  reach  of  roots,  and  leave 
the  world  a  barren  waste,  its  surface  having  lost  its  elements  of  fertility, 
while  the  downward  filtration  would  render  the  water  of  wells  and 
springs  unfit  for  use.  Xow,  however,  they  are  all  retained  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  and  the  water  issues  from  springs  comparatively  pure." 

On  the  question  of  spreading  maniu'e  on  land  for  any  length  of  time 
before  being  plowed  under,  Mr.  TVaring  says:  '•  Practice  has  gained  a  tri- 
umph over  the  old  theory.  There  is  no  doubt  that  mamu'e  so  spread 
is  subject  to  some  waste;  but  what  is  not  wasted  is  so  much  better  in- 
corporated with  the  soil  by  the  water  of  rains,  which  disti-ibutes  its  sol- 
uble parts  evenly  among  all  of  its  particles,  that  the  efiect  produced  is 
better  than  if  the  raw  manure  had  been  immediately  plowed  imder, 
necessarily  somewhat  uTCgidarly  and  in  spots.  In  this  latter  case  there 
would  be  no  loss  of  material;  but  some  parts  of  the  soil  would  receive 
more  than  was  necessary,  while  others  would  be  deprived  of  any  mate- 
rial benefit,  and  the  hmd  would  be  less  fertile  than  if  every  root  were 
sure  to  find,  in  every  part  of  the  soU,  its  due  proportion  of  the  food. 
Ammonia  is?  formed  only  during  decomposition;  and  especially  during 
cold  weather  there  is  very  little  decomjiosition  going  on  in  miiuui-e 
which  is  thinly  spread  upon  the  surface  of  the  land:  hence  tlie  loss  from 
this  cause  is  not  great. 

"  In  the  case  of  very  heavy  manuring,  especially  with  undecomposed 


556  AGEICL'JLTURAL    EKi-OKT. 

manui-e  ou  clay  laud,  a  great  benefit  arises  from  the  fermentation  of  the 
dung  in  the  soil,  a  chemical  action  producing  a  mechanical  eflect. 

"  i>ight  soil,  or  human  excitement,  is  the  best  manure  Avithin  rea<di  of 
the  farmer.  The  food  of  man  is  usually  much  richer  than  that  of  any 
other  animal,  is  of  a  more  varied  character,  and  richer  in  nitrogen,  the 
phosphates,  and  other  inorganic  constituents:  consequently  his  manure 
is  made  valuable  by  containing  large  quantities  of  these  matters.  It 
has  been  used  for  ages  in  China  and  Japan,  and  is  undoubtedly  the  secret 
of  their  success  in  supi>orting  an  immense  population  through  almost 
countless  ages,  "^thout  impoverishing  the  sod. 

'•  Some  have  supposed  that  mauming  vrith  night  soil  would  give  disa- 
greeable properties  to  plants:  this  is  not  the  case:  their  quality  is  inva- 
riably improved.  The  color  and  odor  of  the  rose  are  made  richer  and 
more  delicate  by  the  use  of  the  most  offensive  night  soil  as  manure. 

^'  It  is  evident  that  this  is  the  case  from  the  fact  that  i>iants  have  it  for 
their  direct  object  to  make  over  and  put  together  the  refuse  organic 
matter,  and  the  gases  and  the  minerals  found  in  nature,  for  the  use  of 
animals.  If  there  were  no  natural  means  of  rendering  the  excrement 
of  animals  available  to  plants,  the  earth  must  soon  be  shorn  of  its  fer- 
tility, as  the  elements  of  growth,  when  once  consumed,  would  be  essen- 
tially destroyed,  and  no  soil  could  survive  the  exhaustion.  There  is  no 
reason  why  the  manure  of  mpji  should  be  rejected  by  vegetation  more 
than  that  of  any  other  animal,  and  indeed  it  is  not :  am^jle  experience 
has  proved  that  there  is  no  better  manure  in  existence.  Xight  soil 
may  be  so  kept  that  there  will  be  no  loss  of  its  valuable  gases,  and  no 
offensive  odor  arise  from  it.  when  it  can  be  removed  and  applied  to  crops 
without  unpleasantness ;  and  that  is,  by  simply  mixing  with  it  a  little 
charcoal  dust,  prepared  muck,  dry  earth,  or  any  other  good  absorbent, 
thus  making  what  is  called  poudrette.'* — (See  article  on  earth  closets.  &c.) 

In  illustrating  the  beneiits  of  sub-soil  i>lowing,  the  author  remarks: 
"  K  i)lants  will  grow  better  on  a  soil  six  inches  deep  than  on  one  ol 
three  inches,  th'ere  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  be  benefited  in 
proportion  by  disturbing  the  soil  to  the  whole  depth  to  which  roots  will 
travel,  even  to  a  depth  of  two  feet.  The  minute  rootlets  of  corn  aud 
most  other  plants  wiU,  if  allowed  by  cultivation,  occupy  the  soil  to  a 
greater  depth  than  this,  having  a  fiber  in  neiirly  every  cubic  inch  of  the 
soil  for  the  whole  distance.  There  are  very  few  cultivated  plants  whose 
roots  would  not  travel  to  a  dejith  of  thirty  inches  or  more.  Even  the 
onion  sends  its  roots  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches  when  the  soil  i*^ 
well  cultivated. 

'•  The  object  of  loosening  the  soil  is  to  admit  roots  to  a  sufficient  dep;  ^ 
to  hold  the  plant  in  its  position ;  to  obtain  the  nutriment  necessary  ,i~> 
its  growth ;  to  reeeive  moisture  from  the  lower  portion  of  ihe  soil :  and. 
if  it  be  a  bulb,  tuber,  or  tap,  to  assume  the  form  requisite  for  its  largest 
development.  It  must  be  e\ident,  also.  That  roots  penetrating  the  soil 
to  a  depth  of  two  feet,  anchor  the  plant  with  greater  stability  than  those 
which  are  spread  more  thinly  near  the  suifoce." 

The  chapters  on  under-draining,  jalowing.  midching,  and  weeding,  are 
valuable,  but  in  a  compact  style  scarcely  admitting  abridgment. 

How  Chops  Grow  :  A  Treatise  on  the  Chemical  Composition.  Stracture.  and  Life  of 
the  Plant,  for  all  students  of  AuTicultnre,  with  numerous  Ilinstrations  and  Tallies 
of  Analyses.  By  Samuel  W.  Johnsou,  A.  31..  professor  of  analytical  and  agricultu- 
ral chemistry  in  the  ShefiQeld  Scientific  School  of  Yale  C<Jllege,  ic.  r2iao.  334 
pages.    New  York :    Orange  Judd  «S:  Co.     1S66. 

Professor  Johnson  has  delivered  an  annual  course  of  lectures  to  the 
scientific  school  of  Yale  CoUege  iOr  several  years,  and  this  work  is  the 


RECENT   AGRICULTURAL   BOOK.S.  557 

result  of  studies  imdertal^cn  in  preparing  these  lectures.  It  considers 
plants  from  three  distinct,  vet  closely  related,  stand-points,  viz :  their 
chemical  composition,  their  structure,  and  the  otSces  of  their  organs,  and 
the  conditions  of  their  life  and  growth — the  author  keeping  his  eye 
steadily  tised  upon  the  practical  aspects  of  the  subject.  ''It  "must  not 
be  forgotten,"  he  says,  ""that  a  valuable  principle  is  often  arrived  at 
iTom  tiie  study  of  facts,  which,  considered  singly,  have  no  visible  con- 
nection with  a  practical  result.  Statements  are  made  which  may  appear 
far  more  curious  than  usefiil,  and  that  have  at  present  a  simplyspecula- 
tive  interest,  no  mode  being  apparent  by  which  the  farmer  can  iucrea^e 
his  crops  or  diminish  his  labors  by  help  of  his  acquaintance  with  them. 
Such  fact«  are  not,  however,  for  this  reason  to  be  ignored.  It  is  just 
such  curious  and  seemingly  useless  facts  that  are  often  the  seeds  of  vast 
advg.nces  in  industry  and  the  arts." 

In  the  introduction,  the  objections  sometimes  made  to  theoretical  agri- 
culture are  met :  '•  In  all  cases,  thought  goes  before  work,  and  the  intel- 
ligent workman  always  has  a  theory  upon  which  his  practice  is  planned. 
Xo  farm  was  ever  conducted  without  physiology,  chemistry,  and  phys- 
ics, any  more  than  an  aqueduct  or  a  railway  was  built  without  mathe- 
matics and  mechanics.  Every  successful  farmer  is,  to  some  extent,  a 
scientific  man.  Let  him  throw  away  the  knowledge  of  facts  and  the 
knowledge  of  principles  which  constitute  his  science,  and  he  has  lost 
the  elements  of  success.  Other  qualifications  being  equal,  the  more 
advanced  and  complete  the  theory  of  which  the  farmer  is  the  master, 
the  more  successful  must  be  his  farming.  The  more  he  knows,  the  more 
he  can  do.  The  more  deeply,  comprehensively,  and  clearly  he  can  think, 
the  more  economically  and  advantageously  can  he  work. " 

'•There  is  no  opposition  or  conJlicc  between  science  and  art,  between 
theory  and  practice.  If  they  appear  to  jar,  it  is  because  we  have  some- 
thing false  or  incomplete  in  what  we  call  our  science  or  our  art ;  or  else 
we  do  not  perceive  correctly,  but  are  misled  by  the  narrowness  and 
aberrations  of  our  vision.  It  is  often  said  of  a  machine,  that  it  was 
good  In  theory  but  failed  in  practice.  This  is  as  untrue  as  imtrue  can 
be.  If  a  machine  has  failed  in  practice  it  is  because  it  was  imperfect 
in  theory.  It  should  be  said  of  such  a  failure,  'the  machine  was  good, 
judged  by  the  best  theory  known  to  its  inventor,  but  its  incapacity  to 
work  demonstrates  that  the  theory  had  a  flaw.' 

'•The  progress  of  agricultui-e  is  the  joint  work  of  theory  and  practice. 
In  many  departments  great  advances  have  been  made  diu^ing  the  last 
hundred  years ;  especially  is  this  true  in  all  that  relates  to  im»plements 
and  machines,  and  to  the  improvement  of  domestic  animals.  It  is,  how- 
ever, in  just  these  departments  that  an  improved  theory  has  had  sway. 
More  recent  is  the  development  of  agriculture  in  its  chemical  and  physi- 
ological aspects.  In  these  directions,  the  present  century,  or,  we  might 
almost  say,  the  last  thirty  years,  has  seen  more  accomplished  than  all 
previous  time.  *  *  *  *  It  is,  in  fact,  during  the  last  thirty  years 
that  agricidtiu-al  chemistry  has  come  to  rest  on  sure  foundations. "  Oiu- 
knowledge  of  the  structure  and  physiology  of  plants  is  of  like  recent 
development.  What  immense  practical  benefit  the  farmer  has  gathered 
from  this  advance  of  science !  The  dense  popidation  of  Great  Britain, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  Saxony  can  attest  the  fact.  Chemistiy  has  ascer- 
tained what  vegetation  absolutely  demands  for  its  gi'owth,  and  points 
out  a  multitude  of  soiu'ces  whence  the  requisite  materials  for  crops  can 
be  derived.  To  be  sure,  Cato  and  Columella  knew  that  ashes,  bones, 
bird-dung,  and  green  manm^ing,  as  well  as  drainage  and  aeration  of  the 
soil,  were  good  for  the  crops ;  but  that  carbonic  acid,  potash,  phosphate 


558  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

of  lime  J  and  compounds  of  nitrogen  are  the  chief  pabidum  of  vegeta- 
tion, they  did  not  know.  They  did  not  know  that  the  atmosphere  dis- 
solves the  rocks  and  converts  inert  stone  into  nutritive  soil.  These 
grand  principles,  understood  in  many  of  their  details,  are  an  inestimable 
boon  to  agricnltiu'e,  and  intelligent  farmers  have  not  been  slow  to  apply 
them  in  practice.  The  vast  trade  in  phosphatic  and  in  Peruvian  guano, 
and  in  nitrate  of  soda ;  the  great  manufactures  of  oil  of  vitriol,  of  super 
phosphate  of  lime,  of  lish  fertilizers ;  and  the  mining  of  fossil  bones  and 
of  potash  s.llts,  are  largely  or  entirely  industries  based  upon  and  con- 
trolled by  chemistry  in  the  service  of  agriculture. " 

In  the  chapter  on  the  vegetative  organs  of  plants,  it  is  remarked  that 
the  most  satisfactory  observations  we  possess  on  the  quantity  and  length 
of  roots  of  several  important  crops  growing  in  the  field,  have  been  made 
by  Schubart,  who  separated  them  from  tiic  soil  by  the  following  expe- 
dient: "An  excavation  was  made  in  a  field  to  the  depth  of  six  feet,  and 
a  stream  of  water  dixected  against  the  vertical  wall  of  soil  imtil  it  was 
washed  away,  so  that  the  roots  of  the  plants  growing  in  it  were  laid 
bare.  The  roots  thus  exposed  in  a  field  of  rye,  in  one  of  beans,  and  in 
a  bed  of  garden  peas,  presented  the  appearance  of  a  mat  or  felt  of  white 
fibers  to  a  depth  of  about  four  feet  from  the  sm-face.  The  roots  of  win- 
ter wheat  he  observed  as  deep  as  seven  feet,  in  a  light  subsoil,  forty- 
seven  days  after  sowing.  The  depth  of  the  roots  of  winter  wheat,  win- 
ter rye,  and  winter  colza,  as  well  as  of  clover,  was  from  three  to  four 
feet.  The  roots  of  clover  one  year  old  were  three  snd  a  half  feet  long ; 
those  of  two-year-old  clover  but  four  inches  longer. 

"Some  plants  have  roots  equally  able  to  exist  and  perform  their  func- 
tions, whether  in  the  soil  or  submerged  in  water.  Many  forms  of  veg- 
etation found  in  our  swam})s  and  marshes  are  of  this  kind.  Of  agricul- 
tural plants,  rice  is  an  example  in  point.  Kice  will  grow  in  a  soil  of 
ordinary  character,  in  respect  of  moistui-e,  as  the  upland  cotton  sods,  or 
even  the  pine  barrens  of  the  Carolinas.  It  flourishes  admirably  in  the 
tide  swamps  of  the  coast,  where  the  land  is  laid  undei;  water  for  weeks 
at  a  time  duriug  its  growth,  and  it  succeeds  equally  well  in  fields  which 
are  flowed  from  the  time  of  planting  to  that  of  harvesting."     *     *     * 

"The  idea  of  sjwcies  as  distinct  from  variety,  which  has  been  held  by 
most  scientific  authorities  hitherto,  is  based  primarily  on  the  faculty  of 
continued  reproduction.  The  horse  is  a  species  comprising  many  varie- 
ties. Any  two  of  these  animals,  by  sexual  union,  may  propagate  the 
species.  The  same  is  true  of  the  ass.  The  horse  and  the  ass,  by  sexual 
union,  produce  a  hybrid — the  mule — but  the  sexual  union  of  mides  is 
without  result.  They  cannot  continue  the  mule  as  a  distinct  kind  of 
animal — as  a  species.  Among  animals  a  species  therefore  comprises  all 
those  individuals  which  are  related  by  common  origin  or  fraternity,  and 
which  are  capable  of  sexual  fertility.  Tliis  conception  involves  original 
and  permanent  differences  between  different  species.  Species,  therefore, 
cannot  change  any  of  their  essential  characters,  those  characters  which 
are  hence  termed  specific. 

"Individuals  of  the  same  species  differ.  In  fact,  no  two  individuals 
are  quite  alike.  Circumstances  of  tenqiorature,  food,  and  habits  of  lif^ 
increase  these  differences,  and  voA'ietieH  originate  when  such  differences 
assume  a  comparative  permanence  and  fixity.  But  as  external  conditions 
cause  variation  away  from  any  i)articular  representative  of  a  species,  so 
they  may  cause  variation  back  again  to  the  original;  and  although 
variation  may  take  a  seemiugly  Mide  range,  its  bounds  are  fixed  and  do 
not  touch  specific  characters. 

"The  causes  that  i>roduce  varieties  are  numeiouis,  but  in  many  cases 


RECENT  AGRICULTURAL  BOOKS.  559 

their  uature  and  their  mode  of  action  are  difficult  or  impossible  to  under- 
stand. The  influence  of  society  or  abundance  of  nutriment  "we  can  easily 
comprehend  may  dwarf  a  plant  or  lead  to  the  production  of  a  giant  indi- 
vidual ;  but  how,  in  some  cases,  the  peculiarities  thus  impressed  upon 
individufils  acquii'e  permanence  and  ai-e  transmitted  to  subsequent  gen- 
erations, while  in  others  they  disappear,  is  beyond  explanation. " 

These  extracts  give  an  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  work.  The  appendix 
contains  twelve  tables  exhibiting  the  composition  of  a  large  number  of 
agricultui'al  plants  and  products,  viewed  from  many  different  stand- 
points, of  value  to  farmers  and  students,  and  which  probably  cannot  be 
found  elsewhere  in  our  language.  They  are  the  average  of  several  trust- 
^v  orthy  analyses  by  Professor  Wolff,  of  the  Eoyal  Academy  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Hohenheim,  Wiirtemberg. 

Farm  Talk:  A  series  of  articles  in  the  colloquial  style,  Uiustratiug  various  common 
farm  topics.  By  George  E.  Brackett,  Belfast,  Maine.  130  pages.  Boston :  Lee  & 
Sheiiard,  1668. 

A  volume  of  familiar  conversations  of  the  author,  with  his  neighbor- 
ing farmers,  on  haying,  butter-making,  management  of  cattle  shows, 
agTicultural'  colleges,  apple  trees  and  insects,  guess-work  in  farming, 
selection  of  seed  corn,  farmers'  papers,  road-making,  fancy  farmers, 
farm  fences,  pigs  and  poultry,  hucksters  or  middle-men,  parasitic  plants, 
winter  management  of  live  stock  in  barns,  and  other  topics  interesting 
to  farmers.  The  colloquies  are  full  of  good  sense  and  practical  informa- 
tion; a  part  of  one  with  his  neighbor  Smith,  on  "farming  by  guess,"  is 
here  given: 

"We  farmers  are  a  stubborn  class  to  learn.  We  do  not  accept  facts 
without  a  good  deal  of  proof  and  persuasion,  and,  in  too  many  cases, 
work  out  our  own  injury  through  a  fear  of  being  too  easily  deceived. 
This  is  a  progressive  age,  and  those  who  allow  themselves  to  fall  in  the 
rear  in  the  march  of  imiirovement  must  be  content  to  occupy  second-rate 
positions,  and  be  satisfied  with  small  pecuniary  rewards. 

"It  is  somewhat  surprising  that,  notwithstanding  the  improvements 
in  nearly  every  department  of  farming,  so  little  has  been  effected  toward 
inducing  farmers  to  perform  theu'  operations  in  a  more  systematic  man- 
ner, and  keep  a  regidar  record  and  account  of  their  farming  and  business, 
generally  and  specifically.  But  for  one  farmer  who  practices  such  a 
method,  ninety-nine  keep  all  their  accounts  'in  their  heads,'  as  it  is 
termed,  and  consequently  are  properly  called  guess  farmers,  for  they  never 
Tcnoic  anything,  only  gtiess  it  is  so  and  so.  They  don't  know  whether  this, 
that,  or  the  other  crop  pays  best ;  whether  they  can  afford  to  sell  their 
stock  ov  produce  at  such  and  such  price  or  not.  They  can't  tell  whether 
it  is  for  their  interest  to  continue  a  certain  course  of  husbandry,  use  such 
a  fertilizer,  cultivate  a  soil  in  such  a  manner,  nor  even,  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  are  they  sure  whether  their  names  should  be  recorded  on  the  profit 
or  loss  side  of  the  ledger.    IIa\ang  kept  no  account  of  their  doings,  they 

are  almost  wholly  in  the  dark.    They  can  only  '■guess  it's  about  so.' 
*#«#*  *  *  * 

"  Xow,  see  here.  Smith.  Here  is  my  corn-field  record.  I  have  written 
down  everything  connected  with  it,  and  to-day  I  have  summed  it  all  up, 
and  Txnow  all  about  it ;  there's  not  a  particle  of  guess-work.  Here  is  the 
size  of  the  field,  kind  of  soil,  when  and  how  many  times  it  was  plowed, 
harrowed,  and  furrowed;  also  the  amount  and  kind  of  manure;  how  it 
was  applied,  and  what  and  how  much  top-dressing  I  used.  Then  there 
is  the  time  of  iilanting;  i^reparation  and  kind  of  seed;  how  far  apart  it 
was  planted  in  the  rows  and  hills,  and  how  many  stalks  in  the  hill ;  when 


560  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

and  how  lon^  after  planting  it  came  up;  manner  of  cultivating,  time  of 
harvesting,  &c.  Aijd  here  I  have  got,  in  exact  figures,  the  cost,  value, 
and  px'iccof  everything;  planting,  hoeing,  and  harvesting;  the  value  oi 
the  corn,  beans,  pumpkins,  and  fodder;  the  value  of  the  manure,  rent 
of  land,  manure  left  in  the  soil,  and  every  item  set  dovm  in  full,  so  that 
I  know  exactly  what  it  cost  me  to  raise  that  piece  of  corn,  and  thus, 
whether  it  pays  to  continue  to  grow  corn  under  such  circumstances. 

"  This  is  only  an  example.  All  other  farm  operations  may  be  recorded 
in  somewhat  the  same  manner,  more  simple  if  you  please,  and  then  there 
would  be  an  end  of  the  continual  guessing  and  thinking,  and  ignorance  in 
regard  to  those  things  we  should  Icnoio  about.  Of  course  keei^iug  such 
records  occupies  some  time,  but  how  can  it  be  spent  to  more  advantage 
than  in  thus  obtaining  a  better  knowledge  of  our  profession,  and  the 
workings  of  that  special  branch  in  which  we  may  be  eng-aged?  Brother 
farmers,  think  of  this  matter,  and  act  upon  it.  Don't  be  careless  and 
stubborn,  and  persistently  continue  to  drive  on  in  the  old  ruts,  simply 
because  you  have  been  accustomed  to  so  doing,  or  because  your  fathers 
have  done  so  before  you;  but  accept  a  change  whenever  it  is  for  your 
advantage  to  do  so ;  if  not  for  your  own  sakes,  for  the  good  of  yoiu'  boys 
and  posterity." 

The  Farmers'  and  Mecuajstics'  JVIajstu^vx,  witli  mauy  valuable  tables  for  machinists, 
manufacturers,  merchants,  builders,  engineers,  masons,  painters,  plumbers,  garden- 
ers, accountants,  &c.  By  William  S.  Courtney.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  George  E. 
Waring,  jr.   8vo.   506  pages.   New  York:  E.  B.  Treat  &  Co.,  1868. 

This  work  was  compiled  by  the  late  William  Courtney,  of  England, 
and  contains  many  useful  tables  and  facts  in  the  fields  of  agriculture, 
hydraulics,  mechanics,  and  most  of  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  life.  It 
comprises  the  substance  of  the  principal  practical  "hand-books"  of  the 
day,  on  the  measurement  of  land,  hay,  grain,  timber,  weight  of  cattle, 
capacity  of  wagon  beds,  gauging  of  casks,  valuable  facts  on  plants,  soils, 
manures',  the  seasons,  fuel,  weather,  fences,  draining,  soiling  cattle,  steam- 
ing food  for  stock,  dairying,  gardening,  &c.  The  work  has  been  care- 
fully revised  and  enlarged,  with  a  comprehensive  abstract  of  Mr.  War- 
ing's  treatise  on  earth  closets,  which  he  considers  "  the  coming  reforn; 
that  promises  more  for  civilization  and  for  national  prosperity  tJian  any 
improvement  that  has  been  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  public."  An 
elaborate  chapter  on  tUe  draining  has  also  been  added,  and  the  numerous 
tables  of  the  original  work  reduced  to  the  coins  and  measures  of  the 
United  States.    The  book  is  illustrated  in  a  clear  and  attractive  style. 

The  American  Wheat  Cultukist.  Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings.  By  S. 
E.  Todd,  horticultural  editor  of  the  New  York  Times,  and  author  of  the  Young 
Farmer's  Manual,  «&c.    432  pages.    Now  York :    Taintor  Brothers  &  Co.,  1868. 

This  treatise  on  the  subject  of  wheat  is  given  as  the  result  of  more 
than  forty  years'  experience  in  its  culture.  The  author  claims  to  have 
investigated  the  failures  of  the  wheat  crop,  and  has  endeavored  to  dis- 
cover efticicnt  and  practical  remedies,  discarding  all  mere  theories,  and 
telling  farmers  how  to  raise  good  wheat  where  their  predecessors  failed 
to  get  fair  crops.  The  work  discusses  the  botanical  character  and 
chemical  structure  of  the  wheat  plant ;  describes  the  several  varieties ; 
its  proper  soil,  preparation,  cidture,  and  friKitification ;  harvesting, 
general  management,  and  requisite  machinery;  mildew  and  other  dis- 
eases ;  insect  enemies,  and  remedies  for  their  ravages ;  closing  with  a 
description  of  the  various  reapers  and  other  labor-saving  machines  now 
in  use.    The  author  doubts  the  practicability  of  selecting  wheat  from 


RECENT  AGRICULTURAL  BOOKS.  561 

different  latitudes,  so  as  to  secure  a  variety  tliat  \\'ill  ripen  before  tlie 
midge  begins  its  ravages,  but  concludes  that  wheat  is  not  different  from 
Indian  corn  in  its  climatology,  and  that  it  is  governed  by  the  same  laws 
that  control  other  useful  plants.  The  seasons  are  so  different  that  the 
same  variety,  cultivated  by  the  same  farmer,  and  where  soil  and  loca- 
tion are  as  nearly  alike  as  it  is  practicable  to  have  them,  will  not  ripen 
at  the  same  period  in  two,  three,  or  four  succeeding  harvests.  Conse- 
quently, when  seed  is  brought  from  the  north,  and  it  fails  to  produce  a 
satisfactory  crop,  or  to  ripen  as  soon  as  the  same  variety  has  been 
accustomed  to  mature,  nothing  delinite  is  proved  in  regard  to  the 
climatology  of  the  wheat  plant,  because  the  field  where  it  was  grown 
may  have  been  a  warm  and  quick  soil,  with  a  southern  exposiu'e ;  and 
the  crop  maj'  have  had  the  advantages  of  superior  cultivation  and  a 
propitious  season,  and  every  circumstance  favoring  a  boiuitiful  crop. 
On  the  other  hand  adverse  conditions  would  produce  a  very  different 
result,  and  such  experiments  lead  to  incorrect  conclusions. 

The  opinion  is  expressed  that  wheat  may  be  raised  all  over  Xew  Eng- 
land, and  that  the  whole  matter  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words,  viz  : 
cultivate  well  and  manure  bountifully.  Usually,  the  best  prei)aration 
of  the  soil  for  wheat  is  a  dressing  of  rich,  well  rotted,  or  composted 
barn-yard  manure.  Unrotted  manure  tends  to  produce  a  heavy  growth 
of  straw,  liable  to  rust,  and  to  yield  less  gTain.  It  is  best  to  apply  it 
late  in  autumn,  harrowing  it  in  after  the  land  has  been  well  plowed.  It 
wOl  be  well  decomposed  by  spring.  K  necessary  to  apply  the  manure  in 
the  spring,  scrape  the  hog-yard  for  it  with  broad  hoes,  and  use  heaps  of 
fine  manure  previously  collected  ;  and  if  the  sod  be  compact  and  hea%"y, 
add  well-rotted  chip  manure.  On  soils  "with  a  great  amount  of  vegetable 
matter,  never  apply  barn-yard  manure  unless  thoroughly  composted  or 
rotted.  Where  there  is  a  great  gTowth  of  straw,  wood-ashes,  either 
leached  or  unleached,  liberally  applied,  will  have  a  good  influence  in 
producing  bountiful  crops  of  grain.  Alter  a  few  years  of  thorough 
cultivation  and  manuring,  heavy  crops  of  wheat  vriW  appear. 

Charcoal  dust  as  a  fertilizer  is  recommended,  being  composed  almost 
entirely  of  pure  carbon;  and  when  smaU  fragments  are  exposed  to  the 
influence  of  the  weather,  they  undergo  but  little  change  in  a  long  term 
of  years.  Still  the  roots  of  growing  i^iants  will  lay  hold  of  the  small 
bits  of  charcoal,  and  appropriate  the  substance  in  the  coal  to  the  growth 
and  development  of  the  stems,  leaves,  and  seeds  of  grain,  fruit,  and 
vegetables.  Charcoal,  and  particularly  charcoal  dust,  has  the  power  of 
attracting  and  fixing  large  quantities  of  ammonia,  and  retaining  this 
fertilizing  material  when  buried  in  the  soil,  until  the  fine  fibers  of  the 
roots  require  it  for  promoting  theii'  gTOwth.  It  has  the  power  also  of 
attracting  and  retaining  other  gaseous  substances  besides  ammonia, 
highly  beneficial  to  gTass,  vines,  trees,  and  shrubs.  Observing  farmers 
must  have  noticed  the  luxuriant  growth  of  cereal  grain  about  the  places 
w^here  charcoal  has  been  burned,  even  thirty  or  forty  years  ago.  The 
stems  of  wheat  on  such  old  charcoal  beds  are  seldom  affected  with  rust, 
and  the  straw  is  stifter  than  that  grown  where  there  is  no  dressing  oi 
charcoal.  But  the  particles  of  charcoal  shoidd  be  ground  fine,  and 
reduced  to  a  liquid  condition.  Charcoal  dust  scattered  in  the  stables  of 
domestic  animals  will  absorb  large  quantities  of  the  choicest  fertilizing 
material,  imparting  a  rich  pabulum  to  the  roots  of  growing  plants.  In 
the  selection  of  seed,  farmers  are  too  careless.  Early  maturity  in  wheat 
is  of  the  first  importance.  Seed  that  ripens  early  should  be  selected ; 
and  that  which  grows  on  high,  dry,  and  heavy  soil,  rather  than  that 
from  a  light,  mucky  soil,  as  being  whiter  and  i)lmuiier.  In  this  respect 
3G 


562  AGEICDLTDRAL   REPORT. 

all  small  craiu  may  be  classed  together,  as  barley,  rye,  and  oats.    The 
•  oV  wheat  in  northern  Illinois  is  probably  due  to  care- 
ting  seed ;  the  farmer  going  to  his  bin,  and  cleauiug  over 
:  number  of  bushels  to  be  sown,  and  really  often  without  its 
:>(l  at  all,  fi-om  "  want  of  time."    If  it  is  a  law  of  nature  that 
like  luuiiiiees  like^  what  can  be  expected  from  such  a  course  but  a  con- 
stant, certain  deterioration  ? 

Corrox  Cultuiie.    By  Joseph  B.  Lyman.    With  an  additional  chapter  on  cotton  seed, 
and  ita  uses,  by  J.  R.  Sypher.   lUO  pages.  New  York :  Orange  Judd  &  Co.    1868. 

Though  cotton,  the  great  American  staple  of  export,  has  been  pro- 
claimed a  king  in  the  commercial  world,  no  leading  crop  of  the  comitrv 
has  been  so  Uttle  studied  by  scientific  men,  and  none  has  been  cidtivated 
with  so  little  regard  to  fimdamental  principles  of  agTicuitiu^al  chemistry 
Mr.  Lyman  ascribes  this  to  three  reasons:  1.  The  class  of  labor  hith- 
erto applied  to  cotton-raising  has  been,  in  the  last  degree,  rude  and 
unskilled;  2.  The  opening  of  vast  regions  in  the  south-western  States 
of  virgin  and  inexhaustible  soil,  obtained  at  almo.st  nominal  prices, 
has  rendered  unnecessary  that  system  of  culture  required  in  the  older 
States  to  keep  the  laud  in  undiminished  production ;  and,  3.  Cotton  is 
not  a  rapid  exliauster  of  any  sod. 

In  this  treatise  the  climate  and  soil  best  adapted  to  cotton  growing 
are  described,  with  practical  directions  as  to  the  established  routine  in 
it^cultui'c;  its  enemies  and  diseases;  how  the  crop  is  cidtivated;  the 
requisite  stock,  implements,  and  laborers;  picking,  ginning,  baling,  and 
marketing;  a  calendar  for  all  the  operations  of  cotton  planting  through 
the  year ;  quality,  extent,  and  characteristics  of  the  cotton  lauds  of  North 
America ;  the  various*kinds  cultivated  in  the  United  States ;  sugges- 
tions in  regard  to  an  improved  and  scientific  mode  of  cultui'e;  and  how 
to  realize  the  most  from  a  crop,  by  combining  the  growing  of  cotton  with 
its  manufacture  into  yarns  and  fabrics ;  its  value  as  a  plant,  and  the  uses 
to  which  it  may  be  applied ;  its  past  and  fnture  history  and  statistics ;  and 
practical  suggestions  to  the  various  classes  of  persons  who  propose  to 
engage  in  cotton  giowing.  At  the  close  of  the  work,  a  chapter  is  added 
by  J.  K.  Sypher,  formerly  an  engineer  in  the  United  States  navy,  on  cot- 
ton-seed oil  and  cake;  the  mauuiactiu-e  of  this  oil  and  its  uses  inthearts; 
and  the  value  of  cotton -seed  cake  in  stock  feeding,  and  as  a  fertilizer. 

The  insects  that  alllict  and  sometimes  wholly  destroy  the  cotton  plant, 
viz.,  the  cotton  louse,  the  ant  worm,  the  cotton  worm  or  moth,  the  army 
worm,  and  the  boll  worm,  are  described  and  illustrated  by  drawings  made 
from  tlie  engravings  of  Professor  Glover,  of  this  Department.  Several 
suggestious  are  made  as  to  the  best  modes  of  desti-oying  these  formidable 
pe.sts. 

The  author  holds  that  the  preservation  and  restoration  of  cotton  lands 
depend  on  two  practices,  the  one  mechanical,  the  other  chemical ;  the 
former  involving  no  other  expense  than  a  little  well-directed  labor ;  the 
latter,  the  restoration  of  a  few  pounds  of  potash,  lime,  and  phosphorus 
to  each  acre  from  which  a  crop  has  been  taken. 

1.  Jleclianical;  circle  plowing  and  ditching,  to  prevent  the  deteriora- 
tion of  the  light,  porous,  upland  cotton  soils  by  washing.  It  is  said 
that  Mr.  Jellerson  first  suggested  this,  taking  the  hint  from  noticing 
tliat  the  i)easaiits  in  France  conformed  the  curve  of  their  furrow.s  to  the 
slope  of  the  hills  on  which  they  were  plowing.  lie  recommended  the 
phuj  to  a  :\Ir.  Dunbar,  who  had  extensive  plantations  on  the  steep  but 
fertile  hills  near  Natchez.  The  siujple  good  sense  of  this  innovation  on 
the  old  and  ruinous  mode  of  plowing,  at  once  recommended  itself,  and 


EECENT  ■' AGEICULTUEAL  BOOKS.  563 

it  was  adopted  by  the  most  intelligent  planters.  But  millions  of  acres 
had  been  Tvell  nigh  ruined  and  thro^vn  oxit  to  sedge  grass  and  the  foxes 
before  the  improved  mode  was  brought  into  practice.  In  that  part  of 
Mississippi  where  it  was  first  adopted,  the  plowmen  have  acquired  such 
skill,  that,  with  a  good  two-horse  plow,  one  will  run  it  in  the  softest  soU, 
over  irregTdar  groups  of  steep  hills,  so  that  hardly  a  ton  of  mold  will 
be  washed  into  the  bottoms  during  the  most  rainy  season.  Tliis  mode 
of  circle  plowing  is  recommended  for  general  adoption  on  hilly  lands. 
Probably  the  best  way  to  begin  this  system  is  in  connection  with  a  series 
of  circle  ditches,  for  the  construction  of  which  ample  details  are  given 
in  the  voltmie  under  consideration. 

2.  The  nature  and  amount  of  the  requisite  fertilizers.  After  stating 
\\  hat  is  absti"acted  fi'om  the  soil  by  this  crop,  a  compost  heap  is  recom- 
mended, made  by  hauling  muck  to  the  barn-yard,  and  allowing  hogs  to 
root  it  over ;  the  di'oppings  of  barn-yard  fowls,  being  rich  in  i)hosphates, 
shoidd  be  added,  and  lime  and  ashes  occasionally  sprinkled  on  the  pile : 
this  manure  is  to  be  applied  in  connection  wirh  the  circular  mode  of 
plowing,  so  as  to  retain  all  these  fertilizing  salts  in  the  soil.  The  appli- 
cation of  about  a  cord  of  this  compost  to  the  acre  would  preseiwe  the 
cotton  lands  from  deterioration  and  enable  them  to  produce  a  bale  to 
the  acre,  for  ten,  perhaps  twenty  years. 

The  following  rotation  of  crops  is  also  recommended :  Divide  the 
plowed  land  into  three  parts,  assigning  for  each  farm  laborer  five  acres 
in  cotton ;  ten  in  cereals  and  potatoes,  according  to  soil  and  climate ; 
allowing  five  to  remain  fallow.  Enough  stock  must  be  kept  to  consume 
all  the  food  gTown  on  the  ten  acres,  which  stock  should  be  confined  in 
pens  at  night,  and  well  littered  with  leaves  and  pine  straw,  (which  is 
short  and  contains  more  potash  than  wheat  or  oat  straw.)  and  no  manure 
be  wasted.  A  few  pounds  of  sulphiuic  acid,  after  it  has  eaten  up  all 
the  bones  and  decayed  animal  matter  on  the  place,  should  be  sprinkled 
on  this  compost.  Wood  ashes  never  come  amiss.  The  decayed  leaves 
of  the  ashes  will  afibrd  the  necessary  potash,  and  the  ordure  the  phos- 
phoric acid  and  lime.  This  is  to  be  spread  liberally  on  the  land  that 
was  fallow  the  previous  year :  and  by  its  having  been  fallow  the  cocoons 
of  the  boll  worm  will  be  foimd  to  have  died  out.  By  this  high  and  care- 
ful culture,  Doctor  Cloud,  an  intelligent  planter  in  Alabama,  thinks  he 
took  as  much  cotton  fi'om  his  five  acres  as  his  neighbors  trom  their  ten 
or  fiiteen  acres  cultivated  in  the  old  style. 

However  important  it  may  be  to  the  South  to  combine  the  gi'owing  of 
cotton  ^vith  its  manufacture  into  yai-ns  and  fabrics,  it  is  not  likely  to 
be  done,  to  any  gi-eat  extent  for  many  years,  on  account  of  the  sparse- 
ness  of  the  popidation.  Operatives  ai-e  wanting,  and,  not  only  so,  but 
the  class  tiom  which  operatives  are  produced. 

Mr.  LjTaan  closes  his  part  of  the  ti'eatis-3  with  some  practical  sugges- 
tions as  to  the  various  classes  of  persons  who  will  find  it  an  object  to 
engage  in  cotton-planting.  He  gives  soiie  interesting  statistics  and 
strong  commercial  reasons  for  believing  in  a  future  for  cotton  planters 
more  brdliant  than  anything  in  the  past,  when  the  new  system  of  free 
labor  shall  have  settled  down  on  a  thm  basis ;  the  exj^erience  of  the  world, 
since  the  outbreak  of  our  late  civil  war,  having  established  the  OTeat  supe- 
riority of  North  America  as  the  best  cotton-growing  region  ol  the  globe. 

irAiiDEXiNG  FOR  Pkofit:  A  Guide  to  tlio  successful  cultivatiou  of  the  market  and 
family  garden.  Illustrated.  By  Petei-  Henderson.  South  Bergen,.  New  Jersey.  1^ 
mo.    ^5  pages.    Ne-vr  York :  Orange  Judd  &  Co.    ISGd. 

The  author  of  this  voliune  is  well  known  as  one  of  the  most  successful 


564  AGKICULTUEAL    REPORT. 

market  gardeuers  ou  a  large  scale  in  tlie  viciiiity  of  New  York;  and,  hav- 
ing had  i)ractical  experience  in  all  the  departments  of  his  profession,  his 
book  has  a  vahie  which  places  it  above  simple  compihitious  ou  this  subject. 

Detailed  instructions  are  given  as  to  the  proper  location  and  prepara- 
tion of  a  garden,  the  necessary  implements,  the  management  of  cold- 
frames,  hot-beds,  and  greenhouses ;  tiansplantiug,  and  the  packing  of 
vegetables  for  shipping;  and  the  leading  vegetables  now  used  in  this 
coimtry,  and  the  troublesome  insects  to  be  encountered,  are  described. 
A  calendar  of  operations  for  each  month  is  given,  with  advice  as  to  the 
proper  men  for  the  business,  the  amount  of  capital  requisite,  and  the 
working  force  per  acre  uecessars'  in  cultivating  the  vegetable  gardens 
that  supply  the  gi'cat  markets  of  Xew  York  and  Philadelphia. 

In  the  chapter  on  drainage,  an  instance  is  given  of  a  •'  German  who 
leased  for  ten  years  eight  acres  of  wet  land  uettr  Xcw  York.  After  work- 
ing it  for  three  years,  with  late  and  stinted  crops  that  barely  aiforded 
him  a  living,  he  was  advised  to  drain  it,  but  hesitated,  as  his  lease  had 
bat  seven  years  to  run.  He  finally  acted  on  the  advice,  and  spent  $500 
in  tile-draining.  He  then  obtained  early  and  luxuriant  crops,  and  at  the 
termination  of  his  lease,  piu-chased  and  paid  for  his  eight  acres  812,000, 
the  savings  of  six  years  on  his  drained  garden."  Mr.  Henderson  adds, 
"I  honestly  believe  that  had  he  gone  on  without  draining,  he  would  not 
have  made  81,200  in  twelve  years,  far  less  812,000  in  six  years."  So 
much  for  judicious  draining. 

Among  the  fertilizers  now  wasted,  the  refuse  hoi)s  of  breweries  are 
represented  to  be  of  the  first  importance,  as  they  possess  high  fertilizing 
properties,  and  are  excellent  for  breaking  up  and  pulverizing  the  soil, 
and  Mr.  Henderson  considers  them  of  nearly  double  the  value  of  stable 
manure.  The  shavings  and  scrapings  of  horn  and  whalebone  are  also 
rated  as  valuable,  composted  with  hot  manure,  which  extracts  the  oU 
from  the  shavings,  intermingling  it  with  the  whole.  He  has  known  the 
mixture  of  five  tons  of  whalebone  shavings  with  ordinary  stable  ma- 
nui-e,  to  make  8i00  ditierence  per  acre  in  the  value  of  the  crop.  Such 
factories  not  being  common,  however,  it  is  only  in  certain  localities  that 
this  fertihzer  can  be  had.  Sugar-house  sciun,  com])osed  largely  of  blood, 
charcoal,  and  saccharine  refuse,  is  also  a  valuable  fertilizer,  properly 
composted  with  muck.  The  common  concentrated  manui'es  of  guano, 
bone-dust,  poudrette,  &c.,  are  used  with  very  satisfactory  results.  Mr. 
Henderson  is  con\inced  by  direct  experiment  that  manures,  either  liquid 
or  solid,  organic  or  inorganic,  are  unprofitably  employed  when  applied 
to  plants  in  a  dormant  state.  In  the  highly  cultivated  gardens  about 
oiu'  large  cities,  where  the  grounds  are  so  incessantly  plowed,  harrowed, 
and  dug  over,  insects  have  but  little  chance  for  a  foothold ;  tobacco 
water,  applied  with  a  syringe,  destroys  them  in  the  forcing-houses;  and 
bone-dust  sprinlded  over  late  sowings  not  only  lolls  the  cucumber  bug, 
but  encourages  the  growth  of  the  crop.  The  most  formidable  insect 
gardeners  huxo  to  encounter  is  the  Anthomijia  hrassiccc  of  Em-ope,  which 
attacks  the  roots  of  the  cabbage  family,  causing  the  destructive  disease 
known  as  ''club-root."  Mr.  Henderson  discredits  the  old  dogma  that  it 
is  caused  by  hog-manm-e,  heavy  soil,  light  soil,  &c.,  and  claims  that  the 
insect  is  harmless  to  the  plant  vrhen  in  the  perfect  state  the  fii'st  season, 
but  that  it  is  attracted  by  it,  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  soil,  and  in  the 
maggot  condition,  in  which  it  appears  the  second  vear,  it  attacks  the 
root,  which  becomes  enlarged  and  carious,  ruining  the  plant.  Cabbages 
and  cauliriowers,  of  course,  can  be  safely  gTowu  onlv  in  alternate  years 
ou  the  same  soil.  On  soils  containing  a  large  amount  of  lime,  this  iiisect 
cannot  exist  to  an  injurious  extent. 


RECENT  AGRICULTURAL  BOOKS.  5G5 

The  book  closes  with  a  useful  chapter  on  the  propagatiou  of  plants  by 
cuttings,  in  which  the  author  simxilifies  what  has  often  been  befogged 
with  mystery  by  gardeners. 

This  book  is  handsomely  printed  and  illustrated. 

Garbexixg  for  TII13  SouTii :  or,  How  to  grow  vegetables  ami  fruits.  By  tlie  late 
William  N.  White,  of  Athens,  Georgia ;  with  additions  hy  Mr.  J.  Van  Buren  and  Dr. 
James  Camak.    12mo.,  444  pages.  Illustrated.    New  York :  Orange  Judd  &  Co.  1868. 

This  is  a  revised  edition  of  the  late  William  X.  White's  '•  Gardening  for 
the  South."  After  his  death  his  corrections  for  the  new  edition  were 
revised  by  Mr.  Yan  Buren  and  Dr.  Camak,  who  have  incorporated  the 
more  important  discoveries  made  in  horticulture  dm^ing  the  last  dozen 
years.  Though  originally  prepared  for  the  climate  of  the  southern  States, 
the  seasons  of  which  differ  so  much  from  the  northern  in  heat  and 
dryness,  its  utility  is  not  contined  to  that  section.  The  characteristics 
and  improvement  of  soils ;  the  sources  and  preparation  of  manures ;  rota- 
tion of  croT)S ;  hot-beds,  cold-frames,  and  pits ;  garden  implements ;  the 
propagation  of  plants,  budding,  i>runiug,  grafting,  training,  mulching, 
protection  from  frosts,  insects,  vermin,  &c.,  are  discussed.  We  quote  a 
few  paragraphs  from  the  chapter  on  rotation  of  crops : 

"  The  same  crops  cannot  be  grown  from  year  to  year  upon  the  same 
soil  without  decreasing  iii  productiveness.  All  plants  more  or  less 
exhaust  the  soil,  but  not  in  the  same  degTce  nor  in  the  same  manner ; 
hence  as  different  plants  appropriate  different  substances,  the  rotation 
of  crops  has  considerable  influence  in  retaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
If  the  same  kind  of  plants  is  continued  upon  the  same  soil,  only  a  portion 
of  the  constituents  of  the  manure  ai)plied  is  used  ;  while,  by  a  judicious 
rotation,  everything  in  the  soil  or  in  the  maniuT,  suitable  for  vegetable 
food,  is  taken  up  and  appropriated  by  the  crop.  However  plentifol 
manure  may  be,  a  succession  of  exhausting  crops  shoidd  not  be  grown 
upon  the  same  bed,  not  only  because  abundance  is  no  excuse  for  want 
of  economy,  but  because  mamu-e  freshly  applied  is  not  so  immediately 
beneficial  as  those  remains  of  organized  matter  which,  by  long  continu- 
ance in  the  soil,  hare  become  impalpably"  divided  and  diffused  through 
its  texture,  and  of  which  each  succeeding  crop  consumes  a  portion. 

"  Some  crops  are  so  favorable  to  weeds  that  if  continued  long  upon 
the  same  bed,  the  labor  of  cultivating  them  is  much  increased ;  while  if 
raised  but  once  in  a  place,  and  followed  by  a  cleaning  crop,  the  weeds 
are  easily  kept  imder.  Besides,  many  crops  i^lanted  continually  in  the 
same  soil  are  more  liable  to  be  attacked  by  the  insects  which  are  the 
peculiar  enemies  of  those  plants. 

"  Many  insects,  injurious  to  plants,  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  soil  which 
produced  the  plants  they  have  infested,  ready  to  commit  their  depreda- 
tions upon  the  succeeding  crop  ;  but  if  this  is  changed  to  a  distant  locahty 
they  often  perish  for  want  of  their  proper  food.  Many  parasites,  also, 
have  their  seeds  or  spores  in  the  soil,  to  the  increased  injiuy  of  the  suc- 
ceeding crop,  if  of  the  same  species. 

"  Again,  different  plants  derive  their  principal  noimshment  from 
different  depths  of  soil.  The  roots  of  plants  exhaust  only  the  portions 
of  soil  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  Perpendicular-rooted  plants 
throw  out  few  side-roots,  and  derive  most  of  their  nourishment  from  a 
considerable  depth,  while  fibrous-rooted  plants  seek  their  food  near  the 
surface.  Plants  of  the  same  species  extend  their  roots  in  a  similar 
direction,  and  occupy  and  exhaust  the  same  strata  of  earth. 

"  Different  plants,  by  means  of  their  roots,  act  differently  upon  the 
physical  nature  of  the  soil.     Surface  roots  spread  abroad  t'heii'  tufted 


566  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

fibers,  which,  iu  theu*  decay,  break  up  and  lighteu  the  smface  soil,  while 
the  roots  of  clover  have  a  somewhat  similar  etiect  iipou  the  deeper  strata. 

''  The  most  exhausting  crops  are,  iu  general,  those  which  are  allowed  to 
peiiect  theii-  seeds,  as  they  extract  from  the  soil  all  the  essentials  of  the 
plant  from  the  root  to  the*  seed.  The  seeds  of  many  species  draw  from 
the  soil  more  largely  its  ammonia,  phosphates,  &:c.,  than  the  total  amount 
extracted  in  the  formation  of  all  other  parts  of  the  plant.  Eoot-crops 
are  generally  less  exhausting,  and  plants  culti^'ated  for  their  leaves  are 
usually  still  less  so. 

"  A  rotation  was  formerly  thought  necessary  from  au  idea  that  each 
plant  throws  oft"  from  its  roots  into  the  soil  certain  matters  which  are 
injm-ious  to  others  cf  the  same  species,  afterward  grown  upon  the  same 
soil.  It  was  also  thought  that  there  were  some  tribes  of  plants,  the  fig, 
for  instance,  of  which  the  acrid  juices  from  the  root  injured  the  soil  and 
the  plants  grown  near  them  ;  while  of  others,  as  cf  legumes,  the  sweet 
juices  were  beneficial  to  the  soil  and  the  adjacent  or  succeediug  crops. 
These  views  are  not  now  considered  tenable."' 

Following  the  precetling  topics  of  general  application  is  a  description 
of  the  vegetables  and  fruits  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  South. 

The  S>i.vi.l  FnriT  Cut-TUTTST.  By  Andrew  S.  Fuller,  practical  horticulturist,  Ridge- 
wood,  Bergen  Coimtv,  New  Jersey.  276  pages.  Illustrated.  Nevr  York:  Orange 
Judd  &  Co.    186?. 

The  progress  of  small  fruit  culture  in  the  United  States  during  the  last 
dozen  years  has  been  remarkable.  The  facilities  aftbrded  by  our  nu- 
merous railroads,  and  the  liberal  provisions  of  our  post  office  laws,  by 
which  plants,  cuttings,  and  seeds  can  be  sent  through  the  mads  at  a 
trifling  expense,  have  stimulated  horticulturists  to  great  efforts  iu  pro- 
ducing new  and  improved  varieties.  In  addition  to  this,  the  extensive 
use  of  fruit-preserving  cans  creates  a  demand  for  thousands  of  bushels 
of  choice  fruits  for  home  use  for  families  in  both  town  and  country,  and 
tens  of  thousands  for  hotels,  saloons,  and  commercial  purposes,  is'early 
every  .steamer  and  sailing  vessel  lea\4ng  our  ports  takes  a  supply  for  use 
on  the  voyage,  and  it  often  forms  a  part  of  theii-  freight.  The  induce- 
ments for  cultivating  small  fruits  are  thus  very  large,  and,  in  fact,  ex- 
tensive culture  and  success  in  producing  new  and  better  varieties  of 
berries  have  been  a  prominent  feature  in  American  horticulture,  is'ew 
villages  are  sprin.iriug  up  on  our  railroads  wliich  soon  become  shipping 
IK)ints  to  the  large  markets,  and  many  places  that  did  not  exist  ten  years 
ago,  are  now  annually  sending  to  market  half  a  million  to  a  million 
baskets  o«"  fruits  every  season.  The-pulihc  appetite  for  fruits  literallv 
grows  with  what  it  feeds  on. 

Tliis  extended  cultivation  of  small  fruits  has  created  a  demand  for 
practical  information  from  both  the  amateur  and  professional  cidtivator, 
and  Mr.  Fuller  has  given  in  this  voliune  the  residts  of  his  personal  ob- 
servation and  exi^erience,  extending  over  a  long  period  of  vears.  The 
hi.story.  character,  culture,  and  uses  of  the  strawberrv,  barberrv,  rasp- 
berry, blackberry,  dwarf  cherry,  currant,  goo.seberrv,  cornelian  cherrv, 
cranberry,  huckleberr>-,  and  shepherdia.  are  followed  bv  an  account  ot 
the  nisects  and  diseases  by  which  they  are  afflicted,  and"  a  description  of 
the  leading  native  and  also  foreign  varieties. 

This  work  closes  with  a  chapter  of  .suggestions  on  gathering  and  pre- 
paring smaU  fmits  for  market,  with  a  description  of  the  various  baskets 
and  boxes  used.  On  the  large  berry  forms  in  Xew  Jersev,  the  harvest 
time  IS  a  season  of  as  much  rejoicing  as  the  time  of  vintage  in  the  vine 
countries  of  Europe.  Employment  iu  picking  is  afibrded  to  quite  an 
army  of  women  and  chddren,  and  good  feeling  prevails  on  all  sides. 


RECENT  AGEICULTUEAL  BOOKS.  667 

The  Grapk  Cultuiiist.  A  treatise  on  tlie  cultivation  of  the  native  grape.  By  Andrew 
S.  Fuller,  practical  horticulturist.  A  ue-w  and  enlarged  edition.  286  pages.  New 
York :  Orange  Judd  &  Co.     1808. 

The  grape  is  one  of  the  most  grateful  and  delicious  of  all  fruits,  the 
most  universally  cultivated  of  all  fruit-bearing  plants,  and  nt  an  early 
age  yields  in  profusion  greater  than  any  other  fruit.  Noah  "planted 
vineyards,"  and  the  Promised  Land  was  a  land  of  "wheat,  barley,  and 
vines."  Its  growtli  extends  over  thirty  degrees  of  latitude — from  Persia 
to  France.  The  fine  varieties  of  the  Eastern  Continent,  however,  can- 
not be  raised  in  this  country,  except  by  artificial  means ;  and  after  two 
centuries  of  unsuccessful  attempts  to  grow  them,  pomologists  have  turned 
their  attention  to  the  improvement  of  our  native  species,  and  many 
choice  and  beautiful  varieties  have  been  produced.  Since  the  out-door 
culture  of  European  varieties  has  been  discarded  for  our  neglected  na- 
tive sorts,  vine  culture  has  become  established  as  a  brancli  of  American 
industry. 

Mr.  Fuller  has  given  a  practical  treatise  on  the  culture  of  the  native 
grape,  comprising  the  propagation  of  new  varieties  from  seeds,  their  in- 
crease by  budding,  their  management  in  propagating  houses,  and  by 
cuttings  in  the  open  air;  layering,  grafting,  hj'bridizing,  crossing,  and 
transplanting  the  vines;  soil  and  situation;  trellises;  the  proper  time  for 
pruning,  and  the  best  method  of  pruning  and  training;  culture  in  gar 
dens  of  limited  space;  suggestions  on  gathering  and  preserving  the 
fruit;  the  insects  and  diseases  to  which  the  grape  is  liable;  descrii)tion 
of  the  best  varieties;  closing  with  a  review  of  the  various  systems  ot 
training.  The  work  is  written  in  a  clear  and  intelligible  style,  and  is 
well  illustrated. 

For  a  vinej^ard  in  the  northern  States,  Mr.  Fuller  concurs  with 
most  writers  in  recommending  a  full  southern  exposure,  and  if  the 
laud  descends  to  the  south,  so  much  the  better.  About  Cincinnati  the 
side  hills  are  generally  selected  by  the  Germans;  but  though  a  side  hill 
may  be  a  desu'able  location,  other  situations  nearly  or  perfectl,y  level  are 
considered  equally  good.  The  exposure  should  be  southeast,  east,  or 
southwest,  but  never  north  or  we.st.  Virgil  said,  "Nor  let  thy  vineyard 
bend  toward  the  sun  when  setting;"  which  advice  is  as  applicable  now 
as  it  was  two  thousand  years  ago.  In  selecting  a  location,  the  surround- 
ings must  be  taken  into  accoimt;  if  the  land  has  no  protection  from  the 
north  and  the  northwest,  a  belt  of  evergreens  would  prove  a  gi-eat  pro- 
tection; it  should  be  elevated  thirty  to  forty  feet  above  streams  or  small 
ponds  of  water,  to  obviate  the  effects  of  early  and  of  late  frosts.  Large 
bodies  of  water,  however,  are  not  considered  injurious,  as  they  absorb 
heat  in  large  quantities  in  summer,  and  give  it  oft"  slowly  in  the  fall, 
affecting  the  surrounding  country  materially,  by  preventing  early  frosts. 
In  spring,  the  water  being  cold,  the  atmosphere  is  kept  cool  for  quite  a 
distance  from  the  shore,  and  vegetation  thus  prevented  from  starting 
too  early.  Where  the  soil  is  sandy  or  gravelly,  it  should  be  enriched  by 
some  organic  materials,  as  barn-yard  manure,  muck,  or  leaf  mold. 
Thousands  of  acres  of  such  lands  in  the  eastern  States,  now  considered 
almost  worthless,  if  enriched  with  the  cheai)  materials  found  in  their 
vicinity,  would  make  the  best  vineyards  in  the  country.  On  such  soils, 
though  the  growth  is  not  luxuriant,  the  fruit  is  of  the  lichest  quality, 
and  the  land  is  easily  worked,  and  does  not  retain  an  excess  of  moisture, 
being  thoroughly  underdrained  by  natiu-e.  Granitic  and  limestone  soils 
are  strong  and  excellent,  and  their  prox)er  mechanical  condition  is  easily 
accomplished  by  plov\'ing  or  trenching,  this  mechanical  texture  of  the 
soil  being  as  important  an  element  as  its  ingredients  in  the  success  or 


568  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

failui-e  of  its  crops,  New  soils  are  preferable  to  those  that  liave  been 
long  in  cultivation,  and  such  as  are  loose  and  friable,  whether  of  loam, 
sand,  gravel,  or  the  calcareous  debris  of  rocky  hill  sides,  are  vastly  bet- 
ter than  clay  or  muck.  Though  the  latter  may  be  made  somewhat  avail- 
able by  uuderdraining  and  trenching,  they  will  generally  prove  unsatis- 
factory in  the  end. 

After  a  vineyard  is  i)lauted,  sufQcient  manuring  is  required  to  keep 
up  a  healthy  growth.  Too  much  manure  may  increase  the  size  of  the 
fruit,  but  will  injure  its  quality.  It  should  be  a])plied  on  the  surlace, 
and  worked  in  with  a  cultivator  or  hoe;  but  a  plow  ought  never  to  be 
admitted  into  a  vineyard.  Frequent  to]>  dressings  are  better  than  large 
applications  at  long  intervals;  and  rank,  unfermented  manures  should 
never  be  used,  as  they  ait'ect  the  llavor  of  the  fruit  and  the  health  of  the 
leaves.  Mulching  and  frequent  stirring  the  soil  vrith  the  hoe  will  be 
found  very  beneficial. 

Instead  of  the  very  common  mode  of  making  grape  trellises,  with  wires 
nmning  horizontally,  which  is  expensive  and  troublesome,  as  the  wires 
expand  and  contract  with  every  change  of  temperature,  Mr.  Fuller  recom- 
mends a  trellis  with  horizontal  bars  and  perpendicular  wires,  built 
in  the  following  manner :  Select  posts  of  durable  wood,  four  to  six  inches 
in  diameter,  and  six  and  a  half  feet  long;  set  them  in  the  ground  two 
and  a  half  feet  deep,  in  a  line  with  the  vines,  and  eight  feet  apart,  that 
Is,  if  the  vines  are  at  that  distance;  a  post  should  be  placed  between 
each  two  vines,  at  equal  distance  from  each.  When  the  posts  are  set, 
nail  on  strips,  say  three  inches  wide  and  one  inch  thick,  the  lower  strip 
being  placed  one  foot  from  the  ground,  the  other  near  the  top  of  the 
posts;  then  take  Xo.  IG  galvanized  wire,  and  put  it  on  perpendicularly, 
say  eight  to  twelve  inches  apart,  or  just  where  the  upright-bearing  shoots 
are  to  grow,  twisting  it  around  the  upper  and  the  lower  bar.  "On  this 
kind  of  trellis  the  arms  of  the  Aine  should  be  fastened  to  the  lower  strip, 
right  and  left,  either  Avith  strips  of  leather  tacked  on,  or  tarred  rope  tied 
loosely  around  the  arm.  As  the  young  shoots  start,  they  can  be  loosely 
tied  to  the  wires  at  any  time  when  necessary. 

Mr.  Fuller  recommends  pruning  the  vines  in  autumn,  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  have  fallen,  particularly  if  the  wood  is  to  be  used  for  propagation. 
The  vines  should  not  be  cut  quite  back  to  the  buds  that  are  wanted  for 
fruit,  as  the  uppermost  buds  left  for  that  purjiose  are  apt  to  be  winter- 
killed, the  sap  receding  from  the  part  which  has  been  cut,  leaving  the 
end  dry,  and  the  buds  exposed  to  the  severity  of  winter.  Early  in  the 
spring,  before  the  sap  begins  to  How  rapidly,  the  vines  must'be  gone 
oyer  a  second  time,  and  these  extra  buds  and  dried  ends  cut  off.  Where 
vines  are  laid  dovni  in  winter,  the  pruning  can  be  completed  at  once; 
no  second  pruning  is  necessary,  the  covering  of  the  vines  affording  a 
protection  Irom  the  effects  of  both  cold  and  dryness. 

In  regard  to  pruning  and  training,  it  is  not  considered  iudicious  to 
dwarf  our  native  vines  to  that  extreme  to  which  it  is  carried  in  some 
parts  of  Europe,  but  we  should  stop  midway  between  it  and  the  wild 
vines  of  our  ibrests.  Some  refer  to  the  strolling  habit  of  the  latter  as 
an  example  for  training  the  cultivated  ones;  but  it  is  not  the  wild  vine 
that  IS  under  consideration,  but  improved  varieties,  which  have  parted 
with  much  of  their  wild  character.  The  vine  is  one  of  the  most  tractable 
of  all  fruit-bearing  plants,  and  the  easiest  to  control,  notwithstanding 
Its  wild  and  rambling  nature.  Its  natural  growth  is  upright,  in  which 
position  the  larger  portion  of  the  ferces  of  the  plant  are  expended  in 
producing  a  growth  of  wood  and  leaves,  while  fruit  is  produced  sparingly. 
This  is  illustrated  in  the  wild  vine,  which  does  not  produce  fruit  abund- 


RECENT  AGRICULTUEAL  BOOKS.  569 

autly  till  it  reaches  a  position  where  it  can  spread  ont  horizontally  on 
high  trees  or  low  bushes  by  the  water-side,  with  its  clusters  of  fruit 
hanging-  in  the  shade  underneath. 

These  facts  indicate  several  fundamental  principles :  1.  That,  while 
the  leaves  reqmre  a  full  exposure  to  the  sun,  the  fruit  ripens  fully  with- 
out it.  2.  That,  while  the-^^ine  grows  upright,  it  produces  its  most  vigorous 
growth  of  wood,  but  its  fruit-producing  powers  are  not  fidly  developed 
until  it  takes  a  horizontal  position.  3.  That  fruit  is  i^roduced  most  abun- 
dantly upon  the  upp^^most  branches,  it  maldng  no  difference  whether 
these*^  upper  branches  are  on  the  tops  of  lofty  trees  or  on  the  humble 
shrub,  showing  that  height  is  not  necessary,  as  fruit  at  fifty  feet  from  the 
earth  is  no  better  than  that  at  five,  other  circumstances  being  equal. 
It  only  shows  that  the  sap  naturally  presses  to  the  top,  and  forces  out 
fruit-bearing-  branches  at  that  point.  4.  The  fruit  is  x)roduced  upon  the 
young,  gTowing  canes,  and  opposite  to  the  fii'st  few  leaves  that  are 
formed ;  usually  the  first  to  the  third  leaf  will  have  a  bunch  of  fruit 
opposite ;  fruit  is  seldom  produced  beyond  the  fifth  leaf.  This  rule  being 
applicable  to  all  varieties  of  species,  it  is  easy  to  regulate  the  quantity 
of  fruit  at  each  annual  pruning,  by  leaving  a  certain  number  of  well- 
developed  buds,  estimating  each  one  at  so  many  bunches  of  Ixuit. 

The  foregoing  are  considered  the  main  principles  to  be  observed  in 
IDruning  and  training.  Very  intelligible  directions  and  drawings  are 
given  by  Mr.  Fuller  to  illustrate  many  minor  i)oints,  founded  on  long 
and  careful  experiments. 

Grapes  are  frequently  gathered  long  before  they  are  really  ripe,  either 
to  get  them  to  market  early,  or  because  they  appear  to  be  ripe,  when,  in 
fact,  the  ripening  iirocess  has  only  commenced.  Nearly  all  varieties 
change  their  color  fifteen  to  twenty  days  before  they  are  fully  matured; 
and  as  gTapes  must  ripen  before  being  gathered,  or  not  at  all,  too  much 
care  cannot  be  given  to  this  jDoint. 

Few  of  our  cidtivated  frui'ts  are  less  damaged  by  insects  than  the 
gxape.  Ithas  formidable  enemies,  however,  which  have  rapidly  increased 
duiiiDg  the  last  ten  years,  owing,  chiefly,  to  the  wanton  destruction  of 
those  birds  that  live  mostly  upon  them.  Mr.  Fuller  gives  a  popular 
descriiitiou',  with  drawings,  of  most  of  the  insects  known  to  be  injurious. 

Our  native  gTapes  are  not  subject  to  many  diseases,  excGpt  in  par- 
ticular locaUties,  and  these  are  confined  mainly  to  the  fruit.  The  most 
destructive  is  the  black  rot,  the  gi'eat  scoui-ge  of  the  western  States. 
The  Catawba  vineyards  about  Cincinnati  have  been  so  seriously  injured 
that  some  cultivators  have  become  discouraged  and  plowed  them  up, 
devoting  the  land  to  other  purposes.  Very  poor  soils,  or  overrich  ones, 
or  heavy,  wet  soils,  where  the  roots  are  immersed  in  stagnant  water, 
may  all  assist  in  developing  disease ;  and  vines  are  often  allowed  to  bo 
so  overloaded  with  fruit,  that  they  cannot  remain  healthy  and  vigorous. 
By  many  the  cause  of  the  rot  is  ascribed  to  heavy  dews,  which  several 
facts  and  experiments  seem  to  justify.  If  such  is  found  to  be  the  case, 
a  preventive  is  readily  applied  by  nailing  a  Avide  board  flatwise  on  the 
top  of  the  trellis.    It  is  well  worth  a  trial. 

The  work  closes  with  a  descriptive  catalogue  of  the  principal  native 
grapes  cultivated,  and  a  review,  with  numerous  illustrations,  of  various 
systems  of  i^runiug  and  training. 

Vineyard  Cxn.TtmE  Improatd  axd  Ciikapexed. — By  A.  du  Brenil,  Piuis.  I'ranslated 
by  E.  &  C.  Parker,  of  Longvrorth's  Wine  House,  Ciucinuati.  With  notes  and  adapt- 
ations to  American  culture,  by  John  A.  Warder,  author  of  "American  Pomology." 
Cincinnati :  K.  Clarke  &  Co.   1863. 

The  author  of  this  work  is  a  teacher  of  vine  and  tree  culture  in  the 


570  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Imperial  School  of  Arts  and  Trades  in  Fi-ance,  and  lias  been  employed 
by  tbc  pfoverument  as  a  lecturer  through  the  pro^'iuces  of  the  empire. 
riis  book  comprises  details  on  the  choice  of  a  site  for  a  vineyard,  the 
selection  and  management  of  vines,  and  the  diseases  and  noxious  insects 
to  which  they  are  subject,  closing  with  the  vintage.  Most  of  the  author's 
remarks  on  manures,  pnuiing,  and  cultivation  have  a  general  application 
in  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in  France.  Still  the  contlitions  of  grape 
cidture  in  the  latter  country  are  so  diflerent  from  those  in  this,  that  the 
chief  value  of  the  book  arises  from  the  elaboratAmd  practical  annota- 
tions of  Dr.  Warder,  which  comprise  about  one-Third  of  the  volume. 
These  follow  every  leading  suggestion  of  du  Breuil,  and  adapt  his  du-ec- 
tions  to  the  state  of  things  in  this  country.  The  ciiltui-e  of  the  vine  may 
well  receive  the  fostering  care  of  the  French  government,  in  view  of  its 
importance,  yielding  millions  to  the  state,  and  furnishing  employment 
to  eight  or  ten  millions  of  people.  In  the  south  of  France,  particidarly, 
it  is  a  very  certain  crop,  requiring  but  little  labor  relatively  to  its  net 
profit.  It  has  banished  fallows,  continuously  occupying  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  country  that  bas  a  suitable  climate;  and  is  adapted  to  all  kinds 
of  soils,  even  those  which  formerly  produced  only  useless  thorns  and 
briers.  It  furnishes  labor  at  all  seasons,  to  all  ages  and  both  sexes,  and 
reqiures  but  little  manure,  allowing  the  greater  portion  to  be  applied  to 
other  crops. 

In  this  country,  after  many  failures  of  the  early  vine-planters  in  at- 
tempting to  acclimatize  the  foreign  varieties  of  grapes,  the  business  has 
at  last  been  started  in  the  right  direction  ;  rapid  strides  have  been  made, 
and  there  is  no  calculating  the  extent  which  our  vineyards  may  embrace 
in  a  few  years.  Energy  and  intelligence,  with  abundant  wealth,  are  em- 
barked in  the  business.  New  varieties  are  produced  by  crossing  and 
selecting  the  species  and  varieties  indigenous  to  the  country,  and  thus 
better  adapted  to  our  soils  and  climate ;  and  it  would  seem  that  such 
efforts  must  be  crowned  with  abundant  snccess. 

The  Grape  Vint;:  A  practically  scientific  treatise  on  its  management:  exj>lained  from 
his  own  Exjieriences  and  Researches,  in  a  thorough  ami  intelligible  manner,  for 
Vinejardists  and  Amateurs  in  Garden  and  Vine  culture.  By  Frederick  Mohr. 
Translated  from  the  Gennan,  with  Hints  on  the  Propagation  and'General  Treatment 
of  American  Varieties,  hv  Ilorticoln,  (Charles  Siedhof.^  12mo.,  1/50  pages.  New 
York :  Orange  .Judd  &  Co'.    18G7. 

The  object  of  the  author  of  this  work  is  to  popularize  the  results  of 
modem  science  concerning  the  cultivation  of  the  grape-vine.  He  first 
describes  the  vine  itself,  with  its  adaptations  to  so  many  different  cli- 
mates, and  the  lacilities  with  which  it  produces,  in  the  hands  of  man, 
new  varieties,  which  conform  themselves  to  all  circumstances,  with  their 
ditfcrent  colors,  sizes,  and  qualities.  Tliis  is  followed  by  remarks  on  the 
development  and  structure  of  the  vine,  the  reasons  for'^praning  and  the 
ditterent  modes  of  doing  it,  training  on  trellises,  the  grape  disease,  and 
treatment  of  vines  injured  l)y  frost.  It  has  been  carefidly  translated  by 
Mr.  Siedhof,  who  has  added  hints  on  the  propagation  and  general  treat- 
ment of  American  varieties,  including  the  cbfterent  modes  of  propaga- 
tion and  hybridization. 

Hardly  any  other  plant  is  so  well  adapted  to  variation  of  management 
as  the  grape  ^•ine.  Xo  system  of  cultivation  is  absolutelv  the  best  for 
all  regions ;  the  climate  and  nature  of  the  variety  must  be  considered. 
All  methoils  are  successful  to  a  certain  degree ;  \«ul  of  all  plants,  the 
vine  gives  the  most  ample  reward  for  tlie  care  bestowed  upon  it ;  •and 
many  a  vacant  spot  in  a  garden  may  be  used  for  planting  a  choice  vari- 
ety so  that  it  mav  be  turned  to  account. 


RECENT  AGRICULTURAL  BOOKS.  571 

Tlic  too  common  practice  of  mexi)eri8nced  cultivators,  of  strippinjf  tlie 
leaves  from  vines  near  the  clusters  of  frnit.  to  atlmit  tlie  rays  of  the  snu 
directly  to  the  bemes,  is  held  to  be  altogether  wrong.  It  is  snificient 
when  the  sun  shines  on  the  leaves,  and  the  clusters  are  growing.  This 
is  the  true  and  natural  condition,  ^o  sugar  can  be  formed  in  the  beiTy. 
if  the  leaves  are  removed,  because  no  oxygen  can  be  eliminated  by  it :  the 
berry  only  collects  and  pre^iares  the  sugar  from  an  organic  substance 
formed  by  tlie  leaf.  Besides,  the  berry  is  often  injured  by  the  dii-ect 
rays  of  the  sun  during  the  hot  days  of  summer. 

"Tne  true  poetry  of  \viue,  its  beautiful  fragrance,  called  the  bouquet 
of  the  wine,  is  the  exclusive  property  of  the  northern  regions.  The 
wines  of  the  south,  however  rich  in  alcohol  and  sugTir.  are  entirely  des- 
titute of  that  bouquet :  or  they  have  a  common  odor  like  Port,  Madeira, 
Xeres.  and  Malaga,  without  any  iieculiarity."  The  noble  qualities  of 
the  vine  are  thus  set  forth : 

••  The  grape-\iue  is,  among  plants,  what  the  horse  is  among  ani- 
mals, one  of  the  most  precious  boons  nature  has  given  to  man.  It 
follows  him  to  climates  of  a  very  dilfereut  character,  and  admii-ably 
rewards  him  for  all  the  trouble  devoted  to  it.  As  in  the  horse,  every- 
thiug  in  the  giape-viue  is  beautiful  and  noble.  The  delicately-shaped 
leaves,  the  fragrant  blossoms,  the  delicious  grapes,  extend  their  develop- 
ment over  the  whole  year,  except  during  the  severe  mouths  of  winter, 
and  requii'e  uninterrupted  and  carefid  treatment  by  the  hand  of  man. 
The  grape-vine  gi'ows  on  the  rocky  hill  and  in  the  fertile  garden,  trails 
on  the  ground  and  climbs  to  the  roofs  of  houses.  By  training,  it  may 
be  kept  as  a  small  shrub,  or  made  to  cover  a  surface  of  a  thousand  feet. 

••  The  grape-vine  changes  its  character,  and  adapts  itself  in  a  woudeifol 
manner  to  every  country  that  aiiords  it  the  necessary  warmth.  The 
difference  in  the  varieties  is  as  great  as  in  the  various  races  of  dogs. 
The  berry  varies  in  size  from  that  of  a  large  pea  to  that  of  a  small  plum; 
its  color  is  green,  yellow,  flesh-color,  red.  blue,  and  black.  Sweetness 
and  acidity  are  mixed  in  the  most  varying  proportions;  its  aroma  is 
unsurpassed. 

••The  grape  is  decidedly  the  most  noble  of  finiits;  it  is  sweeter  than 
any  Ouher,  and  the  admixttu^e  of  a  little  acid  renders  it  exceedingly  deli- 
cious. The  liquid  contents  of  the  grape  elevate  it  above  the  apple.  It 
is  the  only  fruit  of  oiu-  climate  which  is  drank  rather  than  eaten.  Fi- 
nally, the  fermented  jidce  of  the  grape,  the  wine,  iirolong'^  the  time  of  the 
enjoyment  of  it  for  a  series  of  years." 

Theek  Seasons  rx  Evkope-OC  ViXTrrAiiDs:  Ticatrngof  Viue  Cnlrrirc;  Viiip  Disease 
and  its  Cure;  "Wine-maldng,  nud  Wines,  red  and  wliite:  and  Wine  Drinking  as 
affecting  Health  and  Morals. — By  William  J.  FLigg.  l'2mo..  33*2  page^.  Xew  York : 
Harper  &  Brothers.  1868. 

jSIr.  Flagg  has  spent  three  years  in  the  vineyards  of  Europe,  collecting 
facts  in  all  the  branches  of  vine  culture,  the  manufacture  of  wines,  and 
the  sulphur-cure  for  the  oidium,thC  most  formidable  disease  that  attacks 
the  vine. 

The  leading  points  discussed  and  conclusions  reached  are :  1.  Thar 
long  pnming.  as  practiced  in  America,  is  an  efficient  cause  for  the  decay 
of  om"  vines.  2.  The  want  of  drainage,  especially  in  the  Ohio  valley, 
has  been  equally  iujmious.  3.  The  advantage  of  growing  \ines  on  plains, 
rather  than  on  hiUs.  except  where  the  quality  obtained  from  hill-grown 
vines  is  such  as  wiU  compensate  for  the  lai-ger  cost  and  smaller  yield. 
4.  Traiuiag  the  vines  in  -  low  souche,"  (that  is,  by  stump  or  stool.)  with- 
out stakes  or  trellis,  is  probably  better  adapted  to  our  warm  summers. 


572  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

than  tlie  expeusive  methods  imitated  from  coimtiies  where  peaches  can 
only  be  ripe  ued  on  ti-ees  flattened  and  listened  to  the  south  sides  of  high 
walls,  o.  lied  wine  is  preferable  to  white  as  the  future  beverage  of 
Americans.  G.  The  sulphur-ciu-e  is  entuely  eihcacious  against  the  disease 
of  the  vine,  in  all  its  many  forms,  if  properly  applied. 

Mr.  Flagg  reached  Bordeaux  in  the  fallof  180G.  This  city  is  the 
commercial  center  of  several  wine  districts,  where  the  famons  Chateau- 
morgaux.  La  Tom-,  Latitte,  and  Sauterne  wines  are  bought  and  sold,  and 
shipped  to  America  at  such  a  profit  that  some  of  them  retail  in  Xew 
York  at  $G  per  dozen,  costing  in  Bordeaux  only  six  francs,  say  $1  20  in 
gold.  One  of  the  first  objects  that  arrested  his  attention  was  the  noble 
draught  horses  of  Xormaudy,  (the  Percherons,)  that  haul  between  three 
and  four  tons  on  their  enormous  drays.  He  thinks  if  '•  we  could  replace  our 
0,000,000  nags,  of  one  sort  and  another,  with  one-third  of  their  number 
of  a  breed  like  this,  the  2,000,000  would  do  all  the  work,  at  a  great 
saving "  of  food  and  attendance.  This  breed  is  now  being  introduced 
into  this  country. 

Adulterations  of  liquors  appear  to  be  as  common  in  Europe  as  in  this 
country,  and  the  author  regrets  that  Americans  pay  so  extravagant 
prices  for  "  pme  French  brandy,"  and  must  even  then  be  tormented  with 
doubts  of  the  genuineness  of  the  article.  On  the  Gu"onde  he  saw 
vessels  of  every  nationality  after  cargoes  of  claret  and  cognac.  One  of 
them  bore  the  flag  of  our  country,  and,  as  he  gazed  on  its  folds,  he 
"knew  it  v.ould  soon  be  waving  proudly  over  a  homeward  bound  cargo 
of  as  inferior  liquor  as  Bordeaux  could  export.''  As  a  table  fniit.  no- 
where in  Fi-ance,  Switzerland,  or  Germany,  did  he  find  grapes  equal  to 
the  Catawbas  of  the  Ohio  valley  when  in  their  prime. 

He  was  struck  with  the  noble  breeds  of  oxen  used  in  the  vineyards  for 
hauling  loads  of  fruit  to  the  vats.  They  were  thoroughly  trained,  and 
moved  along  in  a  digTufied  manner,  "as'if  they  drew  their  load  of  their 
own  free  will,  and  not  from  any  fear  of  the  slight  rod  armed  with  only 
half  an  inch  of  darning  needle,  earned  rather  as  a  giiide  than  a  goad, 
by  a  man  who  walked  beside  them  vathout  blasphemy  or  loud  words  ot 
any  kind.  It  means  something,  that  the  French  use  the  word  "conduc- 
tor" where  we  say  "  driver." 

"Every  ox  wore  a  net  over  his  face,  quite  a  neat  thing  too,  and  a  cloth 
that  covered  the  back  and  hung  down  to  the  knees,  which  were  for  pro- 
tection against  insects  that  swarm  from  the  low  lands  of  the  river  border. 
This  highly-esteemed  race  is  the  result  of  kind  and  judicious  treatment. 
as  much  as  of  the  rich  pastures  of  the  Gironde. 

"  In  Ohio  I  could  never  get  an  ox-driver  to  undertake  anv  heavv  work 
without  a  fresh  sea-grass  snapper  at  the  end  of  his  short-handled,' rattle- 
snake-looking Avhip,  nor  unless  his  own  lungs  were  in  good  order  for 
swearing.  In  one  year  I  received  the  resignations  of  two  good  di"ivers, 
tendered  solely  because  their  lungs  had'given  out.  Both  were  good 
men,  and  really  meant  nothing  but  business  when  thev  swore  and 
scourged.  "What  breed  of  beast  such  evil  influences  and  rude  disciplme 
will  produce,  the  future  will  reveal." 

The  consumers  of  French  wines  may  have  theii'  love  for  the  same 
somewhat  abated  after  leaniuig  some  of  the  processes  of  the  manufac- 
tiu-e.  At  Medoc,  the  grapes  are  heaped  in  a  conical  form  on  the  •'  pressoir," 
and  five  or  six  men,  Avith  pantaloons  rolled  up  to  their  knees,  trot  aboiit 
m  a  circle  over  the  grapes,  to  crush  them.  Thev  sav  no  other  mode  so 
effectually  cnishes  the  ])ulp  without  breaking  the  seed :  in  fact,  that  it  is 
important  for  the  quality  of  the  wine  that  it  be  trodden  out  with  the 
naked  feet.    ^Vnd  in  manufocturing  Burgundy  wine  it  is  necessary  to 


KECEXT  AGRICULTUEAL  BOOKS.  o7o 

stii-  up  the  lifjuid  iii  tlie  vats,  so  that  the  skius.  seeds,  and  uew-made 
alcohol  may  properly  combiue  with  their  coloring  matter.  The  whole 
mass  has  to  be  stirred  up  twice  li'om  bottom  to  rop  during  the  process 
of  fei-meutatiou.  It  requires  four  meu  to  do  it  well,  -'who  strip  naked, 
and  then  go  into  the  wine-vat,  and  there,  with  leer  and  hands,  lingers 
and  toes,  tiu-n  over,  stii-  about,  and  mix  the  liquid.'*  Mr.  Flagg  feelingly 
remarks,  -there  might  be  a  cleaner  way  of  doing  the  thing;  I  dont 
think  there  could  be  a  fouler.  *  *  *  x  shall  never  drink  any  more 
Burgundy.'' 

The  oidium  is  one  of  the  greatest  scourges  of  European  \-iQeyards ; 
and  the  time  may  come  when  it  will  be  equally  troublesome  herein  But 
mildew,  rot,  and  red  leaf,  in  other  words,  oidiimi,  can  be  cured  and  kept 
down,  as  has  been  proved  by  I\Ir.  Mares,  who  has  published  all  neces- 
sary detads  on  the  subject ;  Mr.  Flagg  has  translated  and  incor})orated 
into  his  book  the  whole  of  Mr.  M.'s  manual,  which  gives  the  development 
and  characteristics  of  the  disease,  the  properties  of  sulphur,  and  the 
modes  of  applying  it  to  diseased  vines,  with  abundant  evidence  of  its 
complete  efficacy. 

The  oidium  was  first  obsen.ed  in  England  in  184o ;  siuce  that  time  it 
has  spread  over  aU  Eui-ope.  i-avagiug  the  vineyards.  It  generally  attacks 
old  Aines,  as  new  ones  are  strong  enough  to  throw  off  all  ailments  for  a 
fe"v^  years  after  they  come  into  bearing.  It  is  a  microscopic,  cry[)to- 
gamic  parasite  that  feeds  on  the  outer  skin  of  aU  the  green  parts  of  the 
plant,  and  on  the  gTapes.  The  tirst  symptom  of  the  development  of 
the  disease  is  the  dull  and  yeUow  aspect  of  the  vine :  the  white  spots 
on  the  shoots,  leaves,  and  liiiit.  and  musty  odor,  indicate  the  presence  of 
the  mushi'oom  parasite  and  its  active  vegetation ;  the  gxay  color  on  the 
parts  attacked  shows  the  old  age  of  the  parasite :  and  the  black  spots  on 
the  shoots,  leaves,  and  grapes  are  traces  of  its  mischievous  labors.  The 
stunting  of  the  shoots  and  gxapes.  the  curling  and  prematiu-e  fall  of  the 
leaves,  the  development  of  inter-leaves,  and  crackiug  and  drying  of  the 
berries,  are  consequences  of  the  alterations  to  which  "the  exteriorof  their 
tissue  has  been  subjected  by  the  parasites :  they  lose  their  elasticity  and 
are  ruptured  when  the  interior  parts  come  to  grow.  Flour  of  sulphur  is 
not  only  a  sirre  remedy  for  this  disease,  but  has  the  property  of  stimu- 
lating the  gTowth  and  fnictification  of  the  vine,  communicating  to  it 
^igor  to  repel  the  attacks  of  the  parasite.  It  must  be  thoroughly  ap- 
jilied  with  a  bellows  or  dusttag-box,  so  as  to  reach  all  the  gTcen  surfaces 
of  the  vine,  shoots,  leaves,  and  aU  the  fruit,  as  soon  as  the  OKlium  ap- 
pears, and  renewed  as  often  as  it  reappeftrs,  perhaps  four  or  five  times 
through  the  season.  Ample  detads  are  given  on  aU  these  matters,  for 
which  the  reader  is  refen-ed  to  the  book.  3Ir.  Mares  has  250  acres  in 
^ines,  and  often  makes  375.000  gallons  of  v.-ine  in  a  season. 

A  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  important  question,  whether  the  -low 
souche''  or  stimip  system  of  cidtivating  vines  is  practicable  in  America, 
and  the  affirmative  is  asstmied.  Dear  labor,  cheap  laud,  and  an  immediate 
need  for  much  cheap  wine  are  strong  reasons  in  favor  of  it.  The  cost 
of  creating  an  acre  of  vineyard  on  oiu-  old  system,  with  fashionable  vari- 
eties, wii-e  trellises,  and  other  items,  is  between  8600  and  $SOl),  besides 
the  land,  and  say  $150  more  per  annum  for  attendance.  On  the  souche 
method  he  is  of  the  opinion  the  cost  would  not  exceed  one-third  of  the 
preceding.  Xo  stakes  or  trellises  are  reqirired,  neither  i^uiching,  rub- 
btug  ofl',  willow-tying,  straw-tying,  nor  leaf-prtining ;  but  whiter"  prtin- 
ing  oidy:  and  as  regards  i)lowing  and  cultivating,  the  same  labor  that 
good  farmers  bestow  on  theu-  corn-fields  wiU  suffice. 

••An  acre  of  good  sandy  loam,  planted  in  souche  with  Concords  or 


574  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Ives's  Seedling,  ought  to  bring  an  average  annual  crop  of  1,000  gallons  of 
wine."  Full  details,  v.ith  illustrations,  are  given  of  the  mode  of  plant- 
ing in  souche.  which  persons  going  into  vine-culture  should  consult. 
Those  inclined  to  "trj'  ihe  exi>eriment  should  begin  with  varieties  whose 
ioiuts  ^i-e  short,  the  canes  stiif,  or,  what  is  better,  erect  in  their  growth, 
and  whose  frnit-buds  are  found  close  to  the  old  stock  or  souche." 

The  plants  are  set  five  or  six  feet  apart,  and  pruned  so  that  at  the 
third  year  the  ;  nnp  will  be  ten  or  twelve  inches  high,  with  five 

or  six  branches  -C  in  all  directions  without  expense  of  stake  or 

treUis,  the  finit  al&o  leceiving  the  benefit  of  whatever  heat  is  radiated 
from  the  earth. 

Tax  ScxTPPERXOXC  GHAPE  :  ItsUuitoty  and  Mode  of  Cultivation,  witli  a  short  treatise 
on  the  manufiictnre  of  wine  from  it.  Bj-  J.  Van  Bnren,  of  Clarksville,  Georgia.  16mo., 
50  irages.   Mcmiihis,  18(^. 

The  necessity'  of  resorting  to  a  more  diver.sified  system  of  industiy  in 
the  South  has  awakened  attention  to  some  of  its  hitherto  neglected 
native  productions.  Among  these,  the  cultme  of  the  Scuppemong 
grape  and  the  manufacture  of  its  whies  are  attracting  so  much  attention, 
that  3Ir.  Tan  Buren  has  collected  all  available  information  on  the  sub- 
ject, which  Ls  given  in  this  smaU  treatise. 

The  original  type  of  the  Scuppemong  gTajM?  is  a  native  of  the  southern 
States,  and  is  found  growing  wild  from  Xorth  Carolina  to  Florida,  climb- 
ing to  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees.  Its  appearance,  habits,  wood,  and 
frmt  are  quite  distinct  from  all  other  native  varieties,  and  it  is  easily 
known  by  its  small  leaves,  seldom  over  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter, 
which  are  smooth  and  glossy  on  both  their  upper  and  under  surfacesl 
It  is  too  tender  for  successful  cultivation  north  of  the  Potomac,  as,  wher- 
ever the  mercury  fails  to  zero,  it  is  killed  to  the  groimd ;  but  in  the 
southern  States  it  is  very  hardy,  astonishingly  productive,  and  an  excel- 
lent wine  grape.  Its  bunches  are  small,  loose,  and  seldom  composed  of 
more  than  half  a  dozen  large  berries,  three-quarters  to  one  and  a  quarter 
inch  in  diameter,  flesh  quite  pulpy,  though  when  thoroughly  ripe  and  a 
little  wilted,  the  pulp  dissolves  into  a  sweet,  rich,  aromatic  juice,  with 
a  musky  scent  and  thivor.  The  benies  then  leave  the  stem  so  freely, 
they  cannot  be  picked  in  clusters.  The  vine  is  a  Aigorous  grower,  and 
the  most  long-lived  of  the  grape-family. 

The  Scuppemong  is  propagated  by  layers  only,  and  wUl  not  grow 
from  cuttings,  either  in  the  open  giound  or  under  glass  with  bottom 
heat.  The  rooted  layers  are  planted  in  a  vineyard,  thirty  feet  apart 
each  way,  by  the  side  of  posts  seven  feet  high.  When  the  vine  reaches 
the  top  of  a  post,  four  other  posts  are  set  of  the  same  height  as  the  one 
to  which  the  vine  is  tied,  at  a  distance  of  ten  feet  from  one  another,  form- 
mg  a  s<iuarc  to  that  to  which  the  vine  Ls  tied  in  the  center.  On  the  tops 
of  these  posts  are  fastened  four  mils  from  one  to  the  other.  On  these 
rails  are  i)laced  sawed  strips  an  inch  or  two  thick,  by  three  wide,  and  a 
foot  apait,  on  which  the  branches  of  the  voung  vine  are  trained  for  a 
year  or  two,  when  it  wiU  need  no  further  care.  The  vine  must  not  be 
permitted  to  get  into  a  thick  or  tangled  mass  on  the  arbor,  in  which 
case  the  interior  wood  dies  for  want  of  sun  and  air.  As  it  grows  to  the 
outer  edge  of  the  arlwr,  another  row  of  iwsts  is  set  ten  feet  from  the 
others,  with  rails,  thus  extending  the  arbor  as  required. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  Scuppemong  is  singularlv  exempt  from  disease, 
mddew,  or  rot,  and  from  the  attacks  of  insects. "  Its  productiveness  is 
almost   incredi])le.     Six-;  Vj  transplanted  vines  freqnentiv  :iield 

three  bushels  each  of  cic  ,.  .       :^,  after  which  they  continue  to  double 


RECENT  AGEICULTUEAL  BOOKS.  575 

in  quantity  for  several  years.  Yiues  ten  years  old  have  been  known  to 
yield,  thirty  to  Sfty  bushels  per  vijie.  A  large  "\ine  near  IMobile,  thought 
to  be  one  hundred  years  old,  is  said  to  have  produced  more  than  two 
hundred  bushels  in  a  season.  There  are  many  other  apparently  well- 
authenticated  cases  of  extraordinary  fruitfulness.  Of  course,  such  a 
grape  will  produce  a  larger  amount  of  fruit  and  wme  per  acre  than  any 
other  Snown  variety. 

The  juice  of  the  Scuppernong  has  a  natural  tendency  to  make 
an  effervescing  or  foaming  wine,  and  with  i)roper  treatment  also  a 
rich  and  delicious  still  ^vine.  For  either  kind  the  grapes  must  be 
fully  ripe,  which  is  known  by  their  becoming  a  little  wilted  and  of  a 
yellower  color  than  when  eatable.  After  the  gTapes  are  crushed  be- 
tween rollers,  the  juice  is  strained  as  it  comes  from  the  press  into  clear 
oak  barrels,  and  a  pint  of  brandy  (distilled  from  the  juice  of  the  Scup- 
])ernong)  or  a  pound  and  a  half  of  crystallized  sugar  added  to  each 
gallon  of  juice.  The  barrels  should  be  lilled  fidl,  so  that  all  tilth  may 
ATork  out  at  the  bung-hole,  which  must  remain  open  for  two  weeks.  At 
that  period,  if  sugar  is  used,  the  bungs  must  he  put  in  tight :  but  if 
brandj',  the  barrels  should  be  immediately  bunged  up  when  it  is  added. 
A  good  cellar  is  indispensable,  in  which  to  place  the  barrels  of  juice,  to 
prevent  acetous  fermentation  from  the  changes  of  the  atmosphere.  In 
February  or  March  following,  the  wine  is  to  be  racked  off  into  clean 
casks ;  and  that  intended  for  champagne  into  extra  strong  bottles,  add- 
ing to  each  a  table-spoonfid  of  the  best  clarified  sugar  ;  then  cork  and 
])lace  the  bottles  in  a  cool  cellar,  bottom  upward,  imdisturbed  till  the 
beginning  of  Jidy.  Diu'ing  this  time  a  second  fermentation  takes  place, 
de])0siting  a  sediment  in  the  necks  of  the  bottles,  requking  some  care 
and  skill  to  remove.  Each  bottle  should  be  carefully  taken  up,  keeping 
it  inverted;  untie  the  fastening  to  the  cork,  take  it  out  suddenly,  and 
instantly  recork  it.  This  vnR  blow  out  all  the  sediment  and  a'  small 
amount  of  vrme  with  it.  The  bottles  should  have  been  filled  to  within 
an  inch  of  the  cork,  so  that  they  will  be  sufliciently  full  after  the  sedi- 
ment has  been  removed  ;  then  recork  with  new  corks,  driven  in  with  a 
mallet,  and  wired  or  tied,  and  i3laced  in  racks  on  then-  sides,  with  thek 
corks  exposed,  so  that  any  leak  can  be  detected  and  remedied  with  new 
corks. 

In  France  the  manufacturers  of  sparkhng  Avine,  in  other  districts  than 
Champagne,  have  to  increase  its  effervescence  by  mixing  with  it  the 
vdne  grown  in  Champagne,  which  is  a  natm-al  sparkler.  Mr.  Flagg,  of 
Cincinnati,  himself  an  experienced  wine-grower,  in  his  "  Thi-ee  Years  in 
Eiu-opean  Vineyards  *'  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  Scupijernong  is  as 
good  a  natiu-al  sparkler  as  is  needed  in  this  country. 

It  it  stated  in  the  Carohna  Farmer,  on  the  authority  of  j\Ir.  G.  W. 
Page,  a  successful  manufacturer  of  Scuppernong  Avine,  that  before  the 
rebelhon  a  large  part  of  the  yield  of  the  vines  in  the  Pamlico  and  the 
Albemarle  regions  was  collected  in  expressed  juice  by  Mr.  Long-worth's 
agents,  to  impart  flavor  and  a  bouquet  not  otherwise  attainable  to  his 
celebrated  Cincinnati  wines. 

To  make  a  fine  still  wine,  it  must  be  racked  off  in  February  or  March, 
into  clean,  sweet  barrels,  and  a  pint  of  Scuppernong  brandy  added  to 
each  gallon;  the  bung  should  be  left  loose  tor  two  weeks,  so  that  the 
slight  amount  of  gas  formed  during  the  second  fermentation  may  pass 
off;  then  bung  up  tight ;  and  at  the  end  of  a  year  you  have  a  fine  aro- 
matic Vvine,  of  a  delicious  flavor  and  bouquet. 


576  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


The  WiNE-MAKitB 
Manual.     I'i3  page 


b'.s  SLvntal.     By  Charles  Reemelin,  author  of  the  Vine-Dresser's 
ages.    Cincinnati :    Robert  Clarke  &  Co.     1868. 

Mr.  Keemcliu  lias  been  a  practical  wine-grower  at  Cincinnati  for  many 
yeans  and  has  j]^ven  in  this  ti'cati.se  the  result  of  bis  own  experience  iu 
the  business,  as  well  as  the  most  reliable  information  from  recent  Ibreign 
publications. 

It  covers  the  whole  subject  from  the  ripening  of  the  grapes;  their 
picking  and  culling;  mashing;  management  of  the  must;  fermentation; 
bottling;  manufacture  of  sparkling,  frozen,  and  spiced  wines;  wines  from 
other  fruits  than  the  grape;  imitation  and  artificial  wines,  with  remedies 
for  theii-  various  ailments,  &c.  It  is  written  in  a  clear,  intelligible  style, 
meeting  the  wants  of  the  household  rather  than  the  wine-shop,  and  sug- 
gests all  the  proper  uses  of  grapes,  and  their  refuse,  in  accordance  with 
the  general  economy  of  rural  practice.  To  give  permanence  to  the  pro- 
duction of  wine,  and  to  improve  its  quantity  and  quality,  it  is  important 
that  wine-growers  should  be  weU  acquainted  with  all  the  ruling  facts, 
tools,  and  manipulations  of  the  business. 

Mr.  Eeemelin  ad\ocates  the  proper  and  reasonable  use  of  wines,  and 
thinks  they  have  civilized  far  more  ijeople  than  they  have  brutalized, 
and  that,  in  fact,  very  few  barbarians,  but  all  ci\-ilized  people,  use  them. 
TThiskey,  the  emblem  of  brutality,  has  unfortunately  become  our  na- 
tional liquor,  wliich  he  hopei5  will  be  displaced  by  a  more  general  use  of 
native  wines.  He  says  that  after  all  wine  is  but  a  Kquid  in  which  the 
substance  of  the  fruit  is  presented  to  man  in  a  more  concentrated,  more 
easily  preserved  and  hou.sed,  and  more  digestible  form.  '•  That  abuses 
have  grown  up,  and  that  what  was  originally  inti'oduced  for  purposes 
of  nutrition  has  become  a  means  of  pleasui^e  on  festive  occasions,  and 
also  of  dissipation  and  intoxication,  is  no  argument  against  the  propriety 
of  wine-making.  For  if  the  liability  to  abu.se  would  be  groimd  against 
the  u.se  of  human  aliments,  there  is  nothing  so  sacred  nor  so  profane 
but  that  it  might  then  be  forbidden.  Human  life  must  not  be  dwarfed 
into  the  minimum  to  which  such  asceticism  would  reduce  it ;  on  the  con- 
trary, we  must  strive  for  that  maximum  of  enjoyment  which  is  consist- 
ent and  in  harmony  with  our  peculiar  natiu-al  necessities.  Physical 
gratiiication  is  not  in  itself  ^ice,  nor  is  mere  abstinence  virtue.  Man 
stands  highest,  morally,  wherever  he  produces  and  consumes  the  great- 
est amount  of  those  physical  means  which  are  necessary  and  proper  for 
his  own  existence  and  that  of  his  po.sterity.  An  experience  backed  by 
habits  historically  recorded  for  at  least  four  thousand  years,  has  entered 
wine  in  the  list  of  necessary  and  proper  moans  of  subsistence  for  human 
beings,  and  we  have,  therefore,  no  hesitancy  in  doing  our  share  toward 
facilitating  wine-production  as  well  as  wine' improvement.  *  *  * 

"  A  glass  of  wine,  cider,  or  other  fruit- wine,  is  exactly  the  food  suita- 
ble to  a  tired  condirion.  It  furni.shes  that  which  requires  least  work 
from  the  stomach  for  assimilation.  It  does  it  quicklv,  v.hich  is  a  gTcat 
consideration,  and  it  satisfies  the  more  interior  parts  of  the  svstem, 
which,  therefore,  cease  to  importune  the  stomach.  Wines  are 'better 
than  distilled  alcohol,  becau.se  they  contain  more  of  the  ingredients  ne- 
ces.sary  for  the  human  system,  in  the  vegetable  acids,  salts,  ethereal  oils, 
and  nitrogenous  sub.stauce.s,  and  proportionally  less  alcohol,  and  that  in 
a  less  stimulating  form. 

*-The  reader  will  now  be  able  to  discriminate  between  a  proper  and 
an  improper  use  of  wines.  When  employed  in  aid  of  other  food,  and 
used  with  it.  it  is  proper;  while  using  it  a.s  the  principal  or  onlv  aliment, 
or  worse  still,  as  a  daily  or  hourly  stimulant,  it  is  improper." 


RECENT   AGRICULTURAL    BOOKS  677 

FiEEp,  FORJEST,  AJSTD  GARDEN  BOTANT :  A  simple  Introduction  to  the  Common  Plants 
of  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  both  wild  and  cultivated.  By  Asa 
Gray  Fisher,  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Harvard  University.  12mo.,  386  pages. 
New  York :  Ivison,  Phinney,  Blakeman  &  Co. 

This  book  is  intended  to  fumisli  botanical  classes  and  beginners  gen- 
erally with  an  easy  introduction  to  the  plants  of  this  country,  the  culti- 
vated as  well  as  the  native  species,  and  to  pro^'ide  cultivators,  gar- 
deners, and  amateurs,  and  all  who  are  fond  of  flowers,  with  a  simple 
guide  to  a  knowledge  of  their  botanical  names  and  structure.  Within 
the  compass  of  about  350  pages  will  be  fiound  brief  botanical  descrip- 
tions of  2,650  species,  belongiug  to  947  genera.  It  thus  supplies  a  gTcat 
want  to  botanists  and  botanical  teachers,  whose  only  recourse  in  such 
cases  heretofore  has  been  a  botanical  library  beyond  the  reach  and 
means  of  many  students.  The  book  has  been  brought  within  the 
proper  compass  by  compact  printing,  the  rigid  exclusion  of  all  extra- 
neous and  unnecessary  matter,  by  concise  and  simple  langiiage,  and  by 
the  omission  of  obscure,  insig-nificant,  or  rare  i)lants,  which  students 
will  not  be  apt  to  examine,  or  which  are  quite  too  difficult  for  beginners. 

Pkactical  Floricultuke  :  A  Guide  to  the  Successful  Cultivation  of  Florists'  Plants, 
for  the  Amateur  and  Professional  Florist.  By  Peter  Henderson,  author  of  "  Garden- 
ing for  Profit.''     12mo.,  250  pages.     New  York :  Orange  Judd  «fc  Co.     1868. 

Hitherto  most  of  our  books  on  horticulture  have  been  mainly  com- 
piled from  English  writers,  and  are  really  of  no  great  value  iu  our 
country.  Mr.  Henderson  has  cut  loose  from  all  foreign  authorities,  and 
gives  the  methods  of  his  own  successful  practice.  Many  of  his  views 
will  be  considered  radical  by  the  old  school  of  foreign  gardeners,  but  he 
poiuts  to  the  results  of  his  methods,  and  lets  others  judge  whether  or 
not  they  are  worthy  of  imitation.  The  book  comprises  full  instructions 
for  laying  out  ornamental  gTounds,  lawns,  and  gardens;  the  management 
of  cold  frames  and  hot  beds ;  the  construction  of  green-houses  and  the 
modes  of  heating ;  the  propagation  and  culture  of  hardy,  tender,  and 
bulbous  plants;  the  tasteful  construction  of  bouquets  and  hanging 
baskets;  remedies  for  injurious  insects,  with  lists  of  the  most  desirable 
plants  for  out-door,  gi'een-house,  and  stove  or  hot-house  culture,  closing 
with  a  diary  of  actual  operations  in  his  green-houses  and  gardens  for 
every  day  in  the  year  1SG7-'6S. 

To  show  the  public  appreciation  of  the  trade  of  commercial  florists 
about  OUT  large  cities,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  'New  York,  during 
winter,  the  common  price  for  a  handsome  rose-bud  is  twenty-five  cents, 
and  the  same  for  a  dozen  violets ;  whUe  camelias  vary  from  one  dollar 
each,  when  scarce,  to  twenty-five  cents,  when  plentiful ;  and  at  Christ- 
mas and  iSTew  Year's  the  latter  are  frequently  sold  at  two  to  three 
dollars  each ;  common  hand  bouquets  range  from  fifty  cents  to  five  dol- 
lars ;  extra  fine  ones,  ten,  fifteen,  and  even  twenty  dollars  each ;  baskets 
of  cut  flowers,  five  to  twenty-five  dollars;  bouquets  for  refreshments  and 
dinner  tables,  five  to  fifty  dollars,  sometimes  one  hundred  dollars; 
and  on  one  great  occasion  a  florist  is  said  to  have  furnished  three  thou- 
sand dollars'  worth  of  bouquets,  wreaths,  and  other  floral  decorations  for 
a  private  entertainment ;  and  orders  for  two  hundred  to  three  hundred 
dollars  on  such  occasions  are  not  unfrequent.  Funeral  ornaments  are 
also  an  important  branch  of  the  florist's  trade,  wreaths,  crosses,  anchors, 
and  other  floral  emblems  being  now  in  common  use,  among  the  better 
class  of  society,  to  the  amount  of  a  hundred,  and  even  a  thousand  dollars, 
for  a  single  funeral.  This  floral  business  in  Xew  York  now  amounts  to 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  annually. 
37 


578  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Mr.  Henderson  has  views  of  his  0"wti  on  many  of  the  old  do{?mas  of 
foreign  gardeners,  and  appeals  to  his  success  for  their  correctness. 
For  instance,  some  English  authorities  call  for  nineteen  different  kinds 
of  soil  for  potting  plants.  He  simplifies  matters  by  having  one  large 
heap  of  potting  soil,  composed  of  only  two  ingredients — rotted  sods  from 
a  loamy  pasture  and  rotted  refuse  hops  from  the  breweries,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  two  of  the  sods  to  one  of  the  hops ;  if  the  latter  are  not 
attainable,  thoroughly  rotted  horse  or  cow  manure,  or  leaf  mold  from 
the  woods,  will  do  nearly  as  well.  From  this  mold-heap  vigorous  plants 
of  every  description  are  grown  and  flowered  with  complete  success. 
Special  soils  have  less  to  do  -vvith  the  healthy  gi'owth  of  plants  than  the 
proper  application  of  heat  and  moisture.  Another  dogma,  that  rain  or 
soft  water  is  necessary  in  watering  plants  in  gTcen-houses,  he  scouts 
emphatically;  some  of  his  gi'eeu-houees  are  watered,  summer  and  winter, 
from  a  deep  well  of  the  hardest  water  at  an  average  temperature  of  40°, 
and  some  from  cisterns  filled  from  their  roof?,  without  any  perceptible 
diflerence  in  the  growth  or  healthiness  of  his  plants.  He  also  contends 
that  the  tiiue-honored  practice  of  placing  potsherds,  chips,  charcoal, 
oyster  shells,  &c.,  in  the  bottom  of  pots  to  facilitate  draining,  is  wrong 
in  theory  and  perfectly  useless  iu  practice,  as  the  escajie  of  moisture  or 
draining  from  flower  pots  takes  place  almost  entirely  from  the  porous 
sides  of  the  pot,  which  should  never  be  glazed.  He  has  dispensed  with 
the  '-draining"  of  flowerpots  for  fifteen  years,  and  in  that  time  has 
raised  millions  of  plants,  which  have  not  seemed  to  su&'er  from  this  de- 
viation fr'om  the  old  orthodox  system.  In  his  annual  importation  ot 
English  novelties  the  flower  pots  always  come  filled  one-thfrd  frfll  with 
the  Lne\itable  potsherd,  &c.  The  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  pot  should 
be  stoi^ped  with  a  chip,  or  whatever  is  at  hand,  not  for  the  purpose  ol 
di-ainage,  but  to  prevent  the  soil  fi'om  shaking  out. 

Mr.  Henderson  also  protests  against  the  generally  received  notion 
that  plants  in  parlors  or  sleeping-rooms  are  injurious  to  health.  Physi- 
cians may  correctly  assert  that  plants  give  out  carbonic  acid  gas, 
yet  that  it  is  emitted  in  sufficient  quantities  "to  affect  our  health  in  the 
shghtest  degree  is  utter  nonsense."  In  proof  of  this,  he  says  there  is 
no  healthier  class  of  men  to  be  found  than  greenhouse  operators,  many 
of  whom  are  shut  up  in  their  houses  all  day  and  a  large  part  of  the 
night  in  winter,  which,  from  their  warmth,  have  to  serve  as  sitting- 
rooms,  and  frequently  as  their  bed-rooms.  For  three  winters  Mr.  Hen- 
derson liimself  had  charge  of  a  hot-house  rank  w  ith  tropical  vegetation, 
and  slept  on  the  floor,  just  the  place  to  inhale  the  gas,  if  there  had  been 
much  to  inJiale,  without  the  least  injury  to  his  health. 

The  tasteful  ai-rangement  of  cut  flowers  for  decorative  purposes  is 
quite  an  art.  "The  simj>lest,  easiest,  and  commonly  the  most  desirable 
method  is  to  arrange  them  in  vases,  the  more  loosely  and  unconfined 
the  better.  Crowding  is  particularly  to  be  avoided,  and  to  accomplish 
tliis  readily  a  good  base  of  greens  is  required  to  keep  the  flo-wers  apart. 
This  fillmg  up  is  a  very  important  part  iji  all  bouquet-making,  and  the 
neglect  of  it  the  greatest  stumbling  block  of  the  uninitiated.  Both  spiked 
and  drooping  flowers,  vrith  branches  and  sprays  of  delicate  green,  are 
indispensable  to  the  grace  and  beauty  of  a  vase  bouquet.  To  preserve 
the  iudi\'iduality  of  flowers,  which  is  of  the  gi-eatest  importance,  the 
placing  together  of  those  of  similar  size  and  form  ought  to  be  avoided. 
Thus  Heliotrope,  Stevia,  Eupatorium,  or  Alyssum,  when  combined,  lose 
then-  distinctive  beauty;  but  if  placed  in  juxtai)osition  to  larger  flowers, 
and  those  of  other  forms,  thefr  beaut>-  is  heightened  by  contrast.  As  a 
rule,  small  flowers  should  never  be  massed  together.    Large  flowers 


RECENT  AGRICULTUEAL  BOOKS.  579 

with  pjeen  leaves  or  branclies  may  be  used  to  advantage  aloue,  but  a 
judicious  contrast  of  forms  is  most  effective. 

"Xotliing  is  so  strikingly  beautiful  on  a  refreshment  table  as  a  hand- 
some center-piece  of  flowers.  All  the  airy  castles  of  the  confectioner 
are  passed  over  by  the  eye,  which  is  at  once  arrested  and  refieshed  by 
the  brilliant  beauty  of  the  products  of  the  garden  or  conservatory;  and 
we  wonder  how  any  person  of  taste,  who  possesses  the  means,  should 
ever  fail  to  have  flowers  on  his  table  when  entertaining  friends.  Con- 
sidering the  effect,  flowers  on  the  table,  like  plants  in  the  garden,  are 
certainly  the  cheapest  of  ornaments.  There  are  those  who  would  have 
nothiug  upon  their  tables  but  what  they  can  eat  or  drink:  like  a  gen- 
tleman who  once  employed  the  writer  of  this  to  lay  out  a  new  garden, 
and  objected  to  having  roses  planted  by  the  fences,  saying  very  earnestly : 
'Ah,  yes!  I  suppose  they  are  very  pretty,  but  then,  you  see,  we  couldn't 
get  anything  fi-om  them  to  eat.  Guess  we  won't  have  any  of  them 
things.'  Luckily  for  the  weU-being  of  humanity,  such  desperately  prac- 
tical men  are  not  very  numerous." 

The  Book  of  E\'ergreexs  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Coniferre.  or  Cone-bearing 
Plants.  By  Josiah  Hoopes,  member  of  the  Academy  of  Nutural  Sciences  of  Phila- 
delphia.    12mo.,  435  pages.     Illnstrated.    New  York  :  Orange  Judd  &  Co.,  1868. 

This  is  the  first  complete  American  work  on  conifers  that  gives  a 
description  of  all  the  different  species  and  varieties  that  wiU  endure  the 
climate  of  the  middle  States.  It  is  written  with  an  earnest  love  of  the 
subject,  and  comprises  not  only  the  result  of  the  author's  own  i:)ractical 
experience,  but  the  latest  information  from  Em-opean  writers.  It  may 
be  relied  upon  as  a  standard  authority,  and  will  prove  invaluable  to 
persons  in  making  a  selection  of  evergreens  for  their  gi-ounds. 

An  introduction,  giving  a  general  description  of  the  most  remarkable 
cone-bearing  plants,  is  followed  by  practical  tlirections  on  the  proper 
sou,  and  mode  of  planting  them,  their  i^ropagation.  priming,  and  after- 
culture ;  the  management  of  evergreen  hedges,  the  situation  and  selection 
of  varieties,  with  a  strict  scientifle  as  well  as  popular  description,  in 
which  the  history,  uses,  and  associations  of  the  various  pines,  larches, 
fijs,  hemlocks,  yews,  cypresses,  cedars,  and  the  new  conifers  lately  brought 
into  notice  by  zealous  collectors,  are  told  in  an  attractive  manner. 

The  surpassing  beauty  of  the  Calitbmia  puies  is  unexcelled,  and  some 
of  the  grandest  specimens  of  evergi-eens  in  the  world  have  been  discov- 
ered in  the  vaUfys  of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  and  in  the  northwest 
pai-ts  of  Isorth  America,  along  the  coast,  from  the  latitude  of  forty-three 
to  fifty-two  degrees.  The  size  of  some  of  these  trees  is  immense,  the 
Douglas  Spruce  {Abies  Dovglasii)  ranging  from  one  hundred  and  fifty 
to  two  huudied  feet  in  height,  and  two  to  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  But 
the  great  rree  of  Cahfomia  {Sequoia  r/iganfea)  is  the  giant  of  all  forests;  it 
is  very  abundant  on  the  western  flanks  of  the  Sierra  Xevada,  latitude  36P 
or  37°.  Professor  Brewer  describes  one  as  beingtwo  hmidied  and  seventy- 
six  feet  high,  and  thirty-five  feet  in  diameter.  They  impart  a  grandeur  to 
the  scenery,  where,  in  .some  places,  a  hundred  trees  can  be  seen  at  once, 
over  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  covered  with  the  richest  foliage.  Furthei 
north,  srill  larger  trees  are  found,  wliich  are  the  wonder  of  the  botanical 
world.  Bayard  Taylor,  after  a  graphic  account  of  the  immense  size  of 
these  vegetable  giants,  describes  the  felling  of  one  of  the  largest  speci- 
mens, a  mass  of  solid  wood  ninety  feet  in  circuTuference,  w-hich  was  per- 
formed  by  two  sets  of  hands,  with  the  aid  of  two  long  pump  augers : 
"After  a  steady  labor  of  six  weeks  the  thing  vras  done,  but  the  tree 
stood  immoved;  so  straight  and  symmetrical  was  its  growth,  so  unmense 


580  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

its  weight,  and  so  broad  its  base,  that  it  seemed  imconscious  of  its  own 
aiinihUation,  tossing  its  outer  branches  derisively  against  the  mountaiu 
winds  that  strove  to  overthrow  it.  A  neighboring  pine  of  giant  size  was 
then  selected,  and  felled  in  sach  a  way  as  to  fall  with  full  force  against  it. 
The  top  shook  a  little,  but  the  shaft  stood  as  before;  linaDy  the  spoilers 
succeeded  in  di'iving  their  wedges  into  the  cut.  Gradually  and  with 
great  labor  one  side  of  the  tree  was  lifted;  the  line  of  equilibrium  was 
driven  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  base;  the  mighty  mass  poised  for  a  mo- 
ment, and  then,with  a  great  rushing  sigh  in  all  its  boughs,  thundered  down. 
The  forest  was  groim'd  to  dust  beneath  it,  and  for  a  mile  aroimd  the 
earth  shook  with  the  concussion. 

''According  to  the  annual  rings,  the  age  of  this  tree  was  3,100  years, 
and  it  contained  250,000  feet  of  timber.  The  stump  is  now  used  for  a 
ball-room,  and  the  trunk  for  a  bowling  alley.  Dr.  Bigelow  says  of  this 
specimen,  that  it  required  thirty-one  of  his  paces,  of  thi^ee  feet  each,  to 
measure  thus  rudely  its  cii'ciunference  at  the  stimip;  and  the  mere  fell- 
ing of  it  cost,  at  California  prices,  $550.  When  we  consider  the  sublime 
proportions  of  these  wonderful  productions  of  natui-e,  all  other  trees 
sink  into  perfect  insignificance.  Just  imagine  a  man  on  horseback  riding 
a  distance  of  seventy-five  feet  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  and  emerging  from 
a  knot-hole  in  the  side."' 

Two  specimens  of  this  wonder  lul  tree  are  growing  in  the  public  grounds 
at  Washington ;  one  in  fi'out  of  the  Agricultural  Depairtment,  the  other  in 
the  yard  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  where  it  has  flourished,  unpro- 
tected, for  several  years.  A  planlc  seven  and  a  half  feet  wide,  of  one  vari- 
ety of  this  tree,  brought  irom  California,  and  A^TOught  into  a  handsome 
table,  is  in  the  nniseum  of  the  Agricultural  Department.  The  wood  is  of 
a  red  color,  fine  and  close-grained,  admitting  of  a  high  polish. 

The  Noble  Silver  Fir  {Abies  iwbilis)  is  also  a  magnificent  production 
of  our  hemisphere,  growing  two  hundred  feet  high,  on  the  Shasta  Moun- 
tains. Downing  descidbed  a  specimen  to  be  seen  in  the  arboretimi  at 
Ohatsworth,  Eiigland,  some  forty  feet  high,  of  extremely  elegant  propor- 
tions, and  beautiful  in  shape  and  color. 

The  Great  Silver  Fir  {Abies  grajidis)  is  another  superb  tree,  fi'om  Cali- 
fornia. It  is  found  on  the  banks  of  Fraser's  Kiver,  two  hundred  and 
eightj'  feet  high,  and  five  feet  in  diameter,  presenting  a  tall,  naked  shaft 
of  one  himdred  feet  before  branching.  Mr.  Hoopes  has  grown  this  in 
his  gi-oimds  at  West  Chester,  Pennsylvania,  for  ten  years,  in  the  open 
air,  entirely  unprotected,  where  it  has  withstood  the  most  severe  cold 
and  intense  heat,  with  imvarjing  success,  and  says  no  one  of  the  new 
and  rare  conifers  that  he  has  tested  exceeds  this  in  his  estimation.  There 
are  many  other  specimens  of  conifers  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Eocky 
Mountains  that  are  unsurpassed  iu  size  and  beauty. 

Mr.  Hoopes  closes  his  instructive  and  interesting  work  with  notices  of 
the  best  oollectious  of  conifers  iu  the  Union. 

Popular  Deciduous  and  Evergref.n  Trees  and  Shrubs  for  Planting  in  P.\rks, 
Gardens,  Cemeteries,  &c.  By  F.  R.  Elliott,  Landscape  Gardener  and  Pomologist. 
Author  of  "Western  Fruit  Book,"  &c.  J2mo.,  1'25  pages.  KewYork:  F.  ^y.  Wood- 
ward, 18G8. 

The  gi'cat  attention  paidiu  the  last  few  years  to  planting  out  trees  and 
shrubs  in  public  and  private  grounds,  country  roads,  and  the  streets  ot 
cities,  has  created  a  demand  for  a  practical  treatise  on  the  subject  Mr. 
Elliott  has  given  this  work  to  the  public,  descril^ing  the  promi- 
nent habits  of  the  leading  evergreen  and  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs, 
with  their  proper  soils,  exposition,  and  their  landscape  effect.    The 


RECENT  AGRICULTURAL  BOOKS.  581 

deciduous  trees,  a  ricli  collection  of  tLe  maples,  maguolias,  larches, 
oaks,  lindens,  elms,  birclies,  «S:c.,  as  well  as  several  weeping  varieties  of 
the  "u-illow,  ash,  elm,  and  other  trees,  are  first  described,  and  their  peculiar 
management  set  forth.  Two  chai^ters  are  devoted  to  the  evergreen  trees 
and  shrubs,  which  are  becoming  more  highly  appreciated  every  year, 
since  it  is  ascertained  that  they  can  be  transplanted  about  as  safely  as 
deciduous  trees.  Fifteen  varieties  of  the  pine  are  described,  as  well  as 
several  firs,  spruces,  and  cedars.  Including  the  mammoth  red  tree  of  Cali- 
fornia, (the  Sequoia  gigantca^)  whose  average  height  in  its  native  locality 
is  two  hundred  feet,  quite  straight  and  clear  of  branches  to  the  height 
of  sixty  or  seventy  feet.  It  g^rows  rapidly  in  almost  any  soil,  and  may 
yet  become  a  valuable  timber  for  planting  in  the  South  and  West.  The 
remainder  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  the  various  ornamental  shrubs  with 
which  our  country  abounds.  In  planting  shrubs,  besides  imderstanding 
what  soils  and  situations  are  the  best  for  their  luxuriant  ,<ji'0'ui:h  and 
development,  cultivators  are  reminded  that  flowers  continue  but  a  short 
period  in  comparison  with  the  dm-ation  of  the  leaves,  and  therefore  the  more 
permanent  picture  should  be  executed  by  judiciously  contrasting  the  green. 
Even  the  effect  of  perspective  may  be  considerably  increased  by  the 
proper  arrangement  of  hues.  Shrubs  the  leaves  of  which  are  of  a  gray  or 
blueish  tint,  when  seen  over  or  between  shrubs  of  a  yellowish  or  bright 
gTeeu,  will  seem  thrown  into  the  distance.  Those,  again,  with  small  or 
tremulous  leaves  should  wave  over  or  before  those  with  large,  broad,  fixed 
foliage. 

The  author  has  endeavored  to  describe  plainly  each  tree  and  shrub, 
with  its  adaptation  to  positions  and  soils,  so  that  the  no\'ice  in  tree- 
planting  may  read  and  understand,  and  thereby  advance  the  beauty  of 
our  roadsides,  cemeteries,  and  private  grounds. 

The  Tim  BtTncER  Papers  :  Or  Yankee  Farming'.  By  Timothy  Bunker,  Esq.,  of  Hooker- 
town,  Connecticut.     12  mo.,  314  pages.     New  York,  1868  :  Orange  Judii  &c  Co.     1868. 

These  papers,  nearly  one  hundred  in  number,  convey  agricultural  in- 
formation in  the  attractive  form  of  sketches  of  character  and  conversa- 
tion. They  were  begun  in  the  interest  of  improved  husbandry,  and  were 
originally  scattered  through  twelve  volumes  of  the  American  Agricul- 
tm-ist.  Though  wi'itten  without  much  method,  they  abound  in  humor 
and  practical  suggestions  on  the  thousand  objects  that  make  up  a  farm- 
er's life.  Artificial  manui"es,  the  cattle  disease,  sub-soiling,  horso-racing, 
management  of  cattle,  draining,  irrigation,  the  eight-hour  law,  bad  water, 
starting  a  sugar  mill,  keeping  a  wife  comfortable,  and  kindred  subjects 
are  discussed  in  a  style  replete  with  Yankee  pleasantry,  whUe  the  teach- 
ings are  in  harmony  with  the  best  authorities  in  farming  and  horticul- 
ture. 

EuKAL  AiTAiRS :  A  practical  and  copiously  illustrated  Register  of  Rural,  Economy 
and  Rural  Taste,  including  Country  Dwellings,  Improviuis:  and  Planting  Grounds, 
FiTiits,  and  Flowers,  Domestic  Animals,  and  all  Farm  and  Garden  Processes.  By  J. 
J.  Thomas,  author  of  the  "  American  Fruit  Culturist,"  and  *'  Farm  Implements,"  and 
associate  editor  of  the  "  Cultivator  and  Country  Gentleman."  With  400  engrav- 
ings.   Vol.  IV.  limo.,  330  pages.    Albany  :  Luther  Tucker  &,  Son. 

AMERicv^^f  Agriculturai,  Anxual  :  A  Farmer's  Year  Book.  Exliibiting  recent  pro- 
gress in  Agricultural  Theory  and  Practice,  and  a  Guide  to  Present  and  Future  Labors. 
Illustrated.     Small  I'imo.,  150  pages.    New  York:  Orange  J  add  A:  Co. 

These  two  works  are  quite  similar  in  character.  The  iirst  named  is 
published  triennially,  and  is  composed  of  articles  that  appear  first  in  the 
Annual  Register  of  Eural  Aftairs,  and  contains  an  immense  amount  oi 
practical  information  on  farming,  horticulture,  and  rural  afftiirs,  embrac- 


582  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

ing  orcharding,  rural  architecture,  flower  and  kitchen  gardening,  ento- 
mology, poultry,  bees,  household  economy,  &c.  It  is  \vritten  almost 
entirely  by  Mr.' Thomas,  and  is  illustrated  by  over  four  hundred  engrav- 
ings, which  increase  the  usefulness  as  well  as  the  beauty  of  the  work. 

The  Agricultural  Annual  is  also  handsomely  illustrated,  and  aims  to 
keep  the  i)ublic  inlbrmed  in  regard  to  the  progress  made  in  the  science 
of  agriculture.  Besides  a  calendar  of  farming  operations  for  each  month, 
it  is  filled  with  articles  Judiciously  selected,  and  several  original  essays 
on  veterinary  matters,  cattle  diseases  of  the  United  States,  trout  culture, 
coal  tar  and  its  uses,  breeding  and  management  of  swine,  the  compara- 
tive yield  and  tendency  to  rot  in  upwards  of  one  hundred  varieties  oi 
potatoes ;  also  the  i)rogress  of  invention  and  introduction  of  new  agri- 
cultural machuiery,  illustrated;  with  a  list  of  agricultural  journals,  and 
a  fannei"'s  directory,  comprising  a  classified  list  of  manufacturers  and 
dealers  in  agricultural  implements,  seeds,  fertilizers,  &c.,  and  breeders 
of  live  stock,  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  goats,  poultry,  bees,  and  fish. 

The  Market  Assist.oct  :  Containiug  a  brief  description  of  every  article  of  Human 
Food  sold  iu  the  public  markets  of  New  York,  Boston,  Pliiladelpliia,  and  Brooklyn, 
including  the  various  domestic  and  wild  animals,  poultry,  game,  fish,  vegetables, 
fruits,  &ic.,  with  many  cniious  incidents  and  anecdotes.  By  Thos.  F.  De  Toe,  author 
of  Tho  Market  Book,  &c.    12mo.,  454  pages.    New  York :  Hurd  »fe  Houghton.     1667. 

This  work  aims  to  be  practically  useful  as  well  as  interesting,  bringing 
together  all  those  items  of  information  necessary  iu  catering  for  a  house- 
hold, in  regard  to  domestic  or  tame  animals,  wild  animals  or  animal 
game,  poultry,  wild  fowl,  and  birds  or  bird  game  ;  fish,  vegetables,  fruits, 
nuts,  dairy  and  household  x^roducts,  &c.,  connected  with  our  daily  wants. 
"  AYhat  shall  we  have  lor  dinner  to-day  ?  Wliat  is  there  in  oiu-  markets 
fit  to  eat  ?  "What  kind  of  meats,  poultry,  game,  fish,  vegetables,  and 
fruits  are  iu  season  ?  AMiat  names  are  given  to  the  difierenc  joints  of 
meats,  and  what  dishes  are  they  severally  and  generally  used  for?  "We 
have  had  roasts,  steaks,  and  chops,  and  chops,  steaks,  and  roasts,  until  we 
are  tired  of  them !    Xow,  do  say,  what  shall  we  have  for  dinner  ?" 

These,  with  many  other  exclamations,  are  daily  discussed,  and  are 
comprehensively  answered  in  this  book.  Mr.  De  Voe  has  been  a  leading 
butcher  in  the  New  York  markets  for  thirty  years,  and  has  amassed 
a  largo  amount  of  curious  and  interesting  iiiformation.  His  work 
Ls  not  only  replete  with  suggestions  on  selecting  one's  daily  sup- 
plies in  market,  but  on  nearly  every  page  will  be  found  some  amusing 
fact  or  anecdote  bearing  on  tJie  subject.  In  describing  the  game  in  the 
New  York  markets,  appropriate  extracts  from  the  game  laws  are  quoted; 
and  in  speaking  of  birds,  ]ie  enters  a  strong  protest  against  their  wanton 
slaughter,  as  they  "destroy  millions  of  insects,  flies,  wcrms,  slugs,  «.*tc., 
penetrating  every  nook  and  corner  of  hedge,  thicket,  or  field;  they  clear 
bush  and  ti'ee,  limb  after  limb,  while  every  passing  leaf,  folded  or 
withered,  is  carefidly  examined  and  deprived  of  its  concealed  but  de- 
structive tenant.  Without  these  useful  and  beautifid  little  ti^espassers, 
the  many  destructive  insects  would  increase  so  rapidly  as  to  become 
alniost  a  plagiu-,  by  destroying  all  fruit  and  vegetation ;  while  the  loss  of 
a  little  fruit  or  seed  for  their  subsistence  ibr  a  short,  period  v.ould  be 
ample  payment  to  the  buds  for  their  great  services  to  the  cultivator. 

"  Birds  do  not  often  touch  the  sound  fruit  when  they  can  find  that 
containing  worms.  From  this  fact  they  should  not  be  driven  from  the 
fruit  trees ;  they  are  friends  and  benefactors,  not  only  to  the  cultivator, 
but  to  mankind  at  large,  and  to  all  who  have  a  sentiment  for  all  that  is 
beautiful,  poetic  and  most  musical  of  natture's  productions.'' 


RECENT  AGRICULTURAL  BOOKS.  683 

The  chapter  on  fish,  descriptive  and  historical,  is  particularly  interest- 
ing ;  and,  from  the  nature  of  the  subject,  is  enriched  with  many  marvel- 
lous stories,  but  which  generally  ai)pear  to  be  well  authenticated. 

Farm  lMrLE>rEXTS  .vntd  Farm  JL\CHrN-ERY,  axd  the  Prenxiples  of  their  Construc- 
Tiox  AXD  Use  :  With  simple  and  practical  explanations  of  motion  and  force  as  applied 
on  the  fai-m.  With  2."^  illustrations.  By  John  J.  Thomas.  l"2mo.,  302  pages.  New 
York  :  Orange  Judd  &  Co.  1668. 

This  work  is  based  on  a  prize  essay,  published  in  the  transactions  of 
the  Xew  York  Agricultural  Society  for  1850,  uuder  the  title  of  "Agri- 
cultural Dynamics;  or,  the  laws  of  motion  and  force  as  applied  to  the 
ordinary  iiractices  of  farming.-'  This  new  edition  embraces  a  descrip- 
tion of  all  the  valuable  imi)rovements  that  have  been  made  iu  farm  ma- 
chinery, of  nearly  every  kind,  for  the  last  twenty  years.  A  large  part  of 
it  is  devoted  to  a  practical  explanation  of  the  principles  of  mechanical 
science,  as  applied  directly  in  the  farmer's  daily  routine,  that  he  may 
know  the  reasons  of  success  and  failure,  instead  of  beiug  guided  by  ran- 
dom guessing. 

In  his  introductory  chapter,  Mr.  Thomas  describes  the  gi-eat  improve- 
ment that  has  been  made  in  common  farm  implements,  and  the  new 
machinery  invented  within  the  last  fifty  years :  "  Plows  turn  O])  the  soil 
deeper,  more  evenly  and  perfectly,  and  with  greater  ease  of  cbaught ; 
hoes  and  spades  have  become  lighter  and  more  efiieient ;  gi-aiu,  instead 
of  being  beaten  out  by  the  slow  and  laborious  work  of  the  flail,  is  now 
showered  in  torrents  from  the  threshing  machine ;  horse-rakes  accom- 
plish singly  the  work  of  many  men  using  the  old  hand-rake ;  horse-forks 
convey  hay  to  the  bam  or  stack  with  ease  and  rapidity;  twelve  acres  of 
ripe  grain  are  neatly  cut  in  one  day,  with  a  two-horse  reaper ;  grain- 
di'ills  and  planting  machines,  avoiding  the  tiresome  drudgery  of  hand 
labor,  distribute  the  seed  for  the  futiu-e  crops  with  evenness  and  preci- 
sion. 

"  The  owner  of  a  seventy- thousand  acre  farm  in  Illinois  carries  on 
nearly  all  his  work  by  labor-saving  machinery.  He  drives  posts  by 
horse-power;  breaks  his  ground  with  Comstock's  Eotary  Spader;  mows, 
rakes,  loads,  unloads,  and  stacks  his  hay  by  horse-power ;  cultivates  his 
corn  with  a  two-horse  seated  or  sulky  cultivator;  ditches  low  grotmd, 
sows  and  plants  by  machinery;  so  that  his  laborers  ride  in  the  perform- 
ance of  their  tasks  without  exhausting  their  strength  with  needless 
walking  over  extended  fields. 

''  The  great  value  of  improved  farm  machinery  to  the  country  at  large 
has  been  lately  proved  by  the  introduction  of  the  reaper.  Careful  esti- 
mates determined  that  the  number  of  reaping  machines  introduced 
rhroughout  the  country,  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  great  rebellion,  per- 
formed an  amount  of  labor  while  working  in  harvest  nearly  equal  to 
a  million  of  men  with  hand  implements.  The  reaper  thus  filled  the 
void  caused  by  the  demand  on  working  men  for  the  army.  An  earlier 
occurrence  of  that  war  must,  therefore,  have  resulted  in  the  general  ruin 
of  the  grain  interest,  and  prevented  the  annual  shipment  of  the  millions 
duiing  that  gigantic  contest,  which  so  greatly  suiprised  th-e  commercial 
savans  of  Euj  ope." 

A  sketch  of  the  general  principles  of  mechanics,  and  their  aiipiication 
in  the  construction  of  implements  and  machinery,  is  followed  by  an  illus- 
trated description  of  those  in  use  at  the  present  day.  The  principles  of 
road-making,  in  which  all  farmers  are  interested,  are  discussed;  and 
the  importance  of  good  roads  as  aftecting  the  price  of  laud  by  affording 
facilities  for  easily  reaching  market,  and  for  all  other  kinds  of  commu- 


584  AGRICULTURAL    KJt.l'OKT. 

nicatiou,  are  iUusiiated  iu  a  strikiufr.mauuer.  The  hixmiant  crops  of 
oiir  westeru  i)iames,  witLiu  a  few  years,  liave  been  left  to  decay  on  the 
grouud.  for  want  of  easy  roads  to  market ;  the  rich  mines  of  northern 
New  York  are  comparatively  vahieless,  because  the  mountain  roads  are 
so  few  and  bad  that  the  expense  of  transportation  would  exceed  the 
value  of  the  metal;  and,  in  Old  Spain,  wheat,  after  abundant  harvests, 
is  loft  to  rot  on  the  ground,  because  it  will  not  pay  the  cost  of  caiTiage. 
Government  having  once  ordered  the  transfer  of  4S0  tons  of  wheat 
from  Old  Castile  to  Madrid,  30,000  horses  and  mules  were  required ; 
while  on  a  good,  broken-stone  road,  one  hundredth  part  of  that  number 
could  easily  have  done  the  work.  The  g:i"eat  military  roads  constructed 
in  the  highlands  of  Scotland  by  Marshal  Wade  after  the  rebellion  ot 
1745,  did  more  for  the  civilization  of  the  Highlanders  than  all  the  other 
efforts  of  the  British  government;  and  the  later  roads  built  in  Great 
Britain,  under  the  direction  of  Telford,  have  produced  changes  in  the 
condition  of  the  peoi^le  which  are  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  any 
country;  large  crops  of  wheat  now  cover  former  wastes ;  farmers'  houses 
and  herds  of  cattle  now  abotmd  where  was  formerly  a  desert ;  estates 
have  increased  seven-fold  in  value,  and  the  coimtry  has  been  advanced 
at  least  one  hundred  years. 

The  principles  of  tlraught  as  applied  to  wagons,  i:)lows,  &c.,  and  the 
proper  construction  and  use  of  farm  implements  and  machinery  for  sow- 
ing, haying,  harvesting,  and  threshing,  are  described  with  clearness ;  so, 
also,  machiuers"  used  in  connection  with  writer,  as  hydraullc-rams,  vari- 
ous kinds  of  pumps,  turbine  wheels.  &c.,  and  machinery  in  connection 
with  air  and  heat,  as  windmills  and  ventilators ;  with  suggestions  on 
the  proper  construction  of  chimneys,  cisterns,  &c.  Following  this  is  a 
chapter  on  the  radiation  of  heat,  and  the  formation  of  dew  and  frost, 
with  deductions  on  the  best  locations  for  such  fruits  and  crops  as  maybe 
injtu-iously  affected  by  frosts.  The  book  closes  with  the  following  re- 
marks on  the  effects  of  heat  and  cold  on  water: 

"The  effects  of  heat  and  cold  on  water  are  of  a  very  interesting  char- 
acter. Without  its  expansion  in  fi-eezing"  the  soil  would  not  be  pulver- 
ized by  the  frosts  of  winter,  but  would  be  found  hard,  compact,  and  dif- 
ficult to  cultivate  in  spring ;  without  its  expansion  into  steam,  the  cities 
which  are  now  springing  up,  and  the  continents  that  are  becoming  peo- 
pled, through  the  intluence  of  railways,  steamships  and  steam  manufac- 
tures, would  mostly  remain  unbroken  forests ;  without  the  crystalliza- 
tion of  water,  the  beautifid  protection  of  plants  by  a  mantle  of  snow  in 
northern  regions  would  give  place  to  frozen  sterility ;  without  the  con- 
version of  heat  to  a  latent  state  in  melting,  the  deepest  snows  would 
disappear  in  a  moment  from  the  earth  and  cause  disastrous  floods ;  with- 
out its  conversion  to  a  latent  state  in  steam,  the  largest  vessel  of  boiling 
water  woidd  instantly  flash  into  vapor.  All  these  facts  show  that  an 
exti-aordinary  wisdom  and  forethought  planned  these  laws  at  the  crea- 
tion ;  and  even  what  appears  at  first  gliiuce  as  an  almost  accidental  ex- 
ception in  the  contraction  of  bodies  by  cold,  and  which  causes  ice  to 
float  upon  water,  preventing  the  entire  masses  of  rivers  and  lakes  from 
becoming  permanently  frozen,  fiu-nishes  one  out  of  an  innumerable 
array  of  proofs  of  creative  design  iu  fitting  the  earth  for  the  comfort 
and  sustenance  of  its  inhabitants." 

DR.UXING  FOR  Peofit  .\^i>  Dkaixixg  FOR  Hk.ixtii.  By  Geo.  E.  Waring,  jr..  Engineer 
of  the  Draiiiage  of  the  Central  Paik,Nevr  York.  Illustrated.  244  pages.  New  York: 
Orange  Judd  «Sc  Co. 

In  this  volume  the  author  has  avoided  everything  which  might  be 


RECENT  AGEICTLTUEAL  BOOKS.  585 

coustiued  into  an  approval  of  halfway  measures  in  land  draining,  and 
takes  a  most  radical  view  of  the  whole  snbjec-t,  m-ging:  the  utmost 
thoroughness  in  all  operations  from  the  lii'st  staking  of  the  lines  to 
the  final  filling  in  of  the  ditches.  He  describes  the  kind  of  land  that 
requires  draining  and  the  reasons  for  doing  it ;  the  action  of  drains  and 
how  they  affect  the  soil :  how  to  lay  out  and  make  a  system  of  drains ; 
their  depth,  distance,  direction,  cost,  care,  and  profit :  the  proper  use 
and  kinds  of  drain  in  g-tiles  and  their  manufacture :  the  imiiortance  and 
practicability  of  reclaiming  salt  marshes ;  closing  with  two  important 
chapters  on  malrfrial  diseases,  and  on  house-drainage  and  town  sewerage 
in  their  relations  to  the  public  health. 

Land  which  requires  clraining  gives  sign  of  its  condition,  more  or  less 
clear,  but  always  unmistakable  to  the  practical  eye.  Standing  water, 
or  dark,  wet  streaks  in  plowed  land,  when  all  shotild  be  dry  and  of  even 
color,  feeble,  spindling,  shivering  grain,  sedge  grass,  coarse  flags,  and 
dank,  miasmatic  fogs,  are  all  unerring  indications  of  the  necessity  ol 
drainage.  To  recognize  these  indioatiins  is  the  first  ofiice  of  the 
drainer;  the  second,  to  remove  their  causes. 

All  lands  of  whatever  texture,  in  which  the  spaces  between  the  parti- 
cles of  soil  are  filled  with  water  within  less  than  four  feet  of  the  surface, 
except  immediately  after  heavy  rains,  require  draining.  A  drain  at  the 
bottom  of  a  wet  field  draws  away  the  water  from  the  free  spaces  between 
its  particles,  and  its  place  is  taken  by  air.  while  the  particles  hold  by 
attraction  the  moistiu^e  nece-ssary  to  a  healthy  condition  of  the  soil. 

There  are  vast  areas  of  land  that  do  not  need  draining:  sands,  gravels, 
light  loams,  and  molds  allow  water  to  pass  freely  through  them,  and  are 
sufficiently  drained  by  natare.  provided  they  are  as  open  at  the  bottom 
as  throughout  the  mass.  There  is.  however,  much  land  which  thorough 
draining  only  will  render  profitable  for  cultivation  or  healthful  for  resi- 
dence; and  very  mtich  more  described  as  ''ordinarily  dry  land.**  which 
draining  wotild  greatly  improve  in  both  productive  value  and  salubrity. 

The  surtace  indications  of  the  necessity  for  draining  are  various. 
Those  of  actual  swamps  need  no  description;  if  a  plowed  field  shows  a 
constant  appearance  of  dampness,  indicating  that  as  water  is  dried  out 
of  its  upper  parts  more  is  forced  up  from  below,  so  that  after  rains  it  is 
much  longer  than  other  lands  in  assuming  the  light  color  of  dry  earth, 
it  unmistakably  needs  draining ;  a  pit  of  three  or  four  feet  deep,  that 
collects  and  retains  water  shortly  after  a  rain,  is  a  stire  sign  of  the  need 
of  draining;  if  the  water  of  heavy  rains  stands  for  some  time  on  the 
surtace,  or  if  it  collects  in  the  furrow  while  plowing,  draining  is  necessary 
to  bring  the  land  to  its  full  fertility. 

In  dry  weather  other  indications  may  be  observed;  as  cracks  in  the 
sod,  caused  by  the  dr^mess  of  clays  which  previous  soaking  has  pasted 
together:  the  curling  of  corn,  showing  that  in  its  early  growth  it  has 
been  prevented  by  a  wet  subsoil  from  sending  down  its  roots  below  the 
reach  of  the  sun's  heat,  where  it  would  find,  even  in  the  dryest  weather, 
sufficient  moistiu'e  for  a  healthy  gi'owth :  and  a  certain  wuiuess  of  grass, 
with  a  mossy  or  moldy  appearance  of  the  gToimd,  also  indicate  exces- 
sive moisture  diu'ing  some  period  of  its  growth. 

Mr.  Waring  believes  in  the  rule  that  "whatever  is  worth  doing  at  all 
IS  worth  doing  well."  He  recommends  that  draining  should  not  be  con- 
fined to  the  wettest  lauds  only:  that  tlrains  should  not  be  constructed 
with  stones,  or  brush,  or  boards,  nor  horseshoe  tiles  used,  because  they 
are  cheap,  nor  tlrains  confined  to  removing  the  water  fi'om  large  springs; 
but  that  so  far  as  di'aining  is  applied  at  all,  it  should  be  done  in  the  most 
thorough  and  comjilete  manner;  and  that  it  is  far  better,  in  conimenc- 


586  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

ing  this  iinprovemerit,  that  a  single  field  be  well  drained  than  that  the 
whole  farm  be  half  drained. 

Of  course  there  are  fanners  in  some  localities  whose  wet  lauds  are  not 
worth  draining  at  present;  this  is  particidary  the  case  in  the  extreme 
West,  where  lauds  at  their  i)reseut  prices  are  only  worth  relieving  of 
their  surface  water.  But  lands  near  great  markets,  where  it  is  better  to 
cultivate  small  farms  well  than  to  buy  more  laud  for  the  sake  of  getting 
a  larger  return  from  poor  cultivation,  or  wherever  Indian  corn  is  worth 
fifty  cents  a  bushel  on  the  farm,  it  will  pay  to  thoroughly  drain  eveiy 
acre  which  needs  it. 

An  interesting  chapter  is  giveu  on  the  action  of  drains  as  they  affect 
the  sod  in  regard  to  absorption,  evaj^oration,  temperature,  drought, 
porosity  or  mellowness,  and  chemical  action,  showing  that  while  lands 
ai"e  thoroughly  drained  and  improved,  the  operations  of  faiming  maybe 
cari'ied  on  with  as  much  certainty  of  success,  and  with  as  much  immu- 
nity from  the  ill  efliects  of  unfavorable  weather,  as  can  be  expected  in 
any  business  whose  results  depend  on  such  a  variety  of  circumstances ; 
certainty  will  be  substituted  for  chance  in  a  gi^eat  measui-e,  and  farming 
made  an  art  rather  than  a  venture.  Full  directions  are  given  for  laying 
out  a  system  of  drains,  how  to  make  them,  their  care,  the  requisite  tools, 
cost,  description  of  the  difl'erent  kinds  of  tdes,  and  their  manufacture, 
with  ample  illustrations.  Starting  with  a  basis  of  sixty  dollars  as  the 
cost  of  di^ainiug  an  acre  of  common  farm  land,  the  question  "•whether 
it  will  pay^  is  ^liscussed,  and  numerous  proofs  given  that  it  will.  Mr. 
Johnston,  a  successfid  farmer  in  the  \Theat  region  of  western  Xew  York, 
who  has  laid  fifty  miles  of  i^ipes  within  the  ■  past  thirty  years,  says  he 
never  saw  one  himdred  acres  on  any  farm  but  a  portion  of  it  woidd  pay  for 
draining,  and  that  tile  di  aining  will  frequently  pay  for  itself  in  two  years. 
In  1S47  he  bought  a  lot  of  ten  acres  to  get  an  outlet  for  his  drains.  It 
was  a  perfect  quagmire,  covered  with  coarse  aquatic  gi^asses,  and  so  un- 
fruitful it  wouhi  not  give  back  the  seed  sown  upon  it.  It  was  thoroughly 
drained,  and  the  next  jear  a  crop  of  corn  taken  from  it  which  measured 
eighty  bushels  per  acre.  Another  wet  piece  of  twenty  acres,  which  had 
never  produced  more  than  ten  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  was  drained  at 
an  exi>ense  of  thirty  dollars  per  acre;  the  first  crop  after  this  was  eighty- 
three  bushels  and  some  odd  pounds  per  acre.  Mr.  Johnston  also  gives 
satisfactoiy  res  sons  for  asserting  that  on  drained  land  half  the  usual 
quantity  of  manure  suffices  to  give  maximum  cro])S.  Many  other  striking 
cases  are  given  of  the  benefits  of  tlrainage  in  this  country;  and  it  is 
stated  that  since  its  general  introduction  in  England  (within  the  past 
twenty-five  years)  the  aggregate  wheat  crop  of  the  countiy  has  more 
than  doubled.  This  increase,  of  course,  is  chiefly  owing  to  bringing  into 
use  large  areas  of  land  originally  unfit  for  cidtivation ;  and  large  tracts 
which,  before  being  drained,  produced  fair  croi)S  onJy  in  the  best  seasons, 
are  now  made  veiy  productive,  independent  of  the  'weather.  In  fiict,  in 
the  cultivation  of  heavy,  retentive  soils,  drainage  is  the  key  to  all  im- 
provement, and  the  foundation  and  the  commencement  of  the  most  in- 
telligent farming. 

In  the  chapter  on  reclaiming  salt  marshes  it  is  stated  that  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  acres,  forming  a  large  i)art  of  the  Atlantic  coast  from 
Maine  to  Florida,  might  be  cheai)ly  reclaimed  and  made  fertde  and 
salubrious.  These  marshes  are  now  abandoned  to  the  inroads  of  the 
sea,  fniitfid  only  in  malaria  and  mosquitoes,  always  a  dreary  waste, 
and  often  a  grave  annoyance.  Of  such  lauds,  20.000  acres  are  to  be 
found  within  seven  miles  of  the  heart  of  New  York  City,  bordering  on 
the  Hackensack  River,  in  2fcw  Jersey;  they  are  a  nuisance  and  an  ey©- 


RECENT  AGKICULTUEAL  BOOKS.  587 

sore  to  all  wlio  see  tbein  or  travel  near  them.  The  work  of  draining 
this  tract  would  be  child's  play  comi^ared  with  the  draining  of  the  Har- 
lem Lake  in  Holland,  or  the  gi'eat  fens  on  the  eastern  coast  of  England. 
Harlem  Lake,  comprising  an  area  of  over  40,000  acres,  covered  by  the 
sea^to  an  average  depth  of  thirteen  feet,  was  pumped  dry,  and  the  land 
thus  reclaimed  made  to  do  its  part  in  the  support  of  a  dense  population. 
The  expense,  about  $4,000,000,  was  more  than  repaid  by  the  proceeds 
of  the  sales  of  the  recovered  lands. 

The  great  fens  of  England,  having  an  area  of  more  than  080,000 
acres,  afford  another  instance  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  scientific  drain- 
ing. These  fens,  formerly  a  vast  wild  morass,  with  only  small  detached 
portions  of  cultivated  soil,  or  islands  occasionally  appearing  above  the 
general  inundation,  formed  a  most  deserted  picture  in  contrast  with 
their  present  state  of  matchless  fertility  and  salubriousness. 

Among  the  causes  of  "the  chills,"  and  remittent  and  intermittent 
fevers,  undue  moisture  in  the  soil,  producing  malaria,  is  reckoned  by 
medical  authorities  among  the  most  prolific  and  sure.  The  proof  that 
drainage  is  an  efQcient  agent  in  removing  the  causes  of  malarious  dis- 
eases is  conclusive. 

Instances  of  this  are  not  so  common  in  this  country  as  in  England, 
where  drainage  has  been  much  more  extensively  carried  out,  and  where 
greater  pains  have  been  taken  to  collect  testimony  as  to  its  effects.  In 
a  chapter  on  the  efforts  now  making  in  England  to  impiove  house-drain- 
age and  sewerage,  as  affecting  public  health,  Mr.  Waring  concludes  by 
stating  that  the  principles  of  his  l)ook,  whether  relating  to  sanitary  im- 
provement, to  convenience  and  decency  of  living,  or  to  the  use  of  waste 
matters  of  houses  in  agricultural  improvemcDt,  are  no  less  applicable  in 
America  than  elsewhere ;  and  the  more  general  adoption  of  improved 
house  drainage  and  sewerage,  and  of  the  use  of  sewage  matters  in 
agriculture,  would  add  to  the  health  and  prosperity  of  its  peoi)le,  and 
would  indicate  a  great  advance  in  ci\'ilization. 

Earth  Closets:  How  to  make  and  How  to  use  them.  By  George  E.  'Vrariiig,  Jr., 
author  of  ''The  £loments  of  Agi-icultiire,"  and  "Draining  for  Profit  and  Draining 
for  Health;"  formerly  AOTioiiltural  Engineer  of  the  Central  Paik,  New  Yosk.  45 
pages.    New  York :   The  Ti-ibrme  Association.    1868. 

In  the  twenty -fourth  volume  (for  1863)  of  the  Journal  of  the  Eoyal 
Agricultural  Society  of  England  will  be  found  an  article  by  the  Eev. 
Henry  Moule,  of  Fordingtou  Vicarage,  England,  entitled  ''Earth  versus 
Water,  for  the  Removal  and  Utilization  of  Excremeutitious  Matter." 
The  principle  of  his  theory  is  based  on  the  power  of  dried  and  sifted 
clay,  and  the  decomposed  matter  found  in  the  soil,  to  absorb  and  retain 
all  offensive  odors  and  all  fertilizing  matters.  The  importance  of  this 
principle,  in  both  a  sanitary  and  agricultural  point  of  view^  is  well 
urged  by  Mr.  Moule,  who  thinks  that  by  its  adoption  the  increased 
demand  for  fertilizing  agents  may  be  largely  met ;  the  health  of  towns 
promoted  by  the  entire  removal  of  the  sewage  nuisance,  instead  of  its 
present  mere  palliation;  and  the  pollution  of  streams  and  rivers  pre- 
vented, the  evil  being  no  longer  shifted  fj'om  one  quarter  to  another ; 
and  all  this  good  secured  without  any  of  those  vast  and  extravagant 
works  for  public  drainage  which  add  so  greatly  to  tbe  bm-dens  of 
England. 

Mr.  Moule  asserts  that  a  very  small"  portion  of  dry  and  sifted  earth, 
say  one  pint  and  a  hidf,  is  sufiicient,  by  covering  an  excremeutitious 
deposit,  to  arrest  effluvium  and  prevent  fermentation,  (which  acts  so  soon 
whenever  water  is  used,)  and  the  consequent  generation  and  emission  of 


588  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

noxious  gases ;  and  that  if,  within  a  few  hours  or  even  a  few  days,  the 
mass  that  would  be  fomied  by  the  repeated  layers  of  deposit  be  inti- 
mately mixed  by  a  coarse  rake  or  spade,  or  l>y  a  mixer  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, then  in  live  or  ten  minutes,  neither  to  the  eye  or  sense  of  smell  is 
anything  perceptible  but  so  much  earth. 

The  jiractical  use  of  this  discovery  is  as  free  to  all  as  is  the  earth 
itself,  and  any  person  may  adopt  his  own  method  of  applying  it.  All 
that  is  necessary  is  to  have  a  supply  of  prepared  earth,  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  clay,  to  absorb  and  retain  ammonia  and  other  fertilizers,  simply 
by  drying  it  in  flat  pans  on  a  cooking  stove  or  range,  or  thinly  spread 
on  boards  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  then  sifting  it,  with  which  to  cover 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel  to  be  used,  and  after  use  to  cover  the  deposit. 
Ordinary  garden  soil  is  quite  eflfectual ;  if  clay  soil  be  scarce,  an  admix- 
ture of  coal-ashes  or  street- sweepings  would  not  be  objectionable.  Sand 
win  not  answer.  A  small  box  of  this  earth  and  a  tin  scoop  are  sufficient 
to  prevent  the  gravest  annoyance  of  the  sick-room,  or  of  a  jirivy  situated 
ne^r  a  dwelling. 

iBut  for  constant  and  extensive  use  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  more  con- 
venient apparatus,  something  that  requires  less  care  and  is  less  trouble- 
some in  many  ways  than  the  common  water-closet.  To  this  end  the  pat- 
ented earth-closet,  by  Mr.  Moule,  is  applicable ;  which  is  fully  described 
in  Mr.  Waring's  pamphlet,  and  illustrated  by  diagrams.  It  comprises 
a  tight  receptacle  under  the  seat,  a  reservoir  at  the  back  for  stowing  dry 
earth,  and  an  apparatus  to  measure  out  the  requisite  quantity  and  throw 
it  upon  the  deposit. 

The  machinery  of  the  earth-closets  is  more  simple,  less  expensive,  and 
less  liable  to  injury  than  that  of  the  common  water-closet.  The  supply 
of  dried  earth  to  the  house  is  as  feasible  as  that  of  coals,  and  is  more  easily 
applied  to  the  closet  than  water  by  a  forcing  pump ;  and  to  the  commode  it 
can  be  carried  just  as  coal  is  to  the  chamber.  After  use  it  can  be  removed 
in  either  case  by  the  bucket  or  box  placed  under  the  seat,  or  from  the 
tixed  reservoir,  with  less  annoyance  than  that  of  the  ordinary  slop-bucket; 
in  fact,  with  as  little  oifense  as  in  the  removal  of  coal-ashes.  For  hos- 
pitals, slaughter-houses,  barracks,  factories,  iirisons,  public  schools,  rail- 
way stations,  urinals,  «S:c.,  the  invention  is  admirably  adapted,  and  wiU 
do  away  with  much  of  the  uncleanliness  and  indecency  that  disgrace  civ- 
ilized society. 

By  means  of  this  earth  system  one  can  ha"^'e  a  privy  immediately 
adjoining  his  house,  and  an  earth-closet  up  stairs,  fi-om  neither  of  which 
will  proceed  any  offensive  smell  or  noxious  gas.  Through  this  closet  the 
removal  of  noxious  and  offensive  matters  in  tune  of  sickness,  and  of 
slop-buckets,  woidd  be  easy,  and,  if  properly  supplied  with  earth,  all 
efla.uvium  would  be  almost  immediately  checked ;  the  trouble  would  not 
be  greater  than  women  generally  undergo  at  present,  while  the  value  of  the 
manure  woidd  be  an  inducement  to  exertion.  A  closet  used  by  a  family 
of  six  persons  would  require  about  one  hundred  pounds  of  dried  earth 
])er  week.  The  same  earth,  after  being  used,  kept  in  a  dry  place  for  two 
or  three  weeks,  Avill  l>e  perfectly  inodorous,  and  may  be  used  again  four 
or  five  times,  with  the  same  deodorizing  effect,  the  product  increasing  in 
value. 

As  it  is  difficult,  in  the  present  stage  of  the  working  of  this  system, 
to  state  the  exact  money  value  of  the  manure  thus  manufactiu-ed,  a  few 
instances  are  given  of  its  i>ractical  application  to  the  garden  and  the 
field,  instead  of  a  scientific  analysis  of  its  composition.  In  a  half-acre 
garden  near  Erith,  for  twelve  or  fourteen  ^ears  an  annual  application  of 
stable  manure  had  failed  to  produce  anything  like  a  crop.    jSTeither  peas, 


RECENT  AGRICULTURAL  BOOKS.  589 

celery,  rhubarb,  or  parsnips  would  grovr  at  all,  and  cabbages  were  dwarfed. 
At  last,  as  an  experiment,  stable  manure  was  abandoned,  and  eaith  from 
a  closet  used.  The  first  sowing  of  peas  was  destroyed  by  a  too  Hberal 
use.  Grown  wiser  by  experience,  the  gardener  used  less,  and  his  barren 
garden  was  changed  to  a  fiautful  field.  His  peas  grew  seven  feet  high, 
and  were  covered  with  pods;  and  his  cabbages  gTew  so  finely  as  tc 
attract  general  attention.  With  six  pounds  of  the  closet  earth  forty 
dozen  broccoli  and  savoys  were  planted  on  otherwise  unmanured  gTound. 
and  no  plants  could  have  grown  finer.  It  was  also  applied  to  patches 
of  mangolds,  onions,  turnips,  &:c.,  with  the  best  results. 

Observation  and  experiment  suggest  that  as  soon  as  the  earth  covers 
the  deposit  some  manurial  property  of  th{«;  deposit  begins  to  impregnate 
it;  and  that  when  the  deposit  is  wholly  absorbed,  the  earth  has  in  fact 
digested  it,  or  reduced  it  to  a  form  or  state  in  which  it  can  aflbrd  nourish- 
ment to  the  plant.  The  sooner,  therefore,  the  root  can  reach  it,  the 
better. 

The  economy  of  the  system  does  not  depend  solely  on  the  money  value 
of  the  manure  manufactured,  but  in  a  great  degxee  on  dispensing  with 
the  large  outlay  which  the  water  system  of  sewerage  involves ;  an  instance 
is  given  of  a  school  in  England,  attended  by  three  hundred  scholars.  It 
cost  £70  to  connect  the  water-closet  with  the  sewers ;  less  than  £20 
would  have  provided  them  with  self-acting  earth-closets.  In  many 
county  jails  it  costs  £50  a  year  to  keep  in  order  the  water-closets,  by 
which  the  manure  of  one  hundi^ed  and  fifty  prisoners  is  wasted ;  apply 
the  earth  system,  the  repairs  of  which  would  not  be  £5  a  year,  and  £200 
would  be  annually  saved  to  the  corinty.  The  intelligent  master  of  the 
Kingswood  Eeformatory,  containing  one  hundred  boys,  expressed  his 
conviction  that  he  woultl  be  able  to  make  £200  a  year  from  his  earth- 
closets,  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  abominations  in  the  way  of  offen- 
siveness  that  can  scarcely  be  told. 

Mr.  Moule  remarks,  in,  concluding  his  essay,  that  if  one-fifth  of  the 
population  of  Great  Britain  were  to  adopt  and  thoroughly  carry  out  this 
system,  one  million  tons  of  mamu'e,  equal  to  guano,  would  be  added 
every  year  to  its  fertilizers;  and  Mr.  AVaring  quotes  the  assertion  oi 
Liebig,  that  the  greatness  of  the  Eoman  empire  was  sapped  by  the 
Cloaca  Maxi)na,  thi'ough  which  the  entire  sewage  of  Kome  was  washed 
into  the  Tiber.  Mr.  Waring  pertinently  adds,  that  "  the  yearly  decrea-se 
of  productive  power  in  the  older  grain  regions  of  the  West,  and  the 
increasing  demand  for  manure  in  the  Atlantic  States,  sufficiently  prove 
that  our  own  country  is  no  exception  to  the  rule  that  has  established  its 
sway  over  Europe.'' 

Since  this  important  discovery  has  been  introduced  to  the  American 
public,  exi^eriments  made  with  the  earth-closet  commodes  at  the  Penn- 
sylvania Hospital  at  Philadelphia  have  been  so  entii'ely  satisfactory 
as  to  induce  the  senior  surgeon  to  apply  dry,  sifted  earth  to  absorb  the 
stench  of  sickening  exudations  from  old  sores  and  oftensive  wounds 
(which  the  best  ventilation  and  the  usual  disinfectants  could  not  miti- 
gate) with  suri^rising  success.  Xot  only  was  the  offensive  odor  entirely 
overcome,  but  the  effect  on  the  character  of  the  wounds  was  astonish- 
ing; suppuration  was  reduced,  the  edges  of  the  wounds  lost  their 
infiamed  character,  their  intense  pain  was  relieved,  and  a  healthy  gran- 
ulation produced.  Mr.  Waring  thinks  it  not  too  much  to  hope  that  even 
the  pustules  of  small-pox  must  give  uj)  their  pain  and  oflensiveness  at 
this  magic  touch  of  mother  earth ;  and  if  it  is  true  that  contagion  spreads 
from  its  exudations,  not  improbably  the  spread  of  this  loathsome  disease, 
as  weU  as  cholera,  will  be  effectively  checked. 


590  AGKICULTUEAL    REPORT. 

A  Guide  to  tite  Study  of  Insects,  a>t>  a  Treatise  ox  those  ixjcrious  axd  bene- 
ficial TO  Crops  :  For  tho  use  of  Colleges,  Farm-Schools,  aiid  Agriculturists.  By 
A.  S.  Packard,  jr.,  M.  D.,  witli  upwards  of  Five  Iluudred  Eugiaviiigs.  Part  I,  to  V. 
8vo.,  64  pages  each.     Salem,  Mass. :    Press  of  the  Essex  Institute.     1868. 

In  this  work  are  given  the  outlines  of  the  study  of  insects,  with  de- 
Bcriptions  of  their  mode  of  gTowth  and  metamorphoses;  their  habits, 
and  the  best  methods  of  collecting,  ineserving,  and  arranging  specimens 
in  the  cabinet;  with  descriptions  of  the  injui'ious  and  beneficial  insects; 
and  the  remedies  against  the  attacks  of  the  former.  It  is  written  in 
plain  language,  and  as  free  as  possible  fi^om  technicalities.  It  describes 
and  tigiu'cs  the  insect  enemies  to  wheat,  corn,  potatoes,  onious,  and  other 
garden  vegetables;  bees,  flowers,  ornamental  shade-trees  and  shrubs,  as 
well  as  all  the  fine  varieties  of  large  fruits  and  berries  now  cultivated. 
The  work  is  published  every  two  or  three  uionths,  in  jiarts  of  04  i)ages, 
of  which  five  have  reached  us.  It  is  handsomely  printed,  and  when 
completed  Avill  contain  upwards  of  five  hundred  illustrations. 

The  first  part  contains  an  account  of  insects  as  compared  with  their 
allies,  the  crustaceans  and  worms,  and  a  more  special  account  of  their 
structure,  how  they  walk,  fly,  breathe,  &c.,  and  reproduce  their  kind, 
and  the  anomalous  mode  of  the  reproduction  of  the  plant-lice,  the  hum- 
ble-bee, and  the  gad-fly.  The  second  part  relates  to  the  geographical 
distribution,  the  geological  history  of  insects,  and  their  diseases,  with 
directions  for  collecting,  preserving,  and  arranging  them  in  the  cabinet. 
The  third  part  is  devotod  to  the  HjTnenoptera,  comprising  the  habits  of 
bees,  wasps,  ichneumon  flies,  saw-flies,  &c.  Parts  four  and  five  con- 
clude the  Hpneuoptera,  and  commence  the  chapter  on  the  Lepidoptera, 
describing  the  butterflies  and  moths,  with  their  transformations  into  the 
army  worms,  the  borers  in  fruit  trees,  grape  vines,  ciu'raut  bushes,  squash 
vines,  &c. 

From  the  p.arts  already  published,  the  reader  can  learn  what  insects 
are  useful  or  injurious,  and  all  that  is  known  of  their  habits;  and  in  the 
volume,  when  completed,  the  habits  and  structiu^e  of  the  honey-bee,  ant, 
saw-fly,  clothes-moth,  the  mosquito,  gad-flies,  wheat-midge,  house-fly,  flea, 
weevD,  grasshop])er,  dragon-fly,  &c.,  will  be  described  in.  popular  lan- 
guage, so  that  all  may  become  acquainted  with  oiu'  common  insects, 
injurious  and  beneficial. 

American  Fish  Culture  :  Embracing  all  the  Details  of  Artificial  Breeding  and  Roar- 
ing of  Trout,  the  Culture  of  Salmon,  Shad,  and  other  Fishes.  By  Thadcfcus  Norris, 
author  of  the  Aiueiican ^Vuglcrs'  Book.  Illustrated.  12mo.,  1504  pages.  Philadelphia  : 
Porter  &  Coates.    18(38. 

Within  a  few  years  great  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  culture  of 
fi.sh  in  Europe,  where  food  is  becoraing  a  question  of  vast  importance. 
The  French  governiueut  has  fostered  this  business  chiefly  for  this  reason, 
and  to  such  jnu-pose.  that  in  a  few  years  there  will  scarcely  be  an  acre 
of  barren  Avoter  in  the  empire.  In  fact,  in  many  ijlaces  waste  waters, 
formerly  entirely  barren,  are  becoming  more  productive  than  the  same 
ai-ea  of  cultivated  land.  The  fish  ponds  of  Dembes  extend  over  30,000 
acres.  Not  only  fisii,  but  oysters,  cray-fish,  and  other  crustaceiB  are  being 
midtiplied  by  this  new  science.  Experiments  are  even  being  made  on 
the  sea  coasts  to  propagate  and  re^oj-  the  finer  kinds  of  turtles.  The 
results  of  this  liberal  and  judicious  policy  have  not  only  been  spread 
over  France,  but  have  reached  all  parts  of  enlightened  Europe,  and 
even  Au.';tralia ;  and  our  own  country  is  resorting  to  it  with  the  hope  of 
arresting  the  gradual  exthiction  of  valuable  fishes,  and  restoring  our 
failing  and  exliausted  rivers  to  theli-  former  fruitfulness. 

The  New  England  States,  by  concerted  legislation,  have  establisheTi  a 


RECENT  AGRICULTURAL  BOOKS.  591 

joint  commission  in  reference  to  tlie  artificial  propagation  of  &&h.,  and 
hope  to  restock  their  rivers  with  the  aristocratic  salmon  and  the  dehcious 
shad,  and  their  cool  clear  ponds  and  brooks  with  the  spotted  trout  of 
rarest  beauty  and  most  dehcate  flavor ;  and  to  naturahze  the  turbot  and 
other  highly^prized  fish  of  Europe.  By  the  expenditure  of  a  few  thou- 
sand dollars,  and  the  passage  and  rigid  enforcement  of  judicious  laws  for 
the  protection  of  the  spawn  and  eggs  of  these  valuable  lish,  they  can  be 
produced  and  sold  cheaper  than  beef  in  our  markets.  Both  the  fresh 
and  salt  water  species  readily  adapt  themselves  to  new  localities. 
Pickerel  have  been  introduced  into  the  ponds  of  Berkshire ;  the  great 
pike  of  the  northern  lakes  have  been  transferred  to  the  Connecticut 
Eiver ;  the  salt-water  smelt  lives  in  various  ponds  near  Boston,  and  in 
many  parts  of  Maine ;  and  the  tautog  within  a  few  years  has  found  a 
new  home  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  north  of  Cape  Cod. 

Mr.  ZSTorris  has  given  an  interesting  account  of  the  measures  now 
being  taken  by  foreign  governments  and  by  our  State  legislatures,  as 
weU  as  by  enterimsing  individuals,  in  regard  to  fish  culture,  besides 
fuU  details  on  trout  breeding,  the  culture  of  the  salmon,  shad,  white 
fish,  black  bass,  rock  fish,  eels,  oysters,  &c.,  and  on  the  naturalization 
of  fishes  in  new  habitats.  His  chapter  on  the  last  subject  is  fuU  of 
curious  facts. 

''As  a  class,"  says  Mr.  Korris,  "farmers  are  far  more  favorably 
situated  for  the  whole  routine  of  breeding  and  growing  trout  than  per- 
sons of  any  other  occupation.  As  regards  the  first  requisite,  most  of 
them  have  springs  of  more  or  less  volume  and  of  the  proper  temperature 
on  their  premises,  and  generally  near  their  dwellings.  Labor  with  them 
is  cheap," and  much  can  be  done  at  different  seasons  of  the  year  without 
interfering  with  their  ordinary  farm  work,  or  hiring  extra  help.  The 
employment  of  horses,  carts,  wagons,  and  men,  which  they  keep  of 
necessity,  would  therefore  c-ause  no  expenditure,  and  fiU  up  their  leisure 
time.  The  little  mechanism  necessary  could  be  done  by  any  one  of 
them  having  an  eye  for  a  straight  line,  and  an  aptness  with  square, 
mallet,  chisel,  saw,'^hanimer,  and  jack-plane.  The  only  outlay  would  be 
for  lumber,  and  trout  or  spawn  to  commence  with.  Four  men,  with  a 
span  of  horses,  a  plow,  road-scraper,  shovels,  and  hoes,  would  excavate 
and  construct  ponds  of  suificient  size,  if  the  gToond  is  not  over  stony, 
in  less  than  ten  days.  K  a  farmer  has  no  mechanical  skill,  a  country 
carpenter,  with  the  assistance  of  two  farm  hands,  could  put  up  a  large 
hatching-house  in  a  week.  The  time  between  corn-planting  and  the  first 
plowing  might  be  put  in  to  advantage.  After  hay  and  oat  harvest 
another  tuin  at  the  ponds  might  be  taken,  and  the  lull  after  the  crops 
were  in  would  suifice  to  finish  them.  Winter,  in  which  the  farmer  has 
little  to  do,  would  be  pleasantly  and  profitably  employed  in  attending 
to  the  hatching.  He  would  have  a  certain  supply  of  fish  food  from 
curds,  and  an  occasional  one  from  the  animals  he  woidd  kill.  Using 
milk  does  not  rob  the  butter-jar  nor  the  i)ig-pen,  as  it  can  be  turned 
into  curd  after  skimming,  and  the  whey  can  go  to  the  slop  barrel.  This 
business  can  be  made  as  much  of  an  accessory  to  farming  as  keeping 
bees  or  poultry,  and  with  no  more  labor.  Trout  are  much  less  mis 
chievous  than  tlie  latter  j  they  do  not  invade  the  garden,  or  a  newly 
sown  or  planted  field,  and  can  always  be  found  within  their  circum- 
scribed bounds.  *  *  *  1  fieem  it  a  branch  of  industry  that  should 
claim  the  attention  of  our  national  government.  If  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  has  no  discretionary  jjower  to  foster  it,  special  legislation 
should  be  tlirecred  to  it,  and  appropriations  made  for  the  purpose  of 
experiments  and  its  promotion." 


592  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

FiSHEs-G  rs  Americ.vn  Waters.    By  Genio  C.  Scott.    With  one  hundred  and  seventy 
illustrations.     12mo.,  484  pages.    New  York  :  Harper  &  Brothers.    1869. 

The  author  of  the  work  says  that  his  experience  of  many  years  in  the 
practice  of  the  gentle  art  has  led  him  through  so  many  scenes  of  beauty 
and  loveliness  that  his  book  has  been  written  and  illustrated,  that  all 
the  world  might  learn  the  enjoyments  of  angling.  The  recreations  of 
the  angler  in  America  are  portrayed  in  a  genial  manner,  and  a  tribute 
paid  to  the  temperate  and  independent  class  of  men  who  follow  for  a 
livdliliood  the  hazardous  business  of  fishing  on  the  broad  seas.  An  in- 
teresting chapter  is  given  on  the  general  ha])its  and  senses  of  fishes. 
That  th'ev  possess  certain  senses,  intellectual  as  well  as  instinctive,  is 
e\ident ;  'they  need  them  to  avoid  being  devoured,  and  to  aid  them  in 
capturing  other  fishes,  their  life  being  mainly  .spent  in  efforts  to  eat,  and 
to  prevent  themselves  from  being  eaten ;  the  form  of  the  eyes  of  nearly 
all  fishes  being  convex,  proves  them  to  be  near-sighted ;  and  though 
they  quickly  detect  the  shghtest  motion,  they  lack  the  power  to  discrim- 
inate form ;  the  fact  that  peculiarly  scented  baits  attract  fi.sh  proves 
that  they  have  the  sense  of  smell ;  and  that  they  possess  the  faculty  of 
hearing  is  evident  from  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  head,  and  the 
fact  that  in  smaU  ponds  and  preserves  they  are  often  called  to  the  shores 
by  a  whistle  or  a  bell.  Their  fecundity  is  almo.st  incredible,  and  the 
voracity  of  some  of  them  most  rapacious ;  a  shark  has  been  known  to 
seek  for  prey  some  time  after  being  split  open  and  entirely  eviscerated; 
he  evinces  no  mercy  for  any  living  thing  that  inhabits  the  waters. 

The  various  coast  and  fresh-wafer  fi.shes  are  described  and  illustrated, 
with  their  haiuits  and  associations.  The  commercial  fisheries  ai'e  next 
taken  up,  and  the  character  and  extent  of  the  lake  and  the  coastwise 
fisheries  shown  ;  the  value  of  the  mackerel  caught  and  cured  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  Maine  for  the  la.st  fom-  years  has  averaged  over  80,000,000 
])er  annum;  their  cured  cod-fish,  smoked  salmon,  and  halibut  are  known 
in  most  of  the  markets  of  the  civilized  world,  and  sell  for  over  $-4,000,000 
annually.  In  Chesapeake  Bay  1,600  vessels  and  0,000  men  are  annually 
employed  in  the  oyster  Inisiuess,  and  it  is  estimated  that  50,000,000 
bushels  of  this  debcious  bivalve  are  taken  annually  on  the  coast  from 
Massachusetts  to  A'irginia. 

A  very  full  account,  comprising  nearly  100  pages,  is  given  of  ancient 
and  modem  fish  culture,  with  ample  details  for  the  artificial  propaga- 
tion of  the  trout,  salmon,  and  other  fish.  The  work  closes  with  an  ab- 
stract of  the  laws  of  IS^ew  York  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada  for  the 
protection  of  fish,  game,  and  insectivorous  birds. 

The  Amtric.vx  Stud  Book  :  Comprising  full  Pedigrees  of  all  the  imported  thorough- 
bred Stallions  and  Mares,  with  the  ir  produce,  including  the  Arabs,  Barbs,  and  Span- 
ish Horses,  from  the  earliest  account  of  racing  in  .tVmerica  to  the  end  of  the  year  1867 ; 
also,  all  the  native  marcs  and  their  produce,  alphabetically  arranged ;  and  pedigrees 
of  all  the  native  stallions  whose  dams  have  no  names,  with  a  full  and  copious  Index 
to  the  Produce  of  the  Glares.  By  S.  D.  Bnice,  editor  of  the  Turf,  Field,  and  Farm. 
8vo.,  649  pages.    Chicago :  E.  B.  Myers  &  Co.    1868. 

It  is  no  very  ea.sy  task  to  determine  correctly  the  pedigrees  of  the 
blood-hor.ses  of  America.  !Mr.  Bruce  has  spent  twenty  years  in  gather- 
ing and  arranging  facts  on  the  subject,  from  public  and  jnivate  records, 
and  has  .souglit  to  bring  to  light  what  was  obscui'e,  and  to  prove  pedi- 
grees hitherto  received  with  doubt,  and  seems  to  have  possessed  great 
facilities  and  a  laudable  zeal  on  the  .subject.  He  says  that,  ''born  and 
reared  in  a  section  of  country  the  most  famous  for  its  horses;  thrown  in 
daUy  contact  with  the  most  enthusiastic  breeders  of  thorough-breds ; 
raising,  training,  and  running  them  himself,  his  knowledge  of  the  blood 


RECENT  AGEICULTUEAL  BOOKS.  593 

horse  gave  liim  confidence  to  pursue  this  study,  and  to  publish  the  re- 
sult of  his  labor  Tvith  the  utmost  reliance  on  its  general  correctness. 

"  The  detailed  history  of  our  horses  is  shrouded  in  so  much  obscurity 
that  frequent  attempts  have  been  made  to  compile  an  American  Stud 
Book,  but  each  time  the  enterprise  has  been  abandoned  in  despair.  To 
search  out  the  hidden  roots  or  branches  from  the  parent  stems,  to  brush 
away  the  obscuring  clouds,  to  drag  the  lost  members  of  the  ancestral 
tree  from  the  mii-e  to  which  carelessness  had  consigned  them,  to  restore 
every  root  and  branch  of  this  ancestral  tree,  to  eradicate  long-accepted 
error,  and  to  harmonize  fact  with  fact,  is  the  tedious  work  of  years;  and 
such  has  been  the  labor  of  the  life  of  him  who  now  gives  this  the  first 
volume  of  the  American  Stud  Book  to  the  world.  Xone  but  those  who 
have  inquired  into  the  loose,  obscure  records  of  the  past,  have  any  idea 
of  what  a  herculean  task  it  has  been." 

The  result  of  Mr.  Brace's  labors  is  an  immense  accumulation  of  facts 
from  the  private  records  of  nearly  every  breeder  of  importance,  from 
files  of  anti-revolutionary  newspapers,  and  from  an  extensive  corre- 
spondence. The  work  is  arranged  on  the  plan  of  the  Enghsh  Stud  Book ; 
it  is  handsomely  printed,  in  a  stately  octavo,  and  illustrated  with  twenty 
tine  engravings  of  celebrated  horses. 

The  Trottixg  Horsk  of  America  :  How  to  train  and  diive  him,  ■with  Reminiscences 
of  the  Trotting  Turf.  By  Hiiam  Woodnift".  Edited  by  Charles  J.  Foster,  of  Wilkes' 
Spirit  of  the  Times,  including  an  Introductory  Notice  by  George  Wilkes,  and  a  Bio- 
graphical Sketch  bv  the  editor.      l'2mo.,  41'2  pages.    New  York:  J.  B.  Ford  &  Co. 

This  book  is  prefaced  by  appreciative  sketches  of  the  author  by  Mr. 
Wilkes  and  Mr.  Foster.  Mr.  Woodruff ''belonged  to  a  family  of  horse- 
men," his  father  and  brother  being  famous  as  trainers  of  horses  ;  and  has 
been  distinguished  for  his  success  in  training  and  developing  the  best  trot- 
ting horses  of  America.  Mr.  Wilkes  ascribes  to  him  "  the  development  oi 
the  American  trotter  to  its  present  marvelouspre-eminence  over  all  other 
breeds  of  horses  used  for  harness  and  road  purposes.''  ''Those  who  know 
the  history  of  trotting  in  this  country,  and  who  recall  to  mind  the  aver- 
age speed  of  the  first  harness-horse,  when  Mr.  Woodrulf  identified  him- 
self with  its  advancement,  wiU  not  hesitate  to  say  that  he  doubled  the 
value  of  the  original  element  on  which  he  worked,  and  at  the  end  of  a 
few  years  gave  a  great  animal  to  the  country  in  place  of  what  had  been 
only  a  good  animal  before.'' 

The  memoir  is  followed  by  practical  directions  on  rearing  colts,  the 
characteristics  of  difterent  breeds,  and  thek  management  and  develop- 
ment as  trotters ;  with  sketches,  reminiscences,  and  gossip  connected 
\vith  the  principal  races  that  have  taken  place  in  the  United  States  in 
the  last  half  centurj'. 

Horse  Portraiture  :  Embracing  Breeding,  Rearing,  and  Training  Trotters,  with  their 
management  in  the  Stable  and  on  the  Track,  and  Preparation  for  Races ;  including 
Histories  of  the  Horse  and  Horsemen,  with  an  Appendix,  containing  the  performances 
of  Dexter,  and  a  Portrait  by  Scott.     By  Joseph  Cairn  Simpson.    12mo.,  458  pages. 

Xew  York :  Townsend  &  Adams.     1868. 

The  subject-matter  of  this  book  is  well  described  in  its  ample  title- 
page.  It  is  filled  with  details  in  regard  to  the  breeding,  breaking,  and 
management  of  trotting  horses ;  their  preparation  for  the  race-course, 
the  pedigrees  of  famous  racers,  suggestions  on  the  construction  or 
stables,  the  proper  style  of  bits,  &c.  Though  rather  diffuse  in  style,  and 
38 


594  AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

treating  iueidentally  of  many  other  stibjects  than  horses,  the  work 
abounds  with  acceptable  information  to  those  particularly  interestexl  in 
fast  trotters. 

Tht;  MrLK :  A  Treatise  on  the  Breeding,  Traininj]j.  and  Uses  to  which  he  may  be  put 
By  llarvey  Rilov,  superintendent  of  the  governnieut  corral,  ^Vashington,  D.  C.  r2iiio. 
107  pagoa.    New  York :  Dick  &  Fitzgerald.     1868. 

"The  mule,  although  the  humblest  member  of  the  horse  family,  has 
been  a  uscliil  friend  of  man.  and  has  served  him  faithfully  in  war  and 
peace.  If  he  could  tell  man  what  he  most  needs,  it  would  be,  kind  treat- 
ment." Mr.  lliley  has  given  tiie  public  a  short  treatise  on  the  breeding. 
care,  and  management  of  these  animals,  the  ifcsult  of  thirty  years'  expe- 
rience in  their  use.  As  humanity,  as  well  as  economy,  will  be  best 
served  by  kinthiess,  he  has  made  a  strong  plea  for  their  more  sensible 
and  judicious  treatment,  comprising  remarks  on  their  breeding  and 
raising;  how  colts  should  be  hantlled,  broke,  and  harnessed;  the  value 
of  kind  treatment ;  the  color  and  i)eculiarities  of  mules ;  how  they  should 
be  packed ;  their  physical  constmctiDii ;  their  diseases  and  proper  treat- 
ment. 

In  breaking  the  mule,  patience  is  the  gTeat  essential.  "  Take  hold  ot 
him  gently,  and  talk  to  him  kindly.  Don't  spring  at  him;  don't  yell  at 
him ;  don't  jerk  him ;  don't  strike  him  with  a  club ;  don't  get  excited  at  his 
jumping  and  kicking;  approach  and  handle  him  the  same  as  you  would 
an  animal  ah'eady  broken,  and  through  kindness  you  wi'd,  in  less  than  a 
week,  have  your  mule  more  tractable,  better  broken,  and  kinder,  than 
you  would  in  a  month  had  you  used  the  whip ;  but  mules,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  are  born  kickers.  Breed  them  as  you  vrUl,  the  moment  they 
are  able  to  stand  up  and  you  put  youi'  hand  un  them  they  will  kick.  It 
is,  indeed,  their  natural  means  of  defense,  and  they  resort  to  it  by 
instinct.  In  conunencing  to  break  them,  then,  kicking  is  the  fij:st  thing 
to  guard  against  and  overcome.  Careful  study  of  the  animal's  nature, 
and  long  experience  with  him,  have  taught  me  ihat  in  breaking  the 
mule  whi})ping  and  harsh  ti'eatment  almost  invariably  make  him  a 
worse  kicker.  Ttey  certainly  make  him  more  timid  and  afraid  of  you ; 
and  just  so  long  as  you  fight  a  young  mule  and  keep  him  afraid  of  you. 
just  so  long  will  you  be  in  danger  of  his  kicking  you.  He  must  be  con- 
vinced, thi'ough  kindness,  that  you  are  not  going  to  hui't  or  punish  him ; 
and  the  sooner  vou  do  this  the  sooner  vou  are  out  of  danger  from  his 
feet." 

Mr.  Eiley  was  in  command  of  one  of  the  army  corrals  at  Washington 
during  the  rebellion,  and  many  thousands  of  mules  were  annually 
passed  under  his  inspection ;  this  gave  him  frequent  opportunities  for 
ascertaining  the  best  color  of  the  animal,  many  considering  this  a  ix)int 
of  importance ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  cream  colored,  he  thinks 
this  no  criterion.  Mules  of  cream  color  are  apt  to  be  soft ;  they  lack 
strength  ;aid  can  stand  but  little  hardship,  particularly  those  that  have 
a  white  skin  ;  iron  grays  are  considered  hardy;  '•  avoid  spotted  or  dap- 
ple mules  ;  they  are  the  very  poorest  animals  you  can  get ;  they  cannot 
stand  hard  work,  and  when  once  they  get  diseased  and  begin  to  lose 
strengtli  the'o  is  no  saving  them  ;  they  have  generally  bad  eyes,  p.nd  in 
the  heat  and  dust  of  summer  many"  of  them  go  bliqd,"  snow  white 
mules  are  about  as  useless.  In  selecting  mules,  look  weU  to  the  ago, 
form,  height,  size  of  bone  and  muscle,  and  disposition.  G^t  these 
right,  and  you  will  have  a  good  animal ;  mare  mules  are  more  safe  and 
trusty  under  the  saddle,  and  are  better  thiin  a  horse  mide  for  team  pur- 
poses.   Mules  are  not  so  apt  to  get  fiightened,  lose  theii"  senses,  and 


KECENT   AGRICULTURAIi    BOOKS.  595 

run  away,  as  is  the  case  with  horses.  A  horse  that  has  once  rua  away 
is  never  safe  afterward ;  but  bring  a  mule  back  in  such  a  case,  and 
generally  he  will  not  do  it  again ;  his  sluggish  natiu^e  does  not  incline 
him  to  such  tricks.  As  a  general  thing,  mules  are  not  so  well  adapted 
for  use  in  stages,  omnibuses,  and  city  railroads  as  horses,  mainly  be- 
cause those  haring  charge  of  them  lack  experience  in  their  manage- 
ment. But  they  will  do  good  service  on  the  prairies  supplying  our 
army,  towing  canal-boats,  and  hauling  cars  inside  of  mines,  where  they 
can  jog  along  and  take  their  own  time  patiently.  Such  emploj-ment 
soon  breaks  down  the  spuit  of  a  horse  and  renders  him  useless. 

3Ii\  Kiley  closes  his  book  with  a  chapter  on  the  diseases  of  mules, 
(which  are  not  materially  different  tiom  those  of  horses,)  with  then- 
proper  remedies  and  modes  of  treatment. 

The  Diseases  of  Sheep  Expluxed  a>d  Described  :  With  proper  Remedies  to  pre- 
vent and  cure  the  same.  By  Henry  Clok,  V.  S.  12mo.,  146  pages.  Philadelphia : 
Claxton,  Kemsen  &  Hafieliinger.    16(38. 

Mr.  Clok  is  a  graduate  of  the  royal  college  at  Berlin,  Prussia,  and  was 
veterinary  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  United  States  army  during  the  late 
rebellion.  He  gives  a  description  of  all  the  important  diseases  of  sheep, 
external  and  internal,  and  of  their  treatment  and  prevention.  Most  of 
the  diseases  he  has  observed  and  treated  himself,  and  their  description 
and  the  directions  for  their  cure  and  prevention  are  based  substantially 
on  his  own  observation.  A  few  pages  at  the  close  of  the  b(^ok  are  de- 
voted to  some  of  the  worst  diseases  of  cattle,  iucludiug  the  pleuro-pneu- 
monia,  or  rinderpest,  ascribing  its  spontaneous  formation  to  several  vei-y 
different  causes,  as  the  unfavorable  iafluence  of  the  atmosphere,  espe- 
cially dm-ing  the  spring,  mostly  in  changeable,  cold,  and  damp  weather, 
when  the  animals  take  cold ;  to  permanent  feeding  with  artihcial  food ; 
to  spoiled  food,  such  as  soui',  moldy,  musty  hay,  rotten  roots  or  bidbs; 
to  drinking  unclean  water  ;  to  keeping  them  without  exerci>;e  or  motion, 
especially  in  overcrowded  stables;  to  careless  attendance  to  the  animal, 
and  want  of  cleaidng  the  stables ;  to  the  importation  of  imtanued  hides, 
&c.;  to  cattle  imported  from  oth«^r  coimtiies,  particularly  in  times  of 
war  ;  and  to  low  pastures  with  marshy  bottojus. 

That  destmctive  cUsease,  the  sheep-pox,  and  the  troublesome  malig- 
nant foot  rot,  formerly  so  ruinous,  are  fully  discussed.  The  former 
disease  may  appear  at  any  season,  like  the  himian  small-pox-  and  inde- 
pendently of  all  exterior  influences  or  of  the  indiviilual  constitution  of 
the  animal,  attacking  young  as  well  as  old,  healthy  as  well  as  sick  ani- 
mals. Its  devastations  have  been  enormous  ;  out  of  8,000,000  of  sheep 
in  Hungary,  150,000  are  said  to  have  been  destroyed  in  one  year;  and 
it  was  officially  reported  that  the  loss  amongst  herds  in  Austria,  aggre- 
gating about  16,000,000  of  sheep,  was  not  less  than  100,000  per  annum. 
This  official  report  was  made  before  vaccination  for  sheep-pox  had  been 
introduced.  After  these  enormous  losses,  this  remedy  was  thought  of; 
and  since  its  introduction  sheep-pox  has  ceased  to  be  a  perpetual  plague 
to  whole  countries,  and  only  occurs  amongst  single  herds  or  in  limited 
districts. 

The  malignant  foot  rot  formerly  occasioned  great  loss  among  the 
best  Spanish  Merinoes,  with  which  the  disease  was  most  common,  but 
less  so  with  half-breeds,  and  least  with  common  sheep  ,:  the  more  com- 
mon kinds  being  less  liable,  because  theii^  wool,  skin,  and  hoofs  are  of 
coarser  texture ;  while  the  dehcate  frame  of  the  Merino  is  not  so  well 
fitted  to  resist  the  disease.  "Wet  summers,  or  other  causes  which  tend 
to  soften  the  claws,  as  heat  and  moisture  combined,  or  when  sheep  stand 


596  AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

closelv  top:ctber  on  warm  clung  in  a  stable,  facilitate  the  spread  of  the 
disease,  the  seat  of  wliioh  is  in  the  capsule  of  the  daw.  In  its  milder 
form  it  affects  only  tho  parts  above  the  capsule  of  the  hoof,  seldom  at- 
tacking the  latten  Numerous  remedies  are  applied  to  the  extirpation 
of  this  disease,  including  the  application  of  difiereut  acids  and  caustics; 
but  although  such  sometimes  effect  a  cure,  they  generally  retard  it,  are 
expensive,  painful,  and  difficidt  to  apply.  The  proper  mode  of  treat- 
ment is  to  cut  out  with  a  sharii  narrow  kuife  all  the  loose  horn  which  is 
separated  from  the  hoof  and  is  suff'used  with  matter ;  the  object  being 
to  lay  bare  the  diseased  suppurating  substances,  and  to  destroy  the 
infectious  matter  ou  them  ;  for  this  pui-pose  chloride  of  lime  is  the  most 
rapid  and  eliicacious  of  all  remedies.  It  shoidd  be  appbed  to  the  dis- 
eased surfaces,  the  cleft  tilled  with  tow,  and  a  bandage  applied  to  pro- 
tect the  hoof  from  dangerous  external  imitation.  The  diseased  hoofs 
shoidd  be  mspected  daily,  covered  vrith  chloride  of  lime,  and  bandaged 
anew  if  necessary.  If  a  diseased  spot  is  discovered  which  escaped  no- 
tice before,  a  portion  of  the  newly-formed  hoof  must  be  again  removed 
with  a  knife.  Tv>-o  or  three  applications  are  generally  sufficient  for  a 
cure.  The  pain  and  lameness  soon  disappear  ;  the  skin  becomes  thicker 
and  more  compact,  every  day  forming  the  new  horn.  The  foot  ror  being 
a  purely  local  disease,  general  treatment  and  internal  remedies  are 
wholly  useless.  Good  and  copious  food  and  occasionally  salt  licks, 
mixed  with  wormwood,  tar,  or  oil  of  turpentine,  are  recommended. 
When  the  lameness  has  disappeared  and  a  fiim  horn  been  renewed, 
the  sheep  can  be  returned  to  the  healthy  flock,  after  being  made  to  walk 
through  chloride  of  lime  water,  say  by  filling  a  long  trough  with  cold 
water,  into  which  a  pound  of  chloride  of  lime  is  poured  for  every  pail  of 
water,  and  fenced  in  at  the  sides  by  a  hurdle.  Any  virus  clinging  to 
the  hoof  is  thus  destroyed. 

Veterinary  science  has  probably  made  greater  progress,  in  both  theory 
and  practice,  in  the  last  thirty  years,  than  in  all  preceding  time.  jVIt. 
Clok  describes  the  causes  and  remedies  of  the  various  diseases  peculiar 
to  sheep  in  a  style  iuteUigible  to  nou-i^rofessional  readers,  and  closes 
with  advice  to  all  farmers  and  cattle  ov^Tiers,  "  to  help  themselves  when 
possible,  and  employ  a  veterinarian  in  other  cases.'' 


A]\IEKICAN  WORKS  OX  AGEICULTURE  AND  RURAL 

FXOXOMY. 


The  folloTving  list  of  Amerioau  Tvorks  ou  a^Ticiilhu'e  aud  rural  affairs 
has  been  prepared  vrith.  care,  and  -will  be  found  as  fall  and  accurate  as 
the  nature  of  the  case  admits.  Eei^orts  on  the  geolog:y  of  nearly  all  the 
States  have  been  published,  but  these  are  not  included  in  thislist ;  neither 
are  the  annual  transactions  of  State  Agxicultural  Societies ;  nor  reprints 
of  foreign  works,  unless  largely  illusti-ared  -n-ith  notes  by  American 
writers : 


Adair,  D.  L 

Adam^  Daniel . . . 

Adlum,  John 

Aeassiz.  Louis  . . . 
Allen.  Harrison.. 

Allen.  JohnF 

Do 

Allen,  L€  wis  F... 
Do 

Do 

.^     Do 

Alleu,  K.  H.  &  Co 

Allen,  Richard  L 

Do 


Anderson,  C.  F. . 

Anderson,  James 
Appert,  il 

Anostrong,  John 

Aadubon,  John  J 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Baird,  L  P 

Baker,  Charles  K 


Xe'w-  system  of  Bee-Keeplne:  with  improved  Methods  ; 

of  Artiticial  Swanninjr.  Svo ]  Cincinnati,  1S6T. 

The  AcTipnlruiul  Keader :  For  Schools.  I'imo '  Bo-ston ,  1624. 

ilemoir  on  the  Cultivarion  of  the  Grape.  12nio 1  ■W:i.shii::rton,       Ig-SS. 

Methods  of  Smdv  in  ^atmral  History.  l?aio (  Eos'ou, "  IsBS. 

Monograph  on  the  Bats  of  ^orth  America,  ^o Washington.       1S54. 

Practical  Treatise  on  the  Culmre  of  theGrape.  l-2mo.,  i>ew  York,  1853. 

Vietorij»   Eegia,  cultnre   of  the  Great  American  I 

Water  Lily,  folio j  Boston,  1854. 

The  American  Herd  Book.  8  voL?..  Svo Bni£ilo,  1S46-66. 

Address  before  the  United  States  Asricultnral  So- 1 

ciety.  8vo ."". Albany.  1849. 

Enral" Architecture  :  lUnstrated.  12mo Xew  York,  lS5-i 

American  Cattle :  their  History,  Breedin<:.  ic.  l-Jmo .  I  Xew  York,  186? 

niustrated  Catalogue  of  Asricultural  Implements,  j 

8vo : ;>rewYork,  18K. 

Domestic    Animals :   their  Historv,  Breeding,   Szc.  \ 

lOmo ". Xew  York.  1S59. 

The  -American  Farm  Book :  lUnstratecL  l-2mo '  N^ew  York,  1859. 

American  Apricnltnral  Annual  for  1S68.  l'2mo :  ^»ew  York,  18G8. 

American  Bird  Fancier :  How  to  raise  Birtls  of  all 

varieties.  1-imo '  Xew  York.  1851. 

The  American  Fruit  Book :  Directions  for  raising  ' 

the  best  varieties  of  Fmit.  13mo New  York.  lS-;9. 

The  American  Fanner's  Cyclopjedia  of  everything  : 

relatiniTto  American  Farming.  Svo ." ■  Xew  York. 

The  American  Farmer's  >>'ew  aud  Faiversal  Hand-  : 

book.  8vo :  Philadelphia,       135':. 

The  American  Fowl  Breeder.  18mo ;  Boston,  1350. 

The  American  Florist's  Guide :  Every  Lady  her  own 

Flower  Gardener.  12mo ". j  New  York,  1852. 

American  Husbandry :  Soil.  Climate,  ic..  with  the  , 

Advaat.nges  and  Disadvantages  of  Settling  there. 

3  vols.  8vo 'London,  1775. 

The  American  Eose  Culturist ;  with  a  List  of  the  ' 

liest  varieties.  I-2mo '  Xew  York.  IS.'JC. 

American  TiOa  Architecture  :  How  to  bttild  in  the  I 

Country 1  Xew  York,  1853. 

Es.say  oa'Ouick  Lime  as  a  Manure.  12iiio ]  Boston,  17t>9. 

The  Art  of  preserving  Animal  and  Vegetable  ^nb- , 

stances.  12mo I  X^ew  York.  1S12, 

Treatise  on  Agriculture;  with  Xotesbv  Jesse  Bnel.  i 

l-2nio : Albany,  1820. 

The  Birds  of  America,  fi-om  Original  Drawings.  4 

vols,  folio :. 1828-40. 

Ornithological  Biosrraphv  of  the  Birds  of  the  United 

States.  5  vol.s..  6vo...I - Philadelphia,  1331-39. 

The  Birtls  of  America :   with  a  Description  and  Com-  ■ 

plete  niustration  of  each.  7  vols..  &vo 1  Xew  York,  1844. 

Viviparous  Quadrupeds  of  :Nonh  America.  3  vols.,  [ 

.^ vo I  2vew  York,      lS46o3. 

The  Quadrupeds  of  Xorth  America.  3  vols.,  8vo <  Xew  York,      1S5-2-54. 

The  Mammals  Q(f  Xorth  America.  4to I  Philadelphia,       1659. 

Practical  and  Scientific  Fruit  Culture.  12mo !  Boston,  1 866. 


598 


AGEICULTUEAL   KEPOBT. 
American  tcorJcs  on  agriculture,  ^-c. — Continued, 


Xasie  of  author. 


Title  and  de-scription  of  work. 


Place  and  date  of 
publication. 


Bamon,  H.  L. 
Bamweil 


Bany.P 

Banlett.  G.  L 

Barton,  Wm.  P.  C. 
Do 


1632. 


1662. 


Baztiam,  John. 


BartnuD,  WiUlam. 
Beaikty.  Adam  . .  . 


Do 

Beck,LeTns  C... 


.!  Apricnltnral  Toor  in  the  United  Statee  and  Canada. 

12nio 

. '  The  Farmers  Orn  Book  of  Receipts.  16mo 

.1  Th'  Game  Fish  of  the  Xorthem  States  and  Canada. 

;     1--D... 

. !  Trf-atise  on  the  Fmit  Gar<len :  Planting,  Praning, 

i  -?      '■■■'    C     :;  .--;!.':      !->TI10 

•  y  and  Economy.  Svo. 

;  vols..  4to -"- 

.  .-.  -  ■■■  ■  >''---ral  Plants  I 

I     w;  l2mo Philadelphia,       1?18. 

.;  Trav  .  Ob.«erva- 

I     tio:.;_,.„   *  ...c.^v.— .-  • ^. I.;.-  ..-„....  ij;lnction5,  ' 

&c 


Edinburgh, 
Boston, 

Xew  York, 


Xew  York,  1852. 

!  Boston,  1&60. 

PhiL%delphia,  1818-34. 


Bf 

Be. 

Bei^=... 


:aeE. 


I  TTaveb  throneh  the  Carolinas,  Florida,  and  Georgia : 

Ti^.^.  ,^ ■:.■.,- -r.^^:- y—T;».jj  Productions.  8vo 

Essays  on  the  Cnlture  of 

d:c.  "l2mo 

i,.-^. .-,    ...  j^  i .-•..;,...  .cv^TicuIrjre.  12mo 

I  xb^  itotauy  ot  tne  Uniie-I  Stat'is  north  of  Tirzinia; 
a  description  of  Flowering  and  Fern-like  plants. 
l-.imo 


London,  1T51. 

I  Philadelphia,  1791. 
I 

1  Xcw  York.  1843. 

ilaysrille,  Ky.,  1&«. 


Do 

Benton  Sc  S.  F.  Barry. 

BemeaxKl,  Thebaat  de . 

Bavan.  Edward. 

Bigfrk»w-,  Jacob 

Do 

EiccloTT,  Dr.Y 

Eiir..'.  .J.  in  A 

Blacklock.  Ambrose... 
Blake.  Jvhn  L. 

Do 


Do 

Bland.  T.  A 

Blodget,  Lorin 

Bokom,  Hermann. 


Eoardman.  .S.  L , 


Bommer?,  Prof 

Bonaparte,  Charles  L.. 


Bordley.  J.  B... 
Do 


Do. 
Do. 


Do. 
Do. 


BU.  J.  A 


Boewell 

treck.  Joseph. . 

Breuil,  A.  Da.. 


Brick^John 

Btidgman.  Thomas,. 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 


Bright,  "^m. 


The  FairilyKeceipt  Book.  8to 

Traitfi,  FiTwers,  and  Farming.  12mo 

The  Aiaerican  Poulterer's  ComTianioa  :  Illustrated. 

12mo '. 

The  Babbit  Fancier:  The  Breeding,  Bearing,  and 

Diseases  of  Rabbits.  12mo 

A  btaJiitical  View  of  the  niimber  of  Sheep  in  New 
England,  .S'ew  York.  PetaBylvania,  and  some  of 

the  Western  State*.  Ismo 

He  Vine  Dresser's  Manoal,  Theoretical  and  Practi- 
cal, ^vo 

'^-'  ■''       -  •■':    v.-  -  -  l;?e.  !-"vo 

iT:  Illtistra»ed.  3vols.,  8vo- 

l  ■ricinity.  I2mo 

:  ■"  ints  of  Ohio.  8vo 

..  8to 

.^ipter  on 'VTooL  2'lmo. 

rt  Book  for  the  Country,  or  the  Ftaner 

12mo '. 

X..'-   i.-::i.   and  Fireside:    Half-honr  Sketches  of 

Conrtry  Life.  lOmo 

The  AVcatcm  Farmer  s  Earal  Companion.  Svo 

'  Clunatoio^  of  the  United  States.  8vo 

I  The  Agncoltorb,  Mioeralogy,  &x.,  of  Tennessee. 

ICmo ". 

I  The  Agric-  '       "        :A  History,  and  Industry  of 

Keaneb-  .lae.  c'ro ." 

ilethod  of  .  .  '  ;8  mannres.  ISmo 

I  Xamral  Hisvry  .  :  ia<-  Birds  of  the  United  States, 
I     not  given  by  "Wilson :  with  XUastrationa.  4  vols., 

I     f-l:o 

e  View  of  the  Crops  of  England  and 

;    8to 

:  .1  Rotation  of  Crops  and  other  Karal  Mat- 

Conntry  Habitations.  8vo 

Xfites  on  American  Hnsbandry  and  Rn- 

1 .1.  A  n.iirs.  8vo 

TT.-atJjM  on  the  Cnlture  of  Hemp,  fevo 

(Series  on  the  Xatare  and  Principles  of  Vegetation, 

»vo 

Travels  in  Louisiana ;  its  Plants  and  Natorkl  His- 
tory. 2  vols..  8vo 

The  Ponltry  Yanl  as  it  should  be.  12mo 

The  Flower  Ganlen ;  describing  the  Management 

of  Oma-;;ontal  Plants.  l-2mo 

Viaeyanl  Ciiliure;  withnuiuerons  Xotes  and  Adap- 
•tjtiOQsio  American  Culiure,  bv  J.  A.  "VVarder. 

limn 

The  r."  ""  :iia.  evo 

Th«- 

The;.  .  k'mo...! 

The  \cnuiL'  ii.-ir^;.-:r  r  .-  .\-s;.rT.»ijt.  12mo 

The  Fmit  Cultivator's  ilannal.  12mo 

The  American  Gardeners  Assistant :  Revised  bv  S. 

Edwards  Todd.  12mo ."....! 

Single  Stem  Dwarf,  and  Renewal  system  of  Grape  l 

Culture.    16mo ... 


New  York,  1848. 

JsTew  York,  1846. 

Kew  York,  1859. 


JTew  York, 
Xew  York, 

Bo&tcn, 

Philadelphia, 
Philadelphia, 
Boston, 
Boston, 
Columbus, 
Fredttn,  ild. 
Xew  York, 
Xew  York, 

New  York, 

Xew  York. 

Indianapolis, 

Philadelphia, 


1857. 
1857. 


1837. 

1843. 
1643. 
1818-21 
1840. 
1849. 
1803. 
1843. 
1651. 

1859 


1867. 
1857. 


Philadelphia,      1863. 


Angtista, 
New  York, 


1688. 
1860. 


Philadelphia,  1825-33. 

Philadelphia,       1764. 

Philadelphia,       1T97. 
[Philadelphia,]    1798. 

Philadelphia,       175i9. 
[Philadelphia,]    17W. 


[Philadelphia,] 

1800. 

London, 
New  York. 

1771. 

New  York, 

1867. 

Cincinnati, 
Dublin, 
Kew  York, 
New  York, 
New  York, 
New  York. 

1867. 
1737. 

1830. 
1847. 
1657. 

New  York, 

1867. 

New  York, 

1660. 

WOKKS  OX  AGEICULTURE  AND  RURAL  ECOXOMY. 


599 


American  trorfrs  art  agriculture,  ^-c. — Continued. 


Name  of  anthor. 


Brmckle,  "Wm.  il 
Brooks,  Charles... 


BroTm.  O.P 

Brovrao.  Daniel  J. . . 


Do. 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 


Birovrao,  Peter  A. 
Do 

Bnchaitan,  Robert 


Title  and  description  «f  -woik. 


Place  and  date  of 
publication. 


Remarks  on  Entomology,  in  reference  to  Agricul- 
ture. 8  vo  I  PMladelptaa, 

Elemeatfl  of  Ornithology,  and  Introdactioii  to  its 
study.  8vo ;  Boston, 

The  Co'jipi.eie  Herbalist.  12rao '  Jersey  City, 

Sylva  Americana :  A  Treatise  ou  the  Forest  Trees  ■ 
of  the  United  States:  Illnsti-ated.  Svo Boston, 

The  Trees  of  Anieric*.  scientifically  and  popuLirly 
described:  ninstrate-L  ^vo New  Torix, 

Americ;in  Poultry  Yard.  l-2mo New  York, 

The  American  Bird  Fancier.  1-^aio I  New  York, 

The  American  if  nek  Manual ;  Ou  the  Nature  of  the 
leadinjr  Pilncipies  of  A;.Ticu]turp.  lihno New  York, 

Memoir  on  Indian  Corn  :  To  which  is  added  "  Ear-  i 
lows  Ha'^ty  Pndiling" ^  New  York. 

Essay  on  Hair  and  ^Tool :  Breeding  Sheep.  &c.  4to.  !  Philadelphia, 

An  Essay  on  Indian  Com.  Svo Philadelphia, 

Cultivation  of  the  Grape ;  with  an  Appendix  con-  j 
taining  N.  Lonsrworths  Directious for  Cultivating 

the  Suawberry';  lOmo Cincinnati, 

Buel,  Jesse j  The   Farmer's  tompanion:    Ess-iys  on    American  I 

Husbandry;  with  Useful  Tables.  12nio !  Boston, 

Do ■  The  Farmer  s  Instructor :  Essays  and  Hints  on  the  i 

'      Management  of  the  Farm   and   Garden.  '2  vols.,  | 

12mo I  Boston, 

The  Family  Kitchen  Gardoa.  i2nio i  New  York, 

The  Culttiie  of  the  Rose  :  Describing  the  Best  Ta-  ( 
rieties.  Pv  o ;  Philadelphia, 

The  American  Flower  Garden  Directory.  12mo 

Papers  on  Yankee  Farming:  From  the  American 
Agriculturist.  l'2mo -  -• 

Grapes  and  "SVine :  A  Tisit  to  France  and  Spain. 
l'2mo 

The  Field  and  Garden  Vegetables  of  America,  evo. 

History  of  the  Hen  Fever.  I'^mo 

Grapes  and  Wine.  12mo _ 

Treatise  on  Breeding.  Crossing,  and  Trainihg  Dogs. 
12mo (NewTorz, 

The  Farmer's  Manual:  A  plain  Treatise  on  Hus- 
Ivaudi  V.  ISmo 

Prairie  Farming  in  America  ;    with  Notes  on  Can- 
ada and  the  United  St<^.tes.  12mo 

Manual   of   Scientific   and    Practical   Agrioulture 
ICmo 
Caradeuc,  H.  De I  Treatise  on  Grape-Culture 


Bnist.  Robert 
Do 


Do. 


Bunker.  Timothy. } 
[Rev.  Wm.  Clift.]  i 
Buxley,  James 


Burr.  Fearini.  jr. 
Buinhain,  G.^P.. . 

Dasny,  James 

Butler,  Francis  . . 


Butler,  Frederick. 


Caird,  James... 
Campbell,  J.  L. 


Philadelphia, 

New  York, 

New  York, 
Boston, 
Boston. 
New  York, 


1852. 

1S47. 
1867. 

1832. 

1846. 
1S50. 
ISol. 

1852. 

1856. 
1653. 
1«37. 


1S52. 
1830. 


1840. 
1852. 

1344. 
1851. 

1868. 

1848. 
1S64, 
1855. 

1S48. 

1856. 


Weather8feld,Ct.,'21. 


Ciirey,  Henry  C . 

CauBon,  J 

Casey,  J.  P.... 

Cassin.  John.. 
Catesby,  Mark 


Chapin.L.  D. 

Chase,  C.T 

Chaumont,  J.  Leray. 


New  York, 

PhiLidelphia. 
Augusta,  Ga., 


13S9. 


1859. 


Child,  David  L 
Chorlton.  "Wm. 


Do 

Christie.  A.  J.. 

Christie,  David 

Do 


Do 

Church,  Edward 

Plark.  John  T.  C 

Clarke.  John 

Clea^ eland,  Parker.. 

C!ok,  Henry 

Coates.  B.  fi 


Harmony  of  the  Agricultural,  Manufacturing,  and 

Commercial  Interests.  Svo 

niustrations  of  Medical  Botany.  2  vols.,  4to 

Treati.-e  on  the  Various  Forms  of  the  Roots  of 

Flowers 

Synopsis  of  North  American  Ornithology.  Svo 

Jfatural  History  of  Carolina,  Florida,  and  the  Baha- 
mas. 2  vols.,  folio 

Do The  Trees  and  Shrubs  of  North  America  adapte'l  to 

the  Climate  of  England.  4to 

Tha  Vegetable  Kingdom ;   or  Hacd-Eook  of  Plants 

andFrtiits.  16mo 

The  Prairie  Fmit  Calmrist:   For  the  Northwest. 

16mo 

Present  Condition  of   Agrietdture,  at  Home  and 

Abroad.  Svo 

Ctilture  of  the  Sugar  Bset  I'imo i  Boston, 

The  Cold  Grajiery ;   or  How  to  grow  Grapes  tinder  I 

Glass.  l-2mo |  New  York, 

The  Grape-Growers  Gtiide.  12mo j  New  York, 

The  Agricultaral  Interests  of  Canada.  I'imo •  Montreal, 

The  Geology  of  the  "U'est  and  Southwest.  Svo j  Kossville,  Ohio,  1848, 

Cotton  is  King ;  its  Relations  to  Agriculture  and 

Commerce,  liico 

The  Chemistry  of  Agriculture,  l^hno 

Treatise  on  the  Culture  of  the  Sugar  Beet.  12mo — 
The  Amateiu"'s  Guide  and  Flower  Garden  Dirc<tory.       — 
Treatise  on  the  Mulberry  Tree  and  Silk  'Worm.  l-2mo. '  Philr;delphia, 
Agricultural  Queries  :[t"otheFarmcrsof  >'aino.J  Svo.!  [PortUad.J 

The  Diseases  of  Sheep;  Cattle  Epidemics.  12mo |  Philadelphia, 

l>jiaarks  on  the  Lai-vas  of  the  He.ssian  Fly.  12mo ;  Philadelphia, 

Cobb,  Jona.  H I  Ma-j-ial  on  the  Culture  of  the  Mulberry  and  Silk  1 

Worm.  l-2mo I  Boston, 

Cobhett,  "Wm !  A  Year's  Residence  in  the  United  States.  12mo New  York, 

Do j  The  American  Complete  Gardener.  l-2mo New  York, 

Coke,  M.  R. Treatise  on  Domestic  Poultry.  18mo I  New  York. 


Baltimore, 
Philadelphia, 

Loiiloa, 

London, 

New  York, 

Chicago, 

Albatiy, 


Cincinnati, 


1852, 

1S47. 

1821. 
1856. 

1154. 

1733. 

1343. 

1859. 

1826. 
1840. 

1353. 
1856. 
1^21. 


1855. 


Northampton  ,Msm  '37. 

■\Vashi-Jirtou,       1856. 

'       1839. 

1827. 

1868. 

1814. 

1833. 
1818. 
1825. 


600 


AGRICULTUKAL   REPORT. 


American  tcorka  on  agrieuUure,  ^c. — Continued. 


Kame  of  anthor. 


Ijtle  and  description  of  work. 


Place  and  date  of 
publication. 


Coto,S.W 

I>o 

Colman   Ilenrv 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Comstork.  John  L. 

Comstock,  T.  G 

Do 

Conger,  H.  B 

Copelaud,  R.  M 

Cooltaa,  Harland 

Do 

Coaltas.  Harriet 

Coie,  VTilliam 

Crevecoenr,  J.  H.  St.  John  de 
Creiiire,  X.  F 

Cxistis.  G.  W.  P 

Dadd.  George  H 

Do...  

Do 

I>Q 

Dana,  Samnel  L 

Do 

Darlincion,  "Wm 

i)o.'.^ty///.'.'..."'.'.. 

Do 

^vifl,  Hnmphrev.  jr 

IfaTW.  X.S '. 

Deane,  Samuel 

Dearborn.  H.  A.  S 

De  C'ir.'iduc,  A. 

Dc-nniston,  G 

Derbv,  John 

Dickerson,  M.  W 

Diatnrnell,  J 

Dixon.  E<linmid  S 

Dowuinj;,  A.  J 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Draper,  J.  W 

Drown.  Solomon 

Drd^Tj,  William 

Ducatcl.  JnlinsT 

Du  Uays,  Charles , 

Dnponcean,  P.  S 

Duiour,  J.J 

DwxcT.  Charles  P 

EAkiii.  J.Pk. 

Eastwood,  B , 

Baton.  Amo6,    (and  John 

"Wright) 

Edgar,  Patrick  N 

B3drr,  W 

Bllot,  Jared 


Treatise  on  the  Disea-ses  of  Domestic  Animals.  16mo . 

The  American  Fniit  Book.  12mo 

Agricultural  Interests  of  Massachn setts.  8vo 

Agricnltnrc  of  the  United  States.  Svo 

Agriculture  of  France,  Belgium,  UoUand,  and  Switz- 
erland.  8vo 

European  Agriculture ;  From  Personal  Observations. 
2  vols.,   8vo 

Rea<linj:s  on  Zo^Hogy.  12mo 

Practical  Treatise  on  the  Silk  Worm.  12mo 

Com3>lete  iLiunal  of  Flower  Gardening.  12mo 

Treatise  on  tlie  Rinderpest 

Country  Life;  Horticulture.  L.andscape  Gardening. <fcc. 

Principles  of  Botany,  as  exemplified  in  the  Cr^^-pto- 
gamia.  12mo 

The  Plant  Illustration  of  the  Organic  Life  of  the 
Animal.  12mo 

What  may  be  learned  from  a  Tree.  Pvo 

Cultivation  of  Fmit  Trees,  and  Management  of 
Orcliards  and  Cider,   evo 

Letters  from  an  American  Farmer.  8vo 

The  Xatural  Wealth  of  California ;  its  Agriculture, 
&c.  evo 

Thelmportance  of  Encouraging  Agriculture,  (Sec.  fivo. 

Advocate  of  Teterinari*  Reform,  &.c.  Sxo 

Every  Man  his  own  Cattle  Doctor.  l-2mo 

Anatom V  and  Phy.=iology  of  the  Horse.  8vo 

Practical  Observations  on  the  Diseases  and  Lame- 
ness of  Horses.  lOmo 

Muck  Mannal,  for  the  Use  of  Fanners.  13mo 

Essay  on  Manures.  12mo 

Agricultnral  Botany.  12mo 

Aericnltnral  Chemistry.  l-2mo 

Flora  Cestrica  ;  the  Plants  of  Chester  Co.,  Pa.  l'2mo. 

American  Weeds  and  Useful  Plants;  revised  by 
Prof.  Geo.  Thnrln-r.  ISmo 

The  Cause  and  Cure  of  tlie  Potato  Disease.  Svo 

A  Tert  Book  of  ACTicnlture.  l-2iuo 

The  New  England  Farmer,  or  Georgical  Diction- 
ary. &V0 

Monograph  of  the  CameHa.  8vo 

An  Es.say  on  Grape  C  iilttire.  12mo 

An  Es.say  on  Grape  Culture  in  Steuben  Co.,  2f .  Y.  limo 

Manual  of  "Botany.  12aio 

RepKirt  on  the  Cypress  Timber  of  Mississippi  and 
Alabama 

Influence  of  Climate  in  North  and  South  America, 
with  Agricultural  and  Isothermal  Maps  of  Xorth 
America,   fevo 

Treatise  on  Ornamental  and  Domestic  Poultry.  12mo. 

Rural  Essays;  with  Memoir  by  Geo.  AV.  Curtis.  *vo. 

Architecture  of  Country  Houses;  their  Furniture, 
&c.  gvo 

Cottage  Residences ;  their  Gardens  and  Grotinds.  Svo. 

The  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America.  12mo 

The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Landscax>e  Garden- 
ing, evo 

Domestic  Animals;  A  Manual  of  Cattle,  Horse,  and 
Shfep  Husbandry.  12mo 

Treatise  on  the  Forces  that  Produce  the  Organiza- 
tion of  Plants.  12mo 

The  Fanner's  ManuaL  15mo 

Compendium  of  Agriculture.  IQmo 

The  Greology  of  Maryland.  8vo 

Treati.se  on  the  Percheron  Horse  ;  translated  from 
the  French.  12mo 

Essay  on  the  Culture  of  Silk.  12mo "[[]["[]. 

The  American  Vine  Dresser's  Gnide.  12mo 

Transactions  of  Dutchess  Co.,  N.  T.,  Agricultural 
Society.  12mo 

Economic  Cottage  Builder.  8vo '.'.'..'.'.'... 

Rudiments  of  Grai)e  Cultnre.  I2mo 

Complete  Manual  for  the  Culturo  of  the  Cran- 
berry. 12mo 

Botany  of  Xorth  America.  Vimo 

The  American  Race  Turf  register  and  General  Stud 

Book,  fvo 

The  American  Cottage  Gardener.  12mo 

Essays  on  Field  Husbandry  in  New  En^lajid  in 

1747.  12mo 


New  York, 
New  York, 
Boston, 
New  York, 

Boston^ 

Boston. 
New  York, 
Hartford. 
Phihwlelphia, 
New  York, 
Bbston, 


1859. 
1P57. 
1838. 
ft41. 

1848 

1850, 
1853. 
1339. 
1844. 
1867. 
1859. 


Philadelphia,  1853. 

Philadelnhia,  1855. 

New  York,  1859. 

Philadelphia,  1817. 

London,  1782. 


San  Franfrisco, 

1868. 

Alexandria, 

1808. 

Boston, 

1850. 

New  York, 

1857. 

Boston, 

1857. 

New  York, 

IS.'H. 

Lowell, 

1851. 

New  York. 

Philadelphia, 

1847. 

Philadelphia, 

1847. 

Philadelphia, 

1853. 

New  York,  1859. 

New  Bedford,      1S55. 
New  York,  1850. 

Worcester,Mas8.1796. 


Boston, 
Albany, 
Albany, 
Macon,  Ga., 


183a 
1865. 
1865. 
1841. 


Philadelphia,      1843. 


New  York, 
New  York, 
New  York, 


18C7. 
1859. 
1650. 


New  York, 
New  York. 
New  York, 

1850 
1852 
1857. 

New  York, 

1360 

New  York, 

1858 

New  York, 
Providence, 
Providence, 
Annapolis, 

1344 
1828. 
1824. 
1338 

New  York, 

Philadelphia, 

Cincinnati, 

1868. 
1839 
1826 

Ponghkeepsie, 
Bnffilo, 
Little  Rock. 

1807 
1850 
1868 

New  York, 

1856. 

Albany, 

1833. 

New  York. 
Philadelphia, 

1833. 
1849. 

New  York, 

1754 

WORKS  ON  AGEICULTURE  AND  RURAL  ECONOMY. 


601 


American  worlca  on  agriculture,  ^c. — Continued. 


IName  of  anthor. 


Eliot,  J.ired 

EUiott,  Charles "W.... 

Elliott,  Daniel  G 

Elliott,  F.  K 

Do 

Do 

Elliott,  Steplien 

Ellawortb,  H.  W 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Embui-y,  Mrs 

Emerson,  Geo.  B , 

Emerson,  Gonvemeur 
Enunons^benezer. . . 
Enfield,  Edwai-d 

Eutz,  J.  r , 

Espy,  James  P 

Evans,  Wm.  J 

Everett,  David 

Fancher,  O.  H.  P 


Eaulkner 

Ftfasenden,  T.  G 

Do 

Do 

Field,  M 

Field,  Thos.  W 

Fisher,  S.J 

Fitch,  Asa 

Flagg,  "Wilson 

Do 

Flags,  W.J 

FlaiS&ers,  "W.  A 

Flint,  Charles  I. 

Do 

Do 

Fostah,E.J 

Foster  (and  Atkins.) 

Fox,  C 

lYench,  Henry  F 

I'Yv,  T7m.  H 

FrVatt;  n.  N 

Fuller,  Andrew  S. . . 
Do 

Do 

Do 

Gardnei*,D.  P 

Garlick,  TheodAtus. 
Gaylord  &  Tucker. . 

Geaet,  Charles  E 

Giraril,  Charles 

Giraud,  J.  P.,  ir 

Do.i 

Godman,  John  D 

Good,  P.  Pv 

Goodale,  S^L 

Goodrich,  Chauncey. 
Grant,  C.  W '.  . 


Title  and  description  of  work. 


A  Continuation  of  the  preceding.  Pai-ts  V  and 
VI.  l2mo 

Cottages  and  Cottage  Life;  with  Plans  and  Direc- 
tions. 8vo 

The  Birds  of  North  America.  Folio 

The  American  Fruit-grower's  Guide.    12mo 

The  Western  Fruit  Book.  12mo 

Treatise  on  Lawn  and  Shade  Trees.  12mo 

Botany  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  2  vols.,  8vo. 

Illinois  in  1837;  Cultivation  of  the  Prairies.  8vo 

Valley  of  the  Upper  Wabash ;  its  Agricultural  Ad- 
vantages. 12mo 

Improvements  in  the  Arts  of  Agriculture  in  the 
United  States.  8vo 

The  American  Swine  Breeder.  24mo 

American  Flowers  in  their  Native  Haunts 

Report  on  the  Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Massachu- 
setts. 8vo 

The  American  Farmer's  Encyclopaedia.  8vo 

The  Birds  of  Massachusetts.  8vo 

Tre.itise  on  Indian  Corn.  12mo 

An  Inquiry  into  the  State  of  the  Farms:  to  the 
Farmers  of  New  Hampshire.  8vo 

Exchange  and  Cotton  Trade  between  England  and 
the  United  States.  8vo 

The  Philosophy  of  Storms.  8vo... 

The  Sugar  Planter's  Manual.  8vo ...'. 

The  Farmer's  Monitor;  Common  Sense  in  Disha- 
bille. 18mo 

The  Arabian  Farrier  and  Horse  Breaker.  ICmo 

The  Farmer's  Muck  Book :  How  to  use  Muck  as  a 
Manure.  18mo 

The  West^em  Farmer's  New  and  Universal  Hand 
Book.   8vo 

Farmer's  Manual  of  Manures.  12mo 

The  New  American  Gardener.  12mo 

The  Husbandman  and  Housewife.  12mo 

The  Complete  Fanner  and  Rirral  Economist.  12mo . . . 

Kural  Architecture:  Designs  for  Cottages,  &c.  8vo. . 

Treatise  on  Pear  Culture.  12mo 

Observations  on  the  European  Vine  and  Wine- 
Makinj;.  12mo 

The  Noxious,  Beneficial,  and  other  Insects  of  New 
York.  8vo 

Studies  in  the  Field  and  Forest.  12mo 

Mount  Auburn;  its  Scenes,  Beauties,  and  Les- 
sons. 12mo 

Three  Season.^  in  European  Vineyards.  12mo 

Easy  and  Profitable  Method  of  Managing  Bees.  12mo . 

Flax  Culture:  Full  Directions  for  Planting  and  Har- 
vesting this  Crop.    8vo 

Practical  Treatise  on  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants.  8vo . 

Treatise  on  Milch  Cows  and  Daii'y  Farming.  12mo . . 

Notes,  &c.  Introduction  to  Guydin's  Poultry  Breed- 
ing. 12mo 

The  Agricultural  Productions  of  Louisiana.  12mo . . . 

On  the  Restoration  of  Sea  Fish  to  the  Rivers  of 
Maine.  8vo 

The  American  Text-Book  of  Agriculture.  12mo 

The  "Principles,  Process,  and  Effects  of  Draining 
Land.  12mo 

Complete  Treatise  on  Artificial  Fish-Breeding.  12mo . 

Agriculture;  its  Essentials  and  Nou- Essentials.  8vo. 

TheTHustrated  Strawberry  Culturist.  12mo 

Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Native  Gi-ape. 
12mo 

The  SmaU  Fiiiit  Culturist.  12mo 

The  Forest  Tree  Culturist.  12mo 

The  Farmer'a  Assistant  and  Dictionary.  8vo 

The  Artificial  Propagation  of  Fish.  8vo 

Essays  on  the  Impifevoment  of  American  Husbandry, 
2  vols.  18mo .".. 

The  Growth  and  Manufacture  of  Silk.  8vo 

Natiu-al  History  of  Freshwater  Fishes.  4to 

Sixteen  New  Sjsecimcns  of  American  Birds,  folio 

The  Birds  of  Long  Island.  8vo 

American  Natural  History.  2  vols.,  8vo 

The  Family  Flora 

The  Principles  of  Breeding  Domestic  Animals.  1 2mo . 

The  Northern  Fruit  Culturist.  12mo 

Manualon  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine.  8vo 


Place  and  date  of 
publication. 


1754, 
1759. 

1848. 
1868. 
1854, 
1857. 
18G7. 
1821. 
1837. 

1838. 

1843. 
1844. 


C  New  York, 
(  New  Haven, 

Cincinnati, 
New  York, 
New  York, 
New  York, 
New  York, 
Philadelphia, 
Pliiladelphia, 

New  York, 

New  York, 
Boston, 
New  York, 


Boston,  1846. 

New  York,  1853 

Amherst,  Mass.,  1833. 
New  York,  1866. 

[Boston,]  1812. 

New  York,  1840. 

Boston,  1841. 

Philadelphia,      1848. 

Worcester,  Ms.,  1799. 
LoweU,  1852. 


New  York, 


1849. 


Chicago,  1856. 

New  York,  1843. 

Boston,  1828. 
Brattl6boro',Vt.,1820. 

Boston,  1833. 

New  York,  1857. 

New  York,  1859. 

Philadelphia,  1834. 


Albany, 

1855. 

Boston, 

1856 

Boston, 

1861 

New  York, 

1868. 

New  York, 

1855. 

New  York, 

1868. 

Boston, 

1857. 

Boston, 

1858. 

Boston, 

1867. 

New  Orleans, 

1845. 

Augnfita,  Me., 

1868. 

New  York. 

New  York, 

1859. 

New  York, 

1854. 

New  York, 

1854. 

New  York, 

1864. 

New  York, 

1867 

New  York, 

1867. 

New  York, 

1867. 

New  York, 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  1857. 

New  York. 

Washington, 

1828. 

Washington, 

1852. 

New  York, 

1841. 

New  York, 

1844. 

Philadelphia, 

1S46. 

Now  York, 

1845. 

Boston, 

1861. 

BiirUngton,  Vt. 

,  1850. 

New  York, 

1866, 

602 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


American  rcfrls  on  agriculture,  4'C- — Continued. 


Ifamo  of  author. 


Grant,  E.B 

Do 

Gray,  Alouzo 

Gray,  Asa  (and  Torrcy) 
Gray,  Asa 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Gray,  John  C 

Grove,  if.  D 

Green  &  Coiicrdon 

Green,  Kokind 

Gregg,  Thomas 

Gref:on,-,  J.  J.  II 

Griflin,  AVm 

Griflis,0.  U.  P 

Griffith,  Robert  E 

Grinden,  L.  H 

HaU.  Beni.  F 

Hanuuouu,  J.  H 

Haraszthy,  A 

Harbison,  J.  S , 

Harlaa,  Richard 

Harris,  T.TT 

Do 

Do 

Harrison,  D.  A 

HarUey,R.iI 

Hazzi  &  Mea8(> , 

Hedges,  Isasc 

Hollmo,  W.  0 

Henderson,  Peter 

Do 

Herbti-t,  "Wm.  H 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Hind,  n.  T 

Hinds,  John 

Hitchcock,  Edward 

Hoir,  A 

Hulbroi^k,  John  E 

Do 

Holmes,   Francis 

Hooker,  AVorlliington... 

Hooker,  H 

Uoupes,  Josiah 

Hooper,  E.  J , 

Do 

Hooper,  J.  J 


Hough,  Franklin  B 

Hovey,  Charles  M 

Huntfr,  A 

Husmann,  Geo 

Hyatt,  T.H 


Title  and  description  of  work. 


Mann.ll  on  the  Cultir.ition  of  the  "Vine.  ISmo 

Beet  Sugar,  and  Cultivation  of  the  Beet  Root.  16mo. 

Tho  Eleuiouts  of  Aericulture.  12ino 

Flom  of  North  Auieiioa.  3  vols 

Botany  of  the  United  States,  inchidin;^  Sullivaut's 
Additions.  Pvo 

Bdtan-i'iJ  Text-Book,  Structural  and  Systematic.  Hvo 

iIann.^l  of  Botany  and  Vps;i'table  Phvsiology.    «vo.. 

Geneni  of  the  Plants  of  "the  UnitoiT  States:  Illus- 
trated. 2  vols.,  8vo 

How  Plants  Grow.  4to 

Agricultural  and  Literary  Essaj'S.  Svo 

An  Essay  on  Sheep,  l-itno .' 

Analy tictd  CUiss-Book  of  Botany,  8vo 

Treatise  on  the  Culture  of  Flowers.  18ino 

Hand- Book  of  Fruit  Culture.  16mo , 

Squa-slios:  How  to  grow  them.  16nio 

Ti-eati.se  cm  the  CuTtivatiou  of  the  Piueapplt^ 

Every  Man  his  ottu  Farrier.  I'itno 

Medical  Botany.  8 vo 

The  Phenomena  of  Plant  Life 

The  Laud-Owner's  Maaual.  8vo 

Letter  to  the  Jeifer.son  County  Agricultural  Society, 
on  Marl.  3vo 

Grape  Culture,  "VTines,  and  Wine-Making.   8vo 

Improved  System  of  cultivating  the  Honey  Bee.  8vo. . 

The  Mammiferous  Animals  of  S'crth  America.  8vo. . 

Insects  of  Maesachusett.s  injiuious  to  Agiiculturc. 
8vo 


Place  and  date  of 
publication. 


Kew  York,  1865. 

Boston,  1867. 

Xew  York,  1842. 

New  York,  1838-'42. 


Cambridge, 
!Xew  York, 
!New  York, 

jSTew  York, 
New  York, 
Boston, 
Boston, 
Xew  Yoik, 
Boston, 
Kew  York, 
Xew  York, 
Xewark,  X.  •!., 


1B48. 
1850. 
1SG2. 

1849. 

1868. 
1856. 
1824. 
185.5. 
1828. 
1857. 
1867. 
1808. 


I  Kalamazoo,  Mich.,"57. 
Philadelphia,      1847. 
Xew  York. 
Auburn,  1847. 


Insects  of  Kow  England  injurious  to  Vegetaiiou. 

Svo 

The  same  work  enlarged :  Edited  by  C.  L.  FUnt. 

8vo 


The  Bee-Xeeper's  Manual 

Ef.say  on  Milk,  as  an  article  of  Human  Sustenance. 

liimo 

Treatise  on  Rearing  Silk -Worms.  Svo 

TYcatise  on  tho  Cultiu^  of  Sorghum.  12mo 

The  American  Farrier.  8vo 

Hemi. :  Observations  on  its  Culture :  with  a  Plan 

of  t!ie  Pennsylvania  H'-mp  Brake.  12mo 

G.ardeiung  for  Profit.  l'2uio 

l>eatl.<>p  on  Practical  Horticulture.  12mo 

Fish  and  t'ishing  in  tho  United  States  and  British 

Pr-vinces.  Svo 

Fielu  S))'.rt8  of  the  Unitod  States  and  the  British  Pro- 

\-tuce3.  2  vols.,  8vo 

American  Game  in  its  Seasons.  12mo 

Horse  and  Hoi-scinanship  of  tho  United  States  and 

the  British  Provinces.  2  vols.,  Svo 

Hints  to  Horse-keepers ;  with  Rarey's    Method  of 

lYaining.  12mo 

The  Insects  and  Dise.iscs  injurious  to  "WTieat.  8vo.. . 

Farriery  t.iughi  on  a  Xew  aud  Easy  Plan.  ICmo 

Hint.s  adr'rcsi'f-d  to  th'i  Farmers  of  Essex.  Svo 

History  of   Silk,   Cotton,  Linen,  "V\'ool,  and  other 

Fibrous  Substances.  8vo 

Animals  and  Plants  of  Mas.sachusetts.  Svo 

Tho  Xorth  American  Pomologist.  4to 

Description  of  tho  Reptiles  of  the  United  States.  4to.. 
Ichthyology  of  South  CaroUna.  Dlustratei  4to.  .. 
The  Southera  Farnirr  and  Market  Gardener.  12mo.- 

Xatnr.-il  History  for  Sc-hools  and  Families.  12mo 

The  Fanner's  Own  Book.  24mo 

Tho  Book  of  Evergreens;  their  Propagation,  Culti- 
vation, &.C.  12mo 

The  Practical  Farmer,  Gardener,  and  Housewifij. 

linio 

The  Western  Fruit  Book  ;   with  Plates.  IStao 

Treatise  on  the  Dog  aud  Gun 

The  Horse  and  its  Rider 

Tho  Horse,  or  Gentleman's  Xew  Pocket  Farrier 

The Horse-Ownor's  Friend:  D'iseases  and  Accidents 

of  the  Horse.  24!uo 

The  Complete  Farm  Record ;  with  Directions  forits 

use.  4to 

The  Fruits  of  America;  with  CoIokhI  PLates.  Svo... 

Geotgicul  E.s.sav.s.  li  vols.,  evo 

Culture  of  the  Kative  Grapes  and  American  Wine. 

12nio 

Hand-Book  of  Grape  Culture.  12mo......"]...".... 


Augusta,  Ga., 
Xew  YorjT, 
Sacramento, 
Philadelphia, 


1846. 
IdCS. 
1860. 

lies. 


Cambridge,  1841. 


Boston, 

Boston, 
Xew  York. 

Xew  York, 
Washington, 
Cincinnati, 
Cleveland, 

Boston, 
Xew  York, 
X^ew  York, 

New  York, 

Xew  York, 
Xe'w  York, 

Xew  York, 


1852. 

1862. 
1861. 

1842 

1828. 
1863. 
1852. 

1766. 

1867. 
1868. 

1851. 

18:;2. 

1853. 

1857. 


Xew  York,  1859. 

Toronto,  1857. 

Philadelphia,  1830. 

Salem,  Mass.,  1830. 

Xew  York,  1845. 

Amherst,  1835. 

Philadelphia,  '  1860. 

Philadelphia,  1838. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  '55. 

Charleston,  1852. 

Xew  York,  1810. 

Xew  York,  1839. 

Xew  York,  1868. 

Cincinnati,  1840. 

Cincinnati,  1857. 

Xew  York,  1858. 
Xew  York. 
Boston. 

Ann  Arbo*.  Mich., '67. 

Xew  York,  1860. 

Xew  York,  1853. 

Xew  York,  1803-4. 

Xew  York,  1866. 
San  Francisco,    1867 


WOEKS  OX  AGRICULTURE  AND  RURAL  ECONOMY. 


603 


American  ivories  on  agriculture,  ^c. — Continned. 


Kame  of  author. 


Title  aBd  description  of  ■work. 


Place  and  date  of 
publication. 


Hyde,  J.  F.  C 

Ivea,  John  M 

Jaqnes 

Jaqnes,  George 

Jaques,  D.  H 

Do 

Jennings,  Robert 

Do 

Johnson,  Louisa 

Johnson,  S.  "W 

Johnson,  Samuel "W.. 
Kemps 

Kenrick.  "Wm 

Do...- 

Kent,  J.  E 

Kem,  G.  M 

Kidder,  K.  P 

Tviinhp.r     Abby 

Klrr,  J.  J 

Klippart,  John  H 

Do 

Knowiton,  J.  G 

Do 

KJno-vrlton,  J.  M 

Langstrolh,  L.  L , 

Iiarson,  H 

Lathrop,  Leonard  E. . 

Law,  George 

Lawson 

Lea,  Thos.  G 

Leavitt.  T.  H 

Lee,  D.K 

Leuchars,  K.  B 

Le-ftis,  Elijah  H 

Lidbig,  Justus  Von.. 

Lincoln,  Mrs 

Lindley,  John 

LLasley,  D.  G 

List.C 

Livingston,  E.  II 

Locke,  John 

Logan,  George . 

Longworth.  N 

Lorain,  John 

Loubart,  Alphonse... 

Lrman,  Jos.  B 

lifac  Nerin 

Main,  Thomas 

Mann,  James 

Manning,  Hobert 

Manwaring,  C 

Marsh,  George  P 

Marshall,  Humphrey. 

Maishall.T.J 

Martin,  "WiUiam 


Mason,  Eichard 
Mayhow,  Ira — 

Do 

Mayo,  Benj 


Culture  of  the  Chinese  Sugar-Cane.  16mo 

The  New  England  Fruit  Book.  ISnio 

Manual  of  thts  House ;  How  to  build  Dwellings, 
Barns,  &c 

Practical  Treatise  on  the  Management  of  Fruit  Trees. 
l(!mo 

The  Barn- Yard  :  How  to  breed  Domestic  Animals, 
&;c 

The  Garden ;  A  New  Manual  of  Practical  Horticul- 
ture  

Treatise  on  Sheep,  Swine,  and  Poultry.  12mo 

Horse-Training  Made  Easy.  ]2mo 

Every  Lady  hnr  own  Flower-Gardener 

Krira'l  Economy,  Eoads,  Culture  of  tho  Vine,  &c., 
8vo 

Peat  and  its  Uses  as  a  Fertilizer  and  Fuel.  12mo.. 

Landscape  Gardening :  How  to  lay  out  a  Garden. 
12mo 

The  New  A  merican  Orchardist.  12mo 

The  A  merican  Silk-Growers'  Guide.  18rao 

Tho  Farmers'  Light-House,  or  Agricultoral  Chem- 
isti"y.  18mo 

Pi'actacal  Landscape  Gardening.  12mo 

Guide  to  Bee-Culture  and  Bee-Managemomt.  12mo. . 

Familiar  Botany ;  witli  a  Complete  Botanical  Dic- 
tionary. 12mo 

On  Ornamental  and  Domestic  Poultry 

Tho  Wheat  Plant :  its  Culture,  Diseases,  ifcc.  12mo.. 

Piinciples  and  Practice  of  L;iud-Drainage.  12mv>. .. 

The    Complete  Farrier,  or  Horse-Doctor.  8vo 

Kitchen  Directory  and  American  Housewife.  12mo . . 

Treatise  on  our  Hardy  Grripes 

Treatise  on  the  Hive  and  flonoy  Bee.  12mo 

Manual  for  Pruning  Fruit  Trees.  IGmo 

Farmers' Library  :    Essays  on  Agricnlture.  12mo... 

Translation  of  Eoussingault'sEural Economy.  12mo. . 

Natru-al  History  of  South  Carolina.    Small  4to..  .. 

Catalogue  of  plants  near  Cincinnati.  12mo 

Facts  about  Peat,   as  an  Articlo  of  Fuel.  12mo. 

Summerlii'Ul,   or  Life  on  tho  Farm.  12mo 

Construction,  &c.,  of  Conservatories  and  Green- 
Houses.  12mo 

Habits  of  the  Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl  of  Amer- 
ica. 8vo 

Organic  Chemistiy  as  applied  to  Agricxiltnre,  with 
iS'otesby  Dr.  J.'W.  \*^ebster.  12mo 

Lectures  on  Botanv.  18mo , 

Theory  of  Horticulture :  Edited  by  A.  J.  Downing. 
12mi 

Morgan  Horses  ;  their  History  and  Characteristics. 
12mo 

Outlines  of  Botany.  18mo 

Essay  on  Sheep  ;  tho  MerinOes  of  Spain,  Fiance,  &o., 
8vo 

Elementary  Treatise  on  Botany.  12mo 

Esperiment.s  on  the  best  Eotatiou  of  Crops.  12mo. 

On  the  Ciilti  v.itiou  of  the  Strawberry.  Svo 

Nature  and  Eeason  harmonized  in  the  Practice  of 
Husbandry.  8vo 

Tho  Vine-Dressers  Guide.  1  smo 

Cotton  Culture :  Cotton-Seed  and  its  Uses.  12mo... 

Application  of  Chemistry  to  Agriculture.  8vo 

Culture  of  tho  yoimg  Thorn  and  other  Hedge  Plants. 
Svo 

Management  of  Native  and  Foreign  Singing  Birds. 
ISmo 

The  Book  of  Fiiiits.  18mo 

Essays,  Agricultural,  Political,  &c.  12mo 

The  'Camel ;  his  Organization,  Uses,  and  Habits. 
12mo 

Catalogue  of  the  Native  Forest  Trees  and  Shrubs  of 
tbeHnitedStiites.  8vo 

Farmer's  and  Emigi'ant's  Hand-Book.  12mo 

Treatise  on  the  K  mewal  Sj  stem  of  Priming  Grajje- 
Vines 

A  View  of  the  Course  of  Crops  in  England  and 
Maryland ;  with  a  System  of  Improved  Course 
for  Farmers  in  America.  4to 

Farrier  and  Stud-Book:  Edited  by  J.  S.  Skinner 

Practical  Book-keeping  for  Farmers 

Blanks  for  Book-keeping  for  Farmers 

Natiu-al  History  of  Quadrupeds,  Birds,  &c.  12mo.. 


Boston, 

Boston. 

New  York, 
"Worcester, 
New  York, 


1857. 

1867. 
1849. 
1867. 


New  York,  1867. 

Philadelphia,  laCl. 

Philadelphia,  186.5. 

New  Haven,  1858. 

New  Brunswick,1806. 
New  York,  1866. 

New  York,  1859. 

Boston,  1833. 

Boston,  1840. 

Philadelphia,       1857. 
Cincinnati,  1855. 

Burlington,  Vt,  1858. 

1854. 


PhiLidelphia, 
New  York. 
New  York, 
Cincinnati, 
Philadelphia, 
New  York. 


1860, 
1867. 
1851. 


1839. 
1859. 


New  York, 
Philadelphia, 
Windsor,  Vt.,     1826, 
New  York,  1843, 

London,  1718 

Philadelphia,  1834-44 
Boston,  1867, 

New  York. 


Boston, 
Philadelphia, 


1851. 
1857. 


Cambridge,  Ma38.,'41. 
Philadelphia,     "1836. 


New  York, 

New  York, 
Philadelphia, 

New  York, 
Cam'iiridge, 
Philadelpliia, 
Cincinnati, 


1850. 

1857. 
1840. 

1S09. 
1820. 
1797. 
1846. 


Philadelphia, 
New  York, 
New  York, 
New  York, 

1825. 
1828. 
1863. 
1825. 

Wa^'hington, 

1807. 

Boston, 
Salem,  Mass., 
New  London, 

1848. 
1838. 
1828. 

Boston, 

1856. 

Philadelphia, 
New  York, 

1785. 
1850. 

Pittsburgh, 

1854. 

Philndolphia, 
Phaadeli>liia, 
Boston, 
Boston, 

1784. 

1850. 
1861. 
1861. 
1821. 

GO-i 


AGKIC  UiiT UiiAL   KEPOKT. 


American  uorks  on  agriculture,  ijc. — CoutmueJ. 


Name  of  antlior. 


McCiilloh.  R.  S 

McIMahoii,  B 

MtMiilloii,  Thos... 

Mease,  James 

Mtiul.  IVttr  B 

Mcfcban,  Thomas... 

Meeker,  N.  C 

Michaux,  F.  A 

Do 

Miner,  T.  B 

1)0 

Milbuin,  M.  M 

Mitchell,  D.  G 

Do 

Do 

Mohr,  Frederick... 

Moore,  Thomas 

Morfit,  C 

Morrell,  L.  A 

Morris,  Edmund... 

Do 

Do 

Mnench,  F 

Muhlenburg,  Henry 

Mnnn,  B 

Ilonsou,  Laura  G.  . 

Na«h,  J.  F 


Xeill,  Patrick 

Xcttle,  Richatd 

Xewborry ,  J.  S 

XewLouse,  S.,  and  others 
Xowman,  J.  B 

K::;::::::::::::: 

Do 

Nichols,  James  B 

Xicholsou.  Elizabeth 

Nolan,  Lewis  E 

Xorris,  Thaddeus , 

Do 

Norton,  Jolin  P 

Do 

Do 

Noll.  lIourvK 

Nuttall,  Thomas 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Olcott,  Henrv-  S 

Do...: 

Olmstead.  Fredcrirk  T>. . 


Title  and  description  of  work. 


Reply  to  the  Review  of  his  Report  on  Sugar.  8vo... 

The  American  Gardener's  Calendar.  Svo 

Hand-Book  of  Wiue-s  :  How  to  ir.ake  them.  l'2mo 

A  Geological  Account  of  the  Uuitod  States.  Icmo.. 
Tho  Culture  of  the  Grape,  audAViuc.Makinsi.  8vo  ..  . 
The  American  Uaud-Book  of  Ornamental  'Trees  for 

Villas  and  Lawns.  Is'mo 

Life  in  the  West,  l-mo 

The  Oaks  of  North  America;  with  Appendix    bv 

"Wade.  8vo ".. 

North  American  Sylva ;  with  Not«8  by  J.  J.  Smith. 

3vols.,8vo 

The  Ajuorican  Bee.Keeper's  ManuaL  12mo 

The  Domestic  Poultry -Book.  12mo 

The  Cow:  Dairv-Husbaudry,  and  Cattle-Breeding'.. 

12mo '. ". 

My  Farm  atEdgowood.  I'Jmo 

Wet  Dpys  at  Edge  wood.  I'Jiuo 

Rural  Studies ;  with  Hints  for  Country  Places,  liimo 
Treatise  on  the  Grape-Vine ;  tran-slated  from  the  i 

Gcnnan,  with  Notes  by  Charles  Siedhof.  l-2mo... 
The  Great  Error  of  American  Agiicultiu'o  Exposed 

8vo, 


Place  and  date  of 
publication. 


Treatise  on  Manures.  12mo 

The  American  Shepherd ;  History  of  Sheep-BreeiUng, 

(fcc,  l'2mo 

Ten  Acres  Enough ;  showing  how  a  Small  Fai-m 

will  keep  a  Large  Family.  lOmo 

How  to  Get  a  Fai-m,  and  W'hcro  to  Find  One.  12mo. . 

Fanning  for  Boys.    Hlustrated.    16mo 

School  for  American  Grape  Culture.  lOmo 

Oatalo^io  of  the  Native  and  Naturalized  Plants  of 

North  America.  Svo 

The  Practical  Land  Drainer.  12mo 

Flowers  from  My  Garden.  4to 

My  Vineyard  atLake  A'iew.  12mo 

Scientilic  Treatise  ou  Agricultural  Chemistry.  12mo. 
Natural  History  of  New  York ;  with  Maps  of  the 

State.  15vols.,4to 

Natural  History  of  Birds.  2  vols.,  ISmo 

Natural  History  of  Insects.  2  vols.,  ISmo 

Natural  History  of  Quadrupeds,    18mo 

Fi-uit,  Flower,  aiul  Kitcheu  Garden.  12mo 

The  Salmon  Fisheriesof  tho  St.Lawreuce,  &.C.  12mo. . 

The  Flowering  Plants  and  Ferns  of  Ohio.  8vo 

Tho  Trapper's  Guide  :  Tho  Fur  Business,  &.c.  8vo  .. 
Boudoir  Botanv  ;  or  Parlor  Book  of  Flowers.  8vo  . . 

Flora  and  Outlines  of  Botany.  8vo 

The  New  England  Poultry  Breeder.  12mo 

Hlustrated  Botany 

Chemistry  of  the  Fai-m  and  Sea.  12mo .^ 

Hints  on  the  Daily  Duties  of  a  Housekeeper.  18mo. . 
On  Triiining  Cavalry  Horses ;  with  a  Chapter  on  Ra- 

rey's  Method.  12uio 

Th(*  Americ;ui  Angler's  Book.  8vo 

Details  of  Artificial  Fi.sh  Breeding.  8vo 

Elements  of  Scientific  Agriculture.  12mo 

Notes  for  Amcnc.au  Farmers.  8vo 

The  New  England  Cultivator 

The  Flora  of  Penusylv.ani.i.  ICmo 

Genera  of  North  Aauericiui  PLants  to  tho  yeai'  1817. 

2  vols.,  12nio 

Elementary  Treat  is©  ou  15otauy.  12nio .,^. . 

Ornithology  of  the.United  States  and  Canada.  2  void., 

12mo 

Description  of  tho  Forest  Trees  of  X.  Aiuerica,  not 

described  by  Michaux.  2  vols.,  8vo 

Outlines  of  th'^  Agricultural  Lectures  of  Tale.  Ifimo. . 
Origin  and  Varieties  of  tho  Chinese  and  African 

'   Sugar  Cane.  l-2mo 

W;ilkH  and  Talks  of  iin  American  Farmer  in  Eng- 
land. 12mo 

Onion  Culture,  Treatise  on.  Ifimo 

Onions :  How  to  Raise  tliem  Profitably ;  by  seven- 
teen Onion-growers.  8vo '. 

Orchardist's  ('ouijianion,  devoted  to  tho  Fniit-s  of 

the  United  St.ites.     4to 

Ou?  Summer  House,  and  What  was  Said  and  Done 

in  It 

Outlines  of  a  Plan  for  Establishing  a  State  Society 

of  Agriculture  in  PennsylvSnia.  8vo 


Philadelphia, 
Philadelphia, 
New  V(uk, 
I'hiladolphia, 
New  York, 

Philadelphia, 
New  York, 

Dublin, 

Philadelphia, 
New  York, 
New  York. 

New  York, 
New  York, 
New  York, 
New  York, 

Now  York, 

Baltimore, 
Philadelphia. 

New  York, 

New  York, 
New  York, 
Boston, 
St.  Louis, 


1848. 
1824. 
1852. 

1807. 
1867. 

1853. 
1868. 


1857. 
1857. 


1852. 
18C3. 
1864. 
1667. 

1867. 

1801. 

1S45. 

1864. 
1864. 

1868. 
1864. 


Lancaster,  Pa.,  1813. 

New  York,  1855. 

New  York,  1863. 

New  York,  1868. 

New  York,  1853. 

New  York,    1837-61. 

New  York. 

New  York. 

New  York. 

New  York, 

Montreal, 

Columbus, 

Wallingford,Ct.,1865, 

New  York. 

New  York, 

Boston. 

New  York. 

Boston. 

Philadelphia, 


1857. 
1857. 
1860. 


1848. 


1856 


New  York. 
Philadelphia, 
Pliiladelphia, 
New  Yoi-k, 
New  York, 
Boston, 


1862 
1664 

i8t;8. 

1851. 
1851. 
1852. 


Lewisbui-g,  Pa.,  1852. 


Philadelphia, 
Cambridge, 

Boston, 

Philadelphia. 
New  York, 

New  York, 

New  York, 
New  York, 

New  York, 

Philadelphia, 

Boston. 

Philadelphia, 


1817. 
1828. 


1660. 
1857. 


1852. 
1864. 


1868. 
1841. 


1794. 


WORKS  ON  AGRICULTCBE  AXD  BUBAL  ECONOMY. 


605 


jMoieam  vorirs  on  agriculture,  ^-e. — Continned. 


Xame  of  aathor. 


Title  and  description  of  worii. 


Place  and  date  of 
pdUiestkn. 


Packard,  Alpheos  S.  1r. 
Pardee,  P..  G 


Parkman.  P. 


Parsons,  S.  B . 


Persox,  Prof. 

Peters.  Kichard  . . . 
Pettibone,  Daniel . 


Phelps,  E-TT. 
Phelps,  B.  H. 


.  ■  Guide  to  the  Stndy  of  Insects-  8vo ■  Saleaa.  Mass- 

.'  Culture  of  the  Scrawberrr  acd  ether  Small  Fruiis.  I 

lisno I ■  XeT  Tort, 

.  The  Book  of  Ecs«:  Hoir  to  Cultivate.  Ac.  Svo i  Boston, 

The  Parior  Gardener:    A  Treatise  on  the  House  i 

Culmre  of  PLints ^ [  Boetoi, 

-•  The  Sose ;  its  Historr.  Poetry.  Culture,  and  Classi-  j 

fication.  ISmo " I iXewTork, 

.  Xew  Process  for  the  Cultnre  of  the  Vine.  li^no ■  Xew  York. 

.'  Agiictiltural  Enquiri'fs  on  Plaster  of  Paris.  Svo Philadelphia, 

.  Economy  of  Fuel ;  irith  E^moxks  on  Ventilation,  Jcc 

8vo PhiladfJiJiia. 

Bee-Keej:-?r"s  C!:  :-t :  ManageTKentic.  of  Bees.  12mo.  -  Keir  York, 


Phin,  John. 


The  V: 
Win:  : 


-lie  in  the  United  States  and 


Hartfind, 


Prince.  Wm.  E. 
Do 


Do 

Do 

Purdr  i  John^n  . . 

Qtiin6j-,M 

l>nincy.  Josiah '. 

Kafinesqne,  C.  S 

Do 

Do ■:. 


Rafinesque,  F. 


Do 

K:md,  Eiward  S.,  jr 

Do 

Do 

EandaO.  S.  H 

Do 

Do 

F.anleu,  Wm.H.... 
Redd,  George 


Eeddir^Ton.  D... 
Eeemelin,  Chas . . . 

Do 

Reid,  David  B... 
Richardson,  H.  D . 


PJlev,  Harvev . . 
FJicK  John  V . 


Roberts,  Job 

EobLnson,  Scion . 
Do 


Rodger?.  iL  M . 


Roessle,  T?ieopMIn3 . 

Roosevelt.  E.  B 

Rowlands'DD.  Thcs. . . 
Raliin.  Edcitind 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Vo 

Do 


Euschecberjer.  W.  5.  W. 

Do...  

Do 

R'-'.ttan,  Henry 

Salsburr-.  J.  H 

S-iimdefs,  Simon  ll 

Saunders,  William 


"Tie ;  and  Mannfacture  of  TTine.  I 

1      !-   jXewTork, 

I  P"--.  1  Farm,  Instmctioa  in.  -Ito i  2*  ew  Tork. 

iPo-.:.  ■   j^      k;:  Treatise  on  the  Breeding,  &c,,  of  I 

Dj-.c5r:c  FowLsw  12iao 'Boston. 

I  Prairie  Farmer.  Agrictiltnral  and  H(HTicalniial  Ad- 
vertiser. l-Jmo I  Chicaeo. 

..   Treatise  on  Horticnltnre.  svo I  Xe-sr  York. 

. .,  Treat Lse  on   the  Vine  and  Maiiagement  of  Vine- 1 

yards.  Svo j  Xew  York, 

. .  Pomological MannaL  8to jXeirYork, 

.-  Manual  of  aie  Cultare  of  Eoses.  evo jXewYorfc, 

...  Th>-  >n;:.'.l  x irit  Instructor.  12mo PalmTxa,  N.  T., 

.."'1  -  of  Bee-Keeprng  Explained.  I iiBO ■  ^fewYotk, 

.-c  E  _z  Cattle.  Sto f  Boston. 

..A:  ,:;-.ial  of  the  Grape  Vine.  12mo !  Philadelphia, 

. .!  ILiii'.Lii  OS  ihd Mulherry  Tree,  l^mo Philadelphia, 

. .  Natural  History  of  the  "Eiver  Ohio  and  ita  Tributary  i 

I     Streams,  dvo Lexington,  Ky., 

. .  Medical  Flora :  The  Medical  Botany  of  the  United  | 

Stales.    2  vols.,  lilmo ;  Philadelphia, 

■  -  Flora  of  the  State  of-Lonisiana.  ^to [XeirYork, 

..  Flowers  for  tiie  Parior  and  Garden.  ISiuo |  Boston, 

..  Garden  Flo-xers :  Howto  Cidtivate  Them,  libno {Boston, 

. .  t>n  Hardy  and  Tender  Bulbs  and  Tubers.  ICnto Bo6t<Hi, 

..  Sheep  Hu-sbandry  of  the  South,  evo t  Philadelphia, 

. .  Fine  Wool  Sheep  Husbandry.  Svo }  Xew  York, 

..  The  Practical  Shepherd.  r>io !  Kochesto-. X.Y., 

. .  Desifms  for  Cottages  and  ViUas.  iJ  vok.,  -Jto j  Xew  York, 

. .,  Treatise  on  Fertilizing  Poor  and  Exhausted  LandsL 

?vo Winchester. Va., 

. .  Essav  on  Grai>e  Culture  and  Wine.  l-2nM> PeekskilL  X.  Y^ 

-   The  N  ine-Dr«ser'3  ManuaL  15mo '  Xe'W  York, 

..  The  Wine-Maker"s  MannaL  lemo i  Cii:cinnati. 

. .  Ventilation  in  American  Dweliinss.  evo j  Xew  York, 

.,  Treatise  on  Domestic  Fowls  and  C>mamental  Poul- ) 

try.  l-3mo ,  Xeir  York, 

.   Treatise  on  the  Mole,  l-imo t  Xew  York, 

.  The    Ameiican   Architect :   Designs  for  Cotmtry  | 

Houses.  4to .J? j  Xew  York, 

.   The  Penusylv.inia  Fanner.  l-?mo i  Phiiadet^iia, 

.  Guano  :  How  to  use  itto  the  Best  advantage,  tvo..}  2few  York, 
.   Facts  ior  Farciers :  about  -Ajnmals,  Buiidings.,  ic.  j 

^  t'vo !Xe\rYork, 

.  Scientinc  Agricnltui* ;  or  Chemistry  applied  to  it.  I 

'    12mo ." :  Rochester,  X.Y., 

.'  Treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  Celerv.  8to Albanv. 

.  •  The  Game  Birds  of  the  ^  orthem  States.  12mo i  Xew  York. 

.'  The  Sheep  Breeder's  Guide.  12mo t  San  Francisco, 

.   Essay  on  Calcareous  itiuitires.  evo Petersburg,  Va., 

.  RejK>rt  on  Agricaitnral  Survey  of  S.  Carolina.  *vo..   rolnnibia."S.  C, 

.  Premium  Essay  on  Agricultural  Edaoation.  evo '  Richmond, 

.  Essays  and  Xotes  on  Agricaituie.  Bmo j!  Eichmond, 

.  Drainage  and  other  cotsnected  Agricultural  Suojects- 

^  evo r [  Richmond, 

.  Sketches  of  Lower  Xorth  Carolina  and  the  sinilar  , 

adjacent  lands,  tvo I  Ealeigh, 

Kural  Eambles ;  or   about  Flowers,  Birds,  and  In-  j; 

setts ■  Boston, 

. ,  Treatise  on  XaturrJ  History.  2  vols.,  Svo Philadelphia, 

.  Treatise  on  Eotaav.  Svo.-.T :  Philadelphia, 

.,  Treatise  on  Geology.  Svo Philadelphia, 

.  Ventilation  and  Warmine  of  Buildings.  8to Xew  York.' 

.  An  Analysis  of  the  A -■ "      — -- JLilvanv.  ^ 

.   Treatise  "on  the  Prei- :                    -  of  Poultry.  12mo  -  -  Xew  York, 
.  Both  Si.ies  of  the  Gr  ^ '  Xew  York. 


16&I. 
1B66. 

18G& 

1837. 

1T9T. 

leiaL 

1B5S. 
18GS. 


lasr. 
Ia25. 

1S30. 

isa. 

1816. 

i8e& 
laes. 

186& 
1^30. 
1839. 

18901 

1317. 
1863. 
18G6L 
1867. 
1849. 

lasa. 

Id63. 

1S4T. 

1809 
1S66. 
1S53. 
1^8. 
165s. 

i?-v;. 

1867. 

1S52. 
I8M. 
1833. 

1867. 

1S«. 
ISW. 
1566. 
1861. 
ISti 
1643. 
1S53. 
1S55. 

1337. 

1^1. 

1^3. 
1^0. 
1830. 
1830. 
186^ 
1S30. 
1865. 
1860. 


606 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


Avierican  vcorks  on  Agriculture,  4'C. — Continued. 


Vhme  of  author. 


Title  and  description  of  -work. 


Place  and  dat*  of 
pnblicatioiL 


Say,  Thomnfl 

Say  ere,  Edward. 


1821 


American  Entomology.  3  Tola.,  8vo !  Philadelphia,, 

Treatise  on  the  Cultare  of  the  Cactus  and  Dahlia- 

Ismo y. - I  Boston, 

American  Flower  Garden  Companion.  12mo i  Cincinnati, 

American  Gardener's  Companion.  12iqo ,  Boston. 

Ilaiyl-Book  oil  the  Cultiu-e  of  Tobacco.  ISmo ,  Xew  York, 

Tiie  ri.iniener's  ComiiKt«  Text-Boiik.  18mo I  Boston, 

The  Kitchen  Gardeners  Directory.  Igmo '  Boston. 

Essay  on  a  New  System  <'f  Grape  Cnlture i  Bloomiagton,IIL,ld6& 

Horizontal  Plowing  and  HiU-Sidt'  Pitfhinp 

Fishing:  in  American  Waters  ;  170  Illnstrations.  12moi  Xew  York,  18G8, 

Ajniric.in  Cottage  .ind  Villa  Architecture.  4to '  Xew  York,  18S0. 

The  Pknter'8  Guide,  fvo i  Charleston,  S.C.,  1849. 

Horse  Portraitare:  Breeding  and  Training  Trotters.  '• 

l-2mo Xew  York. 

Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry.  12mo '  Philadelphia. 

Christm.i.s  Gift  to  the  Young  Fanners  of  the  U.  S. . .  i  V.'.ishinpton, 

The  IJv.ilder's  Pocket  Curupaaion.  16mo ,  Philadelphia, 

The  Potato  Plant ;  its  Uses,  Diseases,  and  Oultira- 

tinn...... Xew  York, 

Smith.  Charles  H I  Lan<iscape  Gardening;  with  additions  by  L.r.AJlen..  Xew  York, 

Smith,  Goodrich  E The  Economy  of  Farming Xew  York, 


Po 

Do 

Saxton,  CM.. 
Sthenck.  P.  A. 

Do 

SchKwder,  H-. 
Scosby,  X.  T  . . 
Scott,  Geuio  C 
Sidney.  J.  C... 

Simons 

Simpson,  J.  C . 

Skinner,  F.  G . 
Skinner.  J.  S . . 
Sm*^aton,  A.  C 
Smee,  Alfred . 


1839. 
133Jt. 

1863. 
1851. 

ie5L 


1867. 
164L 

isqp. 


Smith,  J.  A. 
Smith,  J.  E. 
Smith,  J.  V.  C 


Smith.  L.  T 

Spooner,  Alden. 

Spnrriers 

Sqnier,  E.  G 


Stafford.  J.  K 


Stansburv 

t^tarr,  AV."H 

St«pbeud,  Henry. 


St«wart,  F.  L.. 
Stewart,  John. 


Stockardt,  J.  A. . 

Storer,  D.  H 

Strong,  A.  B 


Strong.  W.  C 

.Sumner.  John 

Sutherland.  J.  "\V. 
Suydam.  James. . 
Swane,  Samoel... 

Do 

Swanwick,  John. 


Taylor,.;.  O 

Tegtemeier 

Thacber,  James. . 

Do 

Tlia«r,  Albrecht. 

Thomas,  John  J.. 


Do 

Ik, 

Thomas,  John  J. . 
Thcrburn,  Grant. 
Thoroan,  H.  D.... 


Do 

Thorpe.  T.  B 

Thornton,  P 

Thurber,  George. 


TineHi,  Lewis. 


Todd.  S.  Edwards. 

Do 

Torrey.  John 


1847. 
1967, 
184X 
1860. 
1822. 


Pioduetive  Farming j  Xew  York, 

The  Grammar  of  Botany j  Xew  York, 

Xaiiiral  Histoiy  of  the  Fishes  of  Massachusetts.: 

l-.Tno ". I  Boston.  1533. 

The  American  F.irrier's  Xew  liand-Book |  Piiiladelphia. 

The  Piopcr  Cnltiv.ition  of  the  Grape  Vine,  12mo...;  Bn-oklyn,  1S46. 

The  I*r.nctical  Farmer,  c^o 1  'Wortt'ster,  Ms.,  1792. 

Tropical  Fibers :  their  Production  and  Economical  i 

Extraction.    l-2mo Xew  York,  1861. 

On    the    Production  and  Manofactore  of  Cereal  | 

Grains,  fvo Cleveland.  Ohio,  1S48. 

Chines*- Sugar-Cane.  Sugar-Making,  &c Xew  York,  1657. 

The  Cranberry  Cult trrist  1-imo Xew  London,  1060. 

The  Bciek  of"  the  Farm ;  with  notes  by  J.  S.  Skin- 
ner. 2  vols.,  &to Xew  York,  1?46. 

A  Treatise  on  Sorghum  and  its  Products.  12mo..i  Philadelphia,  1667. 
The  Stable  P.ook;  with  additions  by  A.  B.  AUen;  j 

I&uo r I  Xew  York.  1855. 

Cherjical  Field  Lectures  for  Aericulturiste,  liimo..   Cambridge,  1851. 

History  of  the  Fishes  of  Mas..saciir.setl3.    4to Boston,  1853-67. 

American    Flora:    Historv    of   Plants    and   "Wild 

Flowers.  4  vols.,  4to ". X'ew  York,  1853. 

Treatise  t.n  the  < 'ulture  of  the  Grape.  12too PK»eton.  1866. 

Treatise  on  Physiologic;  1  and  Systematic  Bt'tany..   Hartford,  li20. 

A  Xew  Methfid  of  Traini.ng  Hom-s.  16mo '...'■  Harvard.  HL,  1667. 

Treatise  on  the  Grape  A'ine.  l-2mo Xew  York,  1857. 

Oiiginal  Designs  for  Cottages,  Villas.  2  toLs '  PhiLidelpMa,  1854. 

American  Houses:  a  variety  of  Designs  for.   Bvo Philadelphia,  1868 

A  PliiTi  for  Tncre.ising  the  Value  of  Farms  in  Mid-  ' 

die  and  Western  Peujisylvania.  evo [PhiladelpMa,]  1800. 

The  American  Farml-iook ,  Philadelphia. 

The  Gr^neral  Character  of  the  Dog.  16mo i  Philadelphia,  1897. 

Arat^ii  :  a  Series  of  Agricultural  Essays.  16mo j  Pettrsbur^^'a.,  lei? 


The  F.aniiers  School  Book T !  Ithaca,  X.'^jr., 

The  Book  of  Poultry Xew  York, 


The  Ajtirrican  Orchardist.  12mo 

A  Practical  Ti  i  atise  on  Bees.  12mo , 

Principles  of  Agrictilt-ure ;  translateid  from  the  Grer- 

mau.  evo 

On  the  Con.struction  of  Farm  Imijlements  and  Ma^ 

chinerv.   ICmo 

On  t>»- (Silr:ir.  ,,f  Fr.i'  Tr:  .  «   iCmo 


Boston, 
Boston, 

Xew  York, 

Xew  York, 
Xew  York, 

iv^mo Xew  York, 

>s.  l-.too Pochester,  X. Y.jlS68. 


1634. 

1867. 
1822. 

1829. 

1941. 

1854. 

1854. 
1967. 


G'  ^ „....„.        _..tndar.  12mo i  Xew  York, 

A  (Vurk  on  the  Conconl  and   M(.rriniao  Rivers.  ' 
12mo i  Boston, 

W,-.!.:.-:.   .,-Tm,>  i-i  :•,.  -iK'-wxis.  12mo I  Boston. 

T:  -    ]2mo ^XewYork. 

T  1  Keport  Book.  12mo '  Camden,  S. 

[i;  -  ■  ^  the  Cultare,  Cnr- 


Xew  York, 
Xew  York, 


:  Culture.  12mo., 
?nltivating,  Har- 

?vo j  Xew  York, 

lis.,  r2mo !  Xew  York, 

Xew  York, 


TL.  -..„     ,...„;. 12mo.     ._.     

Cataiogiie  of  Pljuits  within  thirty  mUea  of  Xew 
York,  12mo , 


IcSl. 

1849. 
16G4. 
1654, 
1840. 

1968. 
1837. 

18C3. 
1867. 
1868. 


Xew  York,         1819. 


WOKKS    ON    AGRICULTUKE    AND    EUKAL    ECONOMY.  607 

American  tcorks  on  agriculture,  4'C- — Continued. 


Kame  of  author. 


Title  and  descriptioii  of  ■work. 


Date  and  place  of 
publication. 


Torxey.  John 

TTimble,  Isaac  P 

Tuckerman,  Edward. 


Turner.  .T.A. 
Twaniley,  J.. 


Van  Zandt.  H.  B 

Tau;h.iii,  Daniel 

Taux.  Calrert 

VernoD.  William  H. . 
Volney.  C.  F.  C 

Wailes.  B.  L.  C 

Wallace,  J.  H 

Warder.  J.  A 

Do 

Do 


Waring.  George  E.,  jr 


":go 

Do 


\7aring.  W.  G 

Washington,  George. 


Waterhouse.  Bcniamin. 

Watson,  Alex.'uiier 

Watson.  Elkiinali 

Weeks.  J.  M 

Do 

Wells.  Da\id  A 


Wljeeler,  Gervase. 


Do 

"Wheeler.  Talbors.  J. 
AVTiite,  Wniiani'  !> . . . 


"ViTiitmarah,  S 

Wi>:ciu8.  M.  A 

wm.^d,X.  A 

■Williamson,  Hugh.. 

Willis.  K.  P 

Wilson,  AlexrJider. 

Wilson,  Miss  H 


WU.^on.  W 

Winter.  Thomas. 
Wilt.  Mrs.  E.  W. 
WitherUl.  C.  il.. 
Wood.  Alpbonso. 

Do 

Wood,  J.  G 


Woodruff.  Hiram 

Woodward,  G.E.andT.W.. 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do ,. 

Woodward,  G.  E.,  and  E.  (>. 

Thowp.'on 

Woodworth.  F.  O 

Worthington,  W.  H 


Youatt.  Willi-un. 
Do 


Do. 
Do. 


Flora  of  the  !jrorthem  .-uid  Middle  States.  Svo 

The  Insect  Enemi«>3  of  Fruit  .and  Fruit  Trees.  4to. 
The  Lichens  of  the  Northern  States  and  British 

America.   8vo 

The  Cotton  Plantc rs  ilanual.   l-2mo 

Dairying    Exempliticd :  Cheese   Making   and   the 

I      Chee.-*e  Tra'le.    l;nio 

Description  of  the  Milit.iry  L.inds  of  Illinois.  Svo.. 

A  ]S'ew  System  of  Vegetable  Physiology.  Svo 

Desigms  for  Villas  and  C»>ttages.   tvo 

Treatise  on  the  Mulbfrr\-  and  SUk  Worm.  12mo 

A  View  of  the  Soil  and  Climate  of  the  UnitedStates. 

8  vo 

The  ^Agriculture  and  GJ*ology  of  MississippL  Svo.. 

The  American  Stud  Book.  Svo 

Treatise  on  Hedges  and  Evergreen.".  lOmo 

Treatise  on  American  Pomology.  ICmo 

Xotes  to  Du  Briel's  Treatise  "on  Grape  Culture. 

l-2mo 

The  Elements  of  Agriculture.  12mo 

Draining  for  Profit  and  for  Health.  ISmo 

Earth  Closets;  how  to  make  and  how  to  use  them. 

ISmo 

The  Fruit  Grower's  Hand-IVwk.  12mo 

Lettei-s  on  Agricnlrare  to  Arthur  Young  and  Sir 

John  Sinclair.  4lo 

Treati.se  on  Bt^tany.   12mo 

The  American  Home  Giirdener;  illustrated.  ICmo.. 
History  of  Moaeru  Agricultural  Societies,  ic.,  .--vo.. 

Treatise  uu  the  Management  of  Bees.  16mo 

The  Western  Fanner  and  Gardener 

The  Year  Book  of  Agiiciiltxire :  Annals  of  Agricul- 

tuTitl  Progress.  &c.   Svo 

Wesrem  ACTicnlturist,  (The.)  and  Practical  Farm- 

ers's  Guide.  Ifinti 

Homes  for  the  People  in .  Suburb  and   Country. 

IJnio-... 

.1  Houses  suited  to  American  Conntry  Life.   12mo 

.    Cotton  Cultui-e  in  America  and  India,  limo 

.    Gardening  for  the  South;  how  to  grow  vegetables 

and  iruits.  l-2mo 

.   Treatise  on  the  Mulberry  Tree  and  Silk  Worm. 

I      IStao 

- 1  The  Farmer's  Instrnctor 

-  j  Essays  on  Agriculture 

-  Observations  on  tho  American  Climate.   Sro 

.    Oni-Doors  at  Idie^vild.  12mo 

.1  Xatiual  History  of  the  Birds  of  the  United  Slates. 

9  vols.,  folio 

-  Chronicle  of  a  Garden;  its  Pets  and  Pleasures. 
I      lOmo 

-i  Economy  of  the  Kitchen  Garden.  1-Jmo 

-I  Treatise  on  the  Culttire  of  Flowers,  l-^mo 

-i  Flora's  Guide  and  Dictionary 

Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Vinegar 

Class  Book  in  Botany.  l-2mo 

First  Lessons  in  Botany.   lOmo 

Homes  without  Hands :"  a  Description  of  the  Habi- 
tations of  AniaiaU 

The  Trotting  Horse  of  America.  12mo 

Country  Homes;  with  150  designs  and  plans,  limo. 

Designs  for  Corwges.  Farm  Tlou.-'fi-.  ice  limo 

Annual  of  Archifecture  and  Kural  Ait.  lOmo 

Graperies  and  Horticultural  Buildings.  l-2mo 

Kecord  of  Horticulture :  edit  cd  by  A.  &.  Fuller.  l-2mo . 

Kational  Architect;  with  1.000  designs.  4to |  Xew  Yosk. 

Stf  ries  about  Birds  and  Animals,  l-'mo Boston, 

The  Horse  Ductor   and  Horseman's   Companion.  ] 

liJmo j  Cinciunari, 

Treatise  on  the  Dog :  edited  by  E.  J.  Lewis.  12mo. .'  New  York, 
E.«.Siiv  on  the  Horse,  Ass,  and  Mule :  edited  by  J.  S.  j 

Skinner.  Svo j  Philadelphia, 

Treatise  on  Cattle :   edited  by  A.  Stevens.  Viaio ITew  York, 

Treatise  on  the  Horse  :  revised  and  enlarged  by  AV.  i 

Watson.  8vo ". ,  i^ew  York, 


2Cew  York. 

Xew  York, 
I 
I  Cambridge. 

Xew  York, 

\  Providence, 
Wjishington, 
i  Cincinnati, 
I  New  York, 
.  Providence, 

I  Philadelphia. 
I  Philadelphia, 
I  Xew  York, 
.  New  York, 
]  New  York, 
I 

'  Cincinnati, 

New  York, 

.  New  York, 

:  New  York, 
.  Boalsburg,  Pa., 

jWashington, 
j  Boston, 
:  New  York. 
'  New  York, 
I  Boston. 
i  Cincinnati. 

'  Philadelphia, 

I  Cincinnati, 

New  York, 

New  "Tork, 
New  York, 

New  York, 


1S24. 
1865. 

1S48 
1857. 

i-ise. 

1S13. 
1843. 
1857. 
18-24. 

1804. 
1854. 
1867. 
ISoS. 
1667. 

1S67. 
1854. 
lSc7. 

1868. 
1851. 

1847. 
1811. 

18-20. 
1840. 


1856. 

1S30. 

1866. 
1S68. 
1S66. 

16^. 

1S34. 


Philadelphia, 

Baltimore. 

Linle  Falls,  N.Y..'59. 

New  York,  1811. 

New  York,  1854. 

PhiUdelphia,  1808-25. 


'  New  York, 
New  York, 

'  Cincinnati, 
Baltimore. 

'  New  York. 

:  New  York, 
New  York. 


1864. 
1^28. 
1843. 


1860. 


New  York,  1866. 

New  Y'ork,  1368. 

New  York,  1868. 

New  York,  1868. 

New  York,  1868. 

New  York,  1863. 


1658. 
1847. 


1848 
1851 


1867. 


AGRICULTURAL  AND  HORTICULTURAL  PERIODI- 
CALS. 


A^IEKICA^'  Ageictxtueist,  Ivew  Yolk  City.  Moatlily,  $1  50  per  au- 
uuin.  Oraugc  Jiuld  &  Co.,  piiblisliai'S  and  proi)rietors.  George  Thur- 
ber,  managing  eilitor,  assisted  by  Mason  C.  Weld,  Joseph  Harris, 
George  E.  Waring,  jr.,  Wm.  Cliit,  Wm.  A.  Fiteh,  Frederick  Miineh,  and 
Carlos  Keidel. 

AJ)kIEEICA^'  Bee  Jouenal,  Wasliiugton,  D.  C.  Montlily,  $1  per  annum. 
Samuel  Wagner,  editor  and  publisher. 

.\3iEBiCAN  Entomologist,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Monthly,  $1  per  annum. 
E.  r.  Studley  &  Co.,  publishers.  Benjamin  D.  Walsh  and  C.  Y. 
Kiley,  editors. 

Ameeica^'Fak:mee,  Baltimore.  Md,  Monthly, $2  per  annum.  Worth- 
in  gt  on  &  Lewis,  publishers. 

Ameeican  Fae:mee,  Tioehester,  N.  Y.  Monthly,  $1  i)er  annum.  John 
E,  Garret  see  «S:  Co.,  publishers.    John  E.  Garretsee,  editor. 

Ameeicax  Stock  Jouenal,  Parkesburg,  Pa.  Monthly,  .$1  per  an- 
num. X.  P.  Buyer  &  Co.,  «*ditors  and  proprietors.  A.  Marshall, 
associate  editor. 

Bee  Keepee's  Jouenal  and  Agetoultueax  Eepositob v.  Nevada, 
Ohio.  ]\[onthly,  $1  per  auunm.  H.  A.  King  &  Co.,  i>ublishers.  II. 
A.  King  and  ]\Irs.  E.  S.  Tupper,  editors. 

Boston  Cultitatob,  Boston,  Mass.  AVeekly,  $2  50  per  annum.  Otis 
Brewer,  publisher  and  proprietor. 

Califoenia  Faemee,  San  Francisco.  Cal.  Weekly,  $5  i)er  annum. 
Warren  &  Co.,  publishers.     Colonel Warren,  editor. 

Caeolina  Faemee,  Wilmington.  X.  C.  ]\routhIy,  $2  per  auniuu.  Wm. 
H.  Bernard,  editor  and  i)roprietor.     E.  K.  Bryan,  associate  editor. 

Centeal  Union  Ageicultueist  A^■D  Missouei  Yalley  Faemee, 
Omaha,  Xeb.  ]Monthly,  $2  per  annum.  Jeremiah  Behm,  editor  and 
proprietor. 

Chautauqua  Faemer,  Dunkirk,  X.  Y.  Weekly,  $1  per  annum.  J. 
M.  Lake,  publisher. 

COL^IAN'S    EUEAL    WOELD     AJS'D    YALLEY     FAKMEB.    St.    Louis,    Mo. 

Weekly.  $2  i)er  annum.    Xorman  J.  Colman,  editor  and  proprietor. 

William  Muir  and  C.  ^Y.  Murtlcldt,  associate  editors. 
CouNTR-i-^iAN,  (The,)  Cincinnati,  O.   Monthly,  $150  per  annum.  Charles 

S.  Bui-nett,  publisher. 
CuLTiTATOE  AND  CouNTEY  Gentle:\ian,  Albany,  New  York.    Weekly, 

$2  50  per  annum.    Luther  Tucker  &  Son,  pub'lishe*^  and  proprietors. 

Luther  Tucker,  Luther  H.  Tucker,  and  John  J.  Thomas,  editors. 
Dietz's  Expeediental  Faem  Jouenal,  Chambersburg,  Pa.    Monthly, 

$1  50  ])er  amuim.     G.  A.  Deitz,  editor  and  publisher. 
Dixie  Faemee,   Columbia,   Tenn.     Weekly,  $3  per   annum.     Paul, 

Taval  &  nnnner,  publishers.     Hunter  Nicholson,  editor. 
Farm  and  Garden,  Clinton,  S.  C.    Monthly,  $1  per  annum.    Wm.  P. 

Jacobs,  editor.     James  E.  Jacobs  &  Co.,  publishers. 
Farmer's  Gazette  and  Intdustrial  Int)ex,  Eichmond,  Ya.    Monthly, 

$1  per  annum.     S.  Bassett  French,  eclitor  and  proprietor. 


AGKICUTURAL    ANT>   HOKTICL^LTrjRAL   PERIODICALS.  609 

Far:mer\s  Home  Journal,  Lexiuj,^toii,  Ky.  AVeekly,  $3  per  anniim. 
James  J.  Miller,  editor  aud  proprietor. 

Far:5IER's  Union,  Minneapolis,  Minn.  3Ioutlily,  50  cents  per  amnmi. 
W.  A.  Ximochs,  publisher.    John  H.  Stevens,  editor. 

FAR5I  Journal,  Chambersbm-cr,  Pa.  Moutlilv,  25  cents  per  annum. 
H.  S.  Gilbert  .fc  Co.,  publisliers. 

Gardener's  Monthly,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Monthly,  $2  per  annum. 
Brinckloe  &  Marot,  publishers.    Thomas  Meehan,  editor. 

GER3LiNT0\rx  TELEGRArH,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Weekly,  82  per  annum. 
Philip  R.  Freas,  editor  and  proprietor. 

Grape  Cultltzist,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  3Ionthly,  $2  per  annum.  George 
Husmann,  i^roprietor. 

Heahth  ANT)  Ho^iE,  Xew  York  City.  Weekly,  Si  per  annum.  Pettin- 
gill.  Bates  &  Co.,  publishers.  Donald  G.  Mitchell  and  Harriet  Beecher 
Stowe,  editors.  Joseph  B.  Lyman  and  ]Mary  E.  Dodge,  associate 
editors. 

Home,  Farm,  and  Orchard,  Xewburg,  X.  Y.  Weekly,  $1  per  annum. 
A.  A.  Bensel  &  Son,  editors  and  publishers. 

Horticulturist  and  Farz^ier,  De  Soto,  Mo.  Semi-monthly,  $1  50 
per  annum.     Gardner  &  Co.,  publishers.     O.  A.  A.  Gardner,  editor. 

Horticltlturist.  (The.)  New  York  City.  Monthly,  82  50  per  anmmi. 
F.  W.  Woodward,  publisher.    Henry  T.  Williams,  editor  and  proprietor. 

Iowa  Homestead  ant)  Western  Farm  Journal.  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 
Weekly,  $2  per  annum.    Wm.  Duane  Wilson,  editor  and  publisher. 

Journal  of  Ag-ricultltie,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Weekly,  2  per  annum. 
L.  D.  Morse  &  Co.,  publishers  and  proprietors.    L.  D.  Morse,  editor. 

Journal  of  the  Farm,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Monthly,  50  cents  per 
annum.    Baugh  &  Sons,  publishers. 

Kansas  Fae:mer,  Leavenworth,  Kansas.  Semi-monthly,  61  per  an- 
num.    G.  T.  Anthony,  editor  and  publisher. 

3Iaint:  Farmer,  Augusta,  Me.  Weekly,  82  per  annum.  S.  L.  Board- 
man,  editor. 

Marylantd  FAR3IER,  Baltimore,  Md.  Monthly,  $1  50  per  annum. 
S.  Sands  MiUs  &  Co.,  publishers  and  proprietors. 

3IASSACHUSETTS  PL0UGH3IAN,  Boston,  Mass.  Weekly,  82  50  per 
annum.     George  Xoyes,  publisher  and  proprietor. 

MiNN^ESOTA  Monthly,  St.  Paul,  Minn.  82  per  annum.  D.  A.  Ilob- 
ertson,  editor  and  proprietor. 

Mirror  axd  Farmer,  Manchester,  X.  H.  Yv^eekly,  $1  50  per  an- 
num.   John  B.  Clarke,  ei^litor  and  i)roprietor. 

Michigan  Farrier  ant)  State  Journal  of  Agriculture,  Detroit, 
Mich.  Weekly,  82  per  annum.  Johnstone  &  Gibbons,  publish- 
ers.   B.  F.  Johnstone,  editor. 

Model  Farrier,  Corinth,  Miss.  Semi-monthly,  82  per  annum.  Key 
&  Bare,  publishers.     Thomas  J.  King,  ctlitor.' 

MooRES  EuRAL  Xew  YoRKER,  Xew  York  City  and  Pochestcr,  X.  Y. 
Weekly,  83  per  annum.  D.  D.  T.  Moore,  editor  and  proprietor. 
Chas.  D.  Bragdon,  G.  F.  Wilcox,  and  A.  A.  Hopkins,  associate  editors. 
Henry  S.  PtandaU,  editor  of  department  of  sheep  husbandly ;  A. 
Willard,  editor  of  department  of  dairy  husbandry ;  and  Daniel  Lee, 
southern  corresponding  editor. 

National  Agricultltjist  antd  Pen^nsylvania  Farm  Joltinal,  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.  3Ionthly,  81  per  annimi.  James  M.  Kuester,  etlitor  and 
publisher. 

is^EW  England  Farmer,  Boston,  Mass.    Monthly.  81 50  per  annum. 
E.  P.  Eaton  &  Co.,  pubhshers.    Simon  Brown  and  S.  Fletcher,  editors. 
39 


610  AGEICULtUEAL   REPORT. 

jS'ew  ExGLA^ro  FAE^kEER,  Bostoii,   Mass.     Weekly,  $2  50  per  annum. 

R.  P.  Eatou  &  Co.,  publishers.     Simon  Brown,  agTicnltural  editor. 

S.  Fletclier,  assistant  editor.    R.  P.  Eaton,  general  editor. 
New  E>^GLAisD   H03IESTEAD,   Spring-field    and  2:Tortliampton,  Mass. 

Monthly,  75  cents  per  annum.    Henry  M.  Burt  &  Co.,  editors  and 

publishers. 
Kew  ExglaivD   Homestead,  Spring-field   and   I^orthampton,  Mass. 

Weekly,  82  50  per  annum.    Hemy  M.  Burt  &  Co.,  editors  and  pub- 
lishers. 
KoETiTEEN  Faeimer,  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis.    Monthly,  81  25  per  annum. 

Fred.  D.  Carson,  publisher  and  proprietor. 
]1sorthwesteenFar3IER,  Indianapolis,  Ind., and  Chicago,  Fd.    Monthly, 

81  50  per  annum.    Northwestern  Farmer  Co.,  publishers. 
Ohio  Farrier,  Cleveland,  O.    Weekly,  82  per  annum.    S.  O.  Harris  and 

G.  E.  Blakeslee,  editors.    Mrs.  Helen  L.  Bostwick,  corresponding  editor. 
Our  FRIE^^^  ajnD  Co:\ipa:xion,  Goodhue,  Minn.    Monthly,  50  cents  pel 

annum.    Harrison  Lowater,  publisher. 
Practical   Far:\ier  and    Rural  Advertiser,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Monthly,  81  per  annum.    Paschall    Morris,  editor  and  proprietor. 

Horatio  Crane,  assistant  editor. 
Prairie  Far:mer,  Chicago,  m.   Weekly,  82  per  annum.   Prairie  Farmer 

Co.,  publishers.    Henry  D.  Emery,  "W.  W.  Corbett,  H.  T.  Thomas, 

and  Rodney  Welch,  editors. 
Reconstructed  Farzmer,  Tarboro',  N.  C.    Monthly,  82  per  annum 

Thigi)en  &  Dancy,  editors  and  proprietors. 
Record  axd  Farjder,  Brattleboro',  Vt.    Weekly,  $2  50  per  annum 

E.  P.  &  A,  C.  Ackerman,  editors  and  publishers. 
Rural  ^\3ierican,  New  York  City ;  (Post  Office  address :  New  Bruns 

wick,  N.  J.)  Monthly,  81  50  per  annum.    T.  B.  ]\Iiner,  editor  and  pro 

prietor. 
Rural  Buckeye,  Chillicothe,  O.    Semi-monthly,  $1  50  per  annum, 

The  Rural-Printing  Co.,  publishers.    Samuel  L.  Leffingwell,  editor. 
Rural  Gentleman,  Baltimore,  Md.    Monthly,  81  per  annum.    J.  B 

I^obuison  &  Co.,  publishers.    Frank  L.  Morling,  editor. 
Rural  Hoz^'IE,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.    Monthly,  50  cents  per  annum. 
Ruralist,  Cincinnati,  Ohio.    Monthly,  81  per  annum.    J.  S.  Sheppard, 

I)ublisher. 
Rural  Southerner,  Atlanta,  Ga.    Monthly,  81  per  annum.    M411er 

&  Bailey,  imblishers.     Samuel  A.  Echols,  editor. 
Rural  West  and  Weeely  Journal,  Quiucy,  111.    T.  M.  Rogers,  edi- 
tor and  publisher. 
Small  Fruit  Recorder  and  Cottage  Gardener,  Palmyra,  N.  Y. 

Monthly.     Purdy  &  Johnston,  editors. 
Sorgo  Journal  and   Far3I  Machinist,  Cincinnati,   O.    Monthly, 

50  cents  per  annimi.    Blymyer.  Norton  &  Co.,  publishers  and  pro- 
prietors.    William  Clough,  editor. 
Southern  Culth^ator,  Athens,  Ga.    Monthly,  $2  per  annum.    AVm. 

&  W.  L.  Jones,  editors  and  proprietors.    D.  Redmond,  Areola,  La., 

corresponding  editor. 
Southern  Horticulturist  and  Monthly  Journal,  Yazbo  City, 

■Miss.    Monthly,  82  ]ier  annum.    H.  A.  Swasey,  editor  and  proprietor. 
Southern  Far'^ier,  Memphis,  Teim.    Monthly,  82  per  annum.    W. 

Phillips  &  Co.,  i)roprietors.     Dr.  M.  W.  Phillips,  editor ;  assisted  b^^ 

Prof.  E.  \V.  Hilgard,  P.  J.  Berkmans,  Geo.  W.  Gift,  Geo.  Husmaun,  C. 

C.  LangdoiJ,  J.  Yan  Buren,  and  D.  L.  Adau\ 
Southern  Planter  and  Far:»ier,  Richmond,  Ya.    Monthly,  $2  per 


AGRICULTUEAL   AND   HORTICULTURAL   PERIODICALS.         611 

annum.  Charles  B.  Williams,  editor  and  proprietor.  Frank  G.  Ruf 
fin,  associate  editor.    John  jM.  Allen,  liorticiiltiural  editor. 

Southern  Rukalist,  Tangipalioa,  La.    Monthly',  $1  50  per  annum. 

Texas  Farrier,  Henderson,  Texas.  Monthly,  82  per  annum.  W.  E. 
Marshall  and  J.  M.  Dodson,  editors  and  proprietors. 

Texas  Plow  Bo  y,  Lockhart,  Texas.— Weekly  and  semi-monthly ;  weekly, 
83 ;  semi-monthly,  82  50,  per  annum.  IST.  0.  Eaymond  and  E.  H.  Eogau, 
editors  and  proprietors. 

Tilton's  Journal  of  Horticulture,  and  Floral  Magazine,  Bos- 
ton, Mass.  Monthly,  $3  per  annum.  Tilton  &  Co.,  Boston,  and 
Hovey  &  Hefiron,  Chicago,  publishers. 

Turf,  Field,  and  Farm,  New  York  City.  Weekly,  $5  per  annum.  S. 
D.  Bruce  &  J.  C.  Simpson,  editors  and  proprietors. 

Western  Eural,  Chicago,  HI.,  and  Detroit,  Mich.  Weekly,  82  per 
annum.  H.  N.  F.  Lewis,  editor  and  proprietor.  G.  E.  Morrow  and 
Thomas  H.  Glenn,  Chicago,  and  Edward  Mason,  Detroit,  associate 
editors. 

Whitlock  Exposition  Eecorder,  New  York  City.  Monthly,  |l  50 
per  anniun.  The  Whitlock  Exposition  Publication  and  Exchange 
Co.,  publishers.    Andrew  S.  Fuller,  editor. 

Willamette  Farimer,  Salem,  Oregon.  Weekly,  82  50  per  annum.  A. 
L.  Stinson,  publisher  and  proprietor.    John  Minto,  editor. 

Western  Far:vier,  Madison,  Wis.,  and  Chicago,  111.  Weekly,  $2  per 
annum.    W.  B.  Davis,  editor  and  publisher. 

Western  Stock  Journal,  Sigourney,  Iowa.  Monthly,  81  per  annum. 
J.  H.  Sanders  &  Co.,  publishers. 

Working  Farmer,  New  Y^ork  City.  Monthly,  $1  50  per  annum.  Wil- 
liam L.  AUison  &  Co.,  publishers  and  proprietors.  William  L.  Alli- 
son, editor. 


METEOROLOGY  OF  1868. 


I  Compiled  from  monthly  reports  made  to  tb''  Smithsonian  Institution  through  this 
Dipartincut.  The  observations  were  mjide  daily,  at  the  hoxirs  of  7  a.  m.  and  2  and  9 
p.  lu.,  with  blight  occasional  exceptions.] 


JAXUABT. 

JXIiBVAKY. 

k 

rt      :     c" 

i 

1   « 

e> 

^ 

i 

u 

s 

s 

c< 

a 

Stations  in  States 

a 

a 

t 

= 

3 

a 

£ 

aud  Territories. 

o    . 

■Sj 

^, 

o    . 

c- 

• 

Date. 

s  = 

Date. 

2S 

s 

«  i 

Diite. 

15 

Date.      2I 

a 
9 

a 

H 

a 

1  5 

a 

a 

0 

S 

S 

S 

« 

^ 

1  '^ 

S 

« 

MAIKE. 

Dfg- 

Beg. 

Beg. 

In. 

Beg. 

Beg. 

Be<,. 

In. 

Ptoiibcn 

•24 

38 

19 

g 

15  6 

4.93 

"1 

45 

12 

13 

10  9 

3.70 

AVilliamsbiirg  .... 

23 

30 

11 

—14 

10.6 

2.05 

i» 

36 

11 

— l(i 

1IL2 

2.00 

We-t  Waterville . 

2,24 

38 

1!» 

—11 

16.1 

2. 27 

9,20 

38 

8,12,25 

—12 

14.8 

1.85 

24 

40 

19,31 
13  14 

3 

17.6 

2.86 

20 

44 

12 

12 

16  9 

1  87 

St.aniah 

.38 

9 

14.9 

2.98 

21 

47 

8 

li 

14.  S 

1.73 

Xonvay 

2  8 

38 

11 

18 

14  9 

2. 00 

20 

44 

j.i 

•'»2 

12.  9 

1.30 

•  'omish 

n 

33 

12 

4 

10.6 

4. 10 

21 

42 

g 

11 

15  3 

1  10 

Cwiiisliville 

2 

35 

12 

0 

17.8 

4.13 

21 

41 

23 

—10 

10.6 

a.  00 

Averages 

15.5 

3.17 

14.8 

2.07 

NEWHA\rP6HIBK. 

Portsmonth 

21 
20 

50 
36 

8 
8 

—  7 
—24 

21.0 
9.3 

2.78 

Stratford , 

23 

32 

13 

—15 

12.7 

2.30 

2.00 

Shelbume 

13 

38 

12 

—  £ 

2.50 

20 

46 

26 

iv> 

9.4 

0.84 

Nortb  Barustead . 

24 

44 

13 

3 

21.1 

2.95 

24 

46 

3 

—  4 

It.  3 

1.23 

20 
20 

45 
45 

12 
24 

—15 
—13 

17.  9 
15.0 

Claremont 

2,3 

39 

13 

—  9 

18.0 

2.05 

0.50 

Arerages 

17.3 

2.60 

15.2 

1.47 

VERMONT. 

Ltinonbtirjr 

o 

33 

13 

—16 

12.7 

1.88 

29 

37 

24 

—27 

e.9 

1.45 

>i'r>rt  b  Craftfibury. 

3 

:n 

14 

—  3 

17.1 

2.14 

20 

42 

3,12 

—12 

14.4 

i.6;i 

Uandolph 

3 

30 

7 

—20 

15.1 

i  .52 

20 

41 

8 

—31 

10.2 

0.55 

!Nfar  St.  Albans.. 

23 

37 

2a 

—18 

11.7 

0. 25 

20 

38 

S3 

—27 

ai 

iliddlobuxy 

2 

37 

6 

■ 

—21 

13.4 

1.71 

20 

36 

8 

—27 

11.4 

1.13 

Averages 

14.0 

1.70 

10.6 

1.19 

SIASSACnUSETIS. 

Kin{n»ton 

3,7.23 

42 

10,13 

7 

26.0 

4.45 

21 

52 

8 

—  2 

S4.8 

1.70 

Toi.hlield 

2,3 

39 

17 

4 

20.1 

3.46 

21 

48 

8 

—  7 

17.9 

1.2.1 

Lawrciifo 

3 

41 

17 

3 

21.6 

3.06 

21 

4e 

3 

—  5 

19.8 

1.40 

Cfoiiretown 

3 

44 

17 

5 

22.  (( 

2.41 

21 

49 

8 

—  8 

19.5 

1.12 

X.-wbiiry 

3 

40 

'.2,13,17 

4 

21.7 

21 

49 

8 

—  5 

20.4 

0.00 

>Iilt4m 

3 

•     45 

13,17 

4 

22  0 

2.91 

OJ 

55 

8 
8 

13 

21  0 

1  96 

r.rmiklinr^ 

25 

45 

■C 

_  o 

23.0 

21 

.59 

—10 

2:J.  0 

Nortb  Billerica  .. 

3 

42 

19 

—  1 

21.0 

21 

51 

8 

—22 

19.6 

West  Newton 

2.1 

44 

18 

1 

21.9 

.3.  05 

21 

55 

8 

—20 

18.8 

1.50 

Xew  Bc<lford    

23 

43 

10,13 

8 

25.4 

5.91 

21 

52 

8 

—  1 

23.7 

2.33 

■U'orrcster 

23 

39 

13 

4 

21.4 

3.27 

21 

48 

23—4 

19.2 

1.53 

Mcndon 

23 

39 

13 

0 

19.6 

21 

4a 

3,23 

—  0 

17.5 

Liinenbiirg 

8 

43 

12. 13 

g 

20.3 

3.  H 

21 

49 

23 

—  8 

ie.9 

1.45 

Aiiilierst 

3 

40 

13,17 

0 

29.2 

3.52 

21 

45 

8 

—18  i  18.2 

L03 

Eirhinond 

.      24 

37 

6,10 

—  2 

19.1 

5.05 

20 

44 

23 

—10  1  17.4 

4.5(1 

"SN  iUiams  College. 

23 

39 

28 

—10 

19.3 

2.42 

19,20 

40 

8 

—19 

10.1 

1.95 

Averages ... 

21.6 

3.56 

10.  S 

1  72 

1 

METEOROLOGY    OF    1868. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continned. 


613 


stations  in  States 
and  Ten-itories. 


S 


Date. 


RHODE    ISLAXD. 

Xe^rport '  2,3,23 


COXKECTICn 

Pomfret 

Grot  on 

Columbia 

iliddletown  .. 
Colebrook 


Averages. 


NEW   YORK.         I 

1 

Moriches i 

South  Hartford  ..| 

Troy _ ; 

Gerinauto-.vii  ..  ..| 

Garrison's i 

Throg  s  Xeck I 

"White  Plains  ..  ..I 
Beat&DamlvljQst.' 
Columbia  College.' 

FLitBush i 

Stapleton ' 

Xewburg I 

ilinaville ■ 

Gouvemeur | 

Xorth  Hammond  .| 

HouseriUe j 

South  Trenton ' 

Cazenovia | 

Oneida I 

Depauvillo j 

Theresa 

Oswego 

Palermo 

IN'icliols 

>  eTrar k  VaUey . . .  j 

Geneva 

Rochester .... 

Little  Geneaeel... 
BuU'alo 


23 

23 

23 

3 

4 

23 

23 

23 

2:} 

23 

'Si 

23 

23 

23 

3 

23 

4,23 


Deg. 
42 


Averages. 


SEW  JER.SEy. 


Paterson I  4 

Xewark I  3 

Xew  Brunswick..  23 

Trenton 2,  3,  4. 24 


10 
10,17 
17 
17 
10 


Burlington  .. 
Atoorestown  . 
Moimt  Holly 

Dover 

Haddonfleld . . 
•Kewlield  . .  . . 
Greenwich  .. 
Yineland  ..  .. 


Averages 

PE>i'NSVl,VANIA. 


Nyces 

Fallsin^on  .. 
Philadelphia 


31 
G 

7,28 
31 
10 
10 
10 
TO 
TO 
10 
10 
10 
7 
28 
28 
12,27 
23 
5 
G 
28 
29 
28 
28 
30 


30 

30 

9,31 


a  a 


Beg. 
lu 


Deo.  I    In. 
27.4  I  5.43 


20.7 

2.02 

23.6 

2.90 

24.5 

3.10 

22.7 

3.36 

17.4 

—  8 
—14 

—  3 
0 
G 
G 
G 

ti 
14 

7 


— ^ 
—12 

—  7 

—  6 
2 

—  4 
—12 
—31 

—  8 
—23 


2?.  4 

leis 

19.5 
19.5 
23.0 
25.3 
25.4 
25.8 
28.4 
25.1 
27.5 
23.0 
12.2 
12.7 
14.6 
15.9 
1G.0 
18.  G 
21.9 
15.9 


4.34 
5.  GO 
3.33 
3.10 
3.41 


20.6 
1G.'2 
21.7 


0 

0 

—12 

1 


20.9 
20.8 
19.4 
20.9 


20.6 


4.00 
2. 22 
3^41 
3.45 
3.27 
3.14 
2.00 
1.5S 
2.  57 
3!  30 
4.45 
4.30 
3.35 
2.0G 
5.  49 
4.50 


1.92 
1.45 
2.00 
2.23 


3.22 


25.3 
25.9 
25.1 
30.2 
30.2 
26.7 
27.9 
25.2 
27.9 
30.9 
29.5 
2G.6 


1.95 
3.28 
2.18 
4.30 
3.20 
3.77 


6.00 
3.32 


3.57 
4.42 


-  8  20. 6 
4  27.0 
13  !  30.3 


2.68 
3.50 
3.49 


Date. 


21.8     2.85 


21 
21 
21 
21 
20,21 


Deg. 
56 


21 
20 
20 

19,20 
20 
21 
20 
21 
21 
21 
21 

19,20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
9 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 


21 
21 
21 
21 
20 
20 
20 
21 
20 
20,21 
21 
21 


Date. 


23 

8 
8,23 


8 
2:1 

8 
12 
12 
23 

3 
23 
23 

8 
3,4,23 

8 
23 

3 
11 

3 

.1,23 

23 

3 

3 
11 
11 
11 

8 

7 
2:5 
11 

8 
3,11 


Deg.  i  Deg. 
4  1  26.  "1 


—  6 

18.5 

—  6 

22.1 

—  4 

21.7 

—  9 

20.8 

-12 

16.8 

—15 
—25 
—16 
—14 
—10 

—  2 

—  1 
1 
6 
0 
7 

—18 
-16 
—28 
—21 
—20 
—14 
—17 
—14 
—18 
—26 

—  8 
—19 
—20 
—32 

—  5 

2 

—19 

—  1 


—20 

—  6 

4 


26.0 
15.5 
17.0 
18.0 
19.0 
22.  3 
22]  2' 
23.0 
25.3 
26.3 
25.8 
19.5 
10.0 
12.4 
14.3 
1.3.4 
12.3 
15.7 
13.6 
15.8 


18.8 
14.9 
18.0 


19.8 
20.7 
17.4 
20.9 


18.6 


21.4 
21.9 
20.4 
26.8 
26.5 
23.0 
24.8 
20.7 
24.1 
26.1 
26. 6 
24.3 


23.9 


18.0 
2.3.7 
26.6 


G14 


AGRlCULTUEAL   REPORT. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


% 

JAXUABT. 

FEBKUABT. 

a 

k      ;     o 

•s 

i 

!   i       ■     c 

•s 

r              C 

^ 

z 

1   Z           5 

— 

3 

Stations  in  States 

^ 

a     1    g 

a 

5 

5            C 

- 

acd  Territories. 

, 

-S  '■  i     5. 

Date. 

2  § 

Date. 

=  =  (    = 

-rfe 

Date. 

Date. 

eli  i 

E  2 

— 

~     1   -^ 

X 

s 

-    1  " 

-  X 

y. 

=        3 

- 

X 

.5            c 

ei 

•3 

c$ 

.S                ii 

rt 

^      a 

c^ 

?5 

s      s 

K 

Pesna.— Con. 

■ 

i 

Ikg. 

D^.    Deg.      In, 

JOtf- 

Dfy.     D.:i. 

In. 

Germimtowii    - . 

■I 

45 

31 

4  i  29.0 



19 

46 

8 

—  2  :  23.  0 

2.00 

] 

42 

31 

5  i  2ai 

2.20 

30 
19 
20 

S3 

50 
47 

8 
8 
8 

—  4  :  2i  C 

—27  1  lae 

Leo 

1.46 

3.4 

36 

U,17 

—  S     17.6 

3.13 

1.60 

19 

21 

47 

SO 

2 

4 

—  7  1  IP.  8 

—  7     111.5 

r, 

43 

10,19 

4     314 

1.75 

1.55 

•' 

44 

31 

8     27.2    

21 

53 

8 

—  1     34.5 

1 

44 

31 

—  ■?    2n.  0  1  2.  ^ 

20 

48 

8 

—10     21.6 

2.11 

i 

',  - 

43 

16 

1.23 

20.21 

52 

6 

—  4  :  24.  0 

310 

~ 

3 

42 

16 

•20 

48 

8 

—  8     23.8 

2,8 

47 

31 

i.  15 

20 

53 

8 

—  2    2.=;.  6 

1.95 

4 

43 

31 

li       -J7.  ;      4.09 

21 
20 
19 

49 
55 

48 

4 

2     23.5 
—22     30. 0 
—18     18. 0 

1.76 
1.02 
1.57 

Lt^ris'i.nrg 

3,4 

41 

10,31 

2     21. 3     2. 56 

8 

loke*!'.  irjT 

3 

50 

9 

3     24. 3     4. 02 

20,21 

53 

8 

— IS     21.1 

1.77 

linn  \sville 

23 

44 

19 

—  3     24.0  ,  2.98 

20 

52 

3 

—10     24. 0 

2.60 

GTaiut)ian  Hilla  .. 

3,23 

40 

9 

—  8     13.2  '  3.33 

20 

50 

8 

—16     16. 6 

aso 

19,20.21 
20 

46 
50 

1 
3 

—14  1  21.  8 
—24     Iff.  6 

155 

Franklin 

23 

42 

9, 13, 19 

—  i 

90.-4 

(-■oiinelkrillc  ..  .. 

3,23 

47 

13 

—  3 

34.9 

30 

56 

3 

-12  i  24. 4 

>>e"^  Caetle 

23 

43 

9 

4 

34.3 

19,20 

50 

3 

—10  1  25.2 

I'^aver 

23 

45 

9 

8 

27.0 

20 

50 

3 

0 

27.4 

2.75 

Canonsbnrg 

a 

49 

19 

—  9 

34.6  j  2.C7 

20 

57 

3 

-■" 

2C.5 

1.03 

25.0 

2.-e 

2?.  3 

2.08 

' 

UASriASV. 

WoocDawn 

4 

56 

10 

8 

27.0 

4.07 

20 

52 

8 

—  1 

24.4 

8.87 

Catonsrille 

4 

46 

8,12,13 

10 

25.7 

20 

50 

23 

6 

34.8 

Ai'mjv^J'^- 

2.4 

54 

31 

—  5 

35.9 

4.17 

19 

56 

8 

—  1 

31.3 

2.31 

S*    ' 

4,24,27 

4S 

31 

10 

31.3 

4.55 

a) 

60 

26 

13 

31.0 

2.60 

1 

50 

9 

8 

27.3 

2.72 

20 

52 

8 

—  8 

24.6 

:                 -  Col. 

3 

44 

.   9 

6 

26.3 

19,20 

49 

8 

2 

23.9 

1.61 

Average.s 

2a9 

.3.88 

36.7 

8.35 

%iaGiXiA. 

Surry  Conrt  Honsc 

4 

64 

31 

13 

36.0 

20 

69 

12 

n 

3a5 

Cap<;Cba'8Lt-b... 

4 

59 

18 

19 

33.3 

ILIO 

19 

55 

12 

22 

40.1 

lt:.25 

38 

31 

—  4 

1.17 

20 

58 

1  8 

3 

0  29 

Moaiit  Solon 

4 

60 

31 

3 

32.5 

19 

60 

,      '8 

4 

33.8 

Lvnchbiirg 

5 

53 

30 

16 

35.4 

19 

57 

2,7,8 

20 

36.0 

SnciwnUe 

3 

52 

31 

—  8 

sag 

i.68 

21 

58 

1 

—  8 

30.0 

7.75 

"Wythe  Tille 

20 

56 

1 

—  8 

31.2 

1.75 

Averages 

33.2  ]  4.65 

316 

3.96 

WEST  VIRGIXTA. 

3.4 

56 

13.31 

10 

31.0 

19 

62 

8 

6 

3L3 

tSraflou 

1 

65 

12,30 

8 

33.5 

2.00 

19,30 

60 

1 

—  3 

32.8 

163 

^Ve*ton 

4 
3 

60 
67 

12,13 
30 

4 
—  4 

2&9 
38.2 

l?iirnin»  Sprinps. . 
CalKfU  Court-bonae 



16,19 

73 

1 

—  2  1  32.9 

4.23 

58 

30 

10 

33.S 

4.90 

34 

60 

1 

9 

36.7 

0.60 

Averages 

31.8 

3.45 

33.4 

3.61 



KOKTH  CABOUXA. 

TvpnaiiKvillf* 

21 

20 

65 
69 

GoldsV-oro' 

*       4 

70 

18 

17 

40.2 

3.20 

8 

30 

40.6 

2.25 

Yud-lzh. 

4 

62 

18 

12 

35.9 

4.30 

30 

66 

8 

15 

35.3 

3.00 

Oiford 

4 

58 

31 

12 

35.0 

140 

20 

60 

8 

17 

35.7 

3.20 

Ali^cmarle 

U 

63 

18,31 

8 

36.1 

6.60 

20 

69 

8 

12 

37.1 

3.95 

METEOEOLOGY    OF    18GS. 
Mcieorology  of  18GS — Continued. 


G15 


JAS'UAKY. 

FEBRUAIJY. 

Stations  in  States 
aucl  Territories. 

Date. 

o 

3 

a  s 

r 

a 

Date. 

3 

a 
1 

p 

a 
a 

1 

1  _ 

1   2 

1. 

11 

a 
'S 

Date. 

S 

c 
S 

o    . 
""  9 

3 

Date. 

i  5 

i. 

S  3 

a 
1 

1 

5 
a 

a 
3 

a 

0 

rS  0 

a  =1 

N"0RTi]  Cakolina 
— f.'owtinr.cii. 

Statesville 

.^.sliOT.'illo 

•1 
3 

Deg. 
CI 

18 
31 

Deg. 
8 
3 

Deff. 
31.4 
3.3.5 

In. 

6.50 

17 
20 

JDeg. 
52 
69 

13 

1 

Dcg. 
14 
4 

Deg. 
32.  a 
30.5 

lA. 
3.75 

Averages 

:)5. 4 

4.6^2 

36.3 

3.23 

s 

75 
65 

31 
31 

22 
12 

17 

20 

65 
64 

i 

25 
19 

;0T:TU  CAROLINA. 

34.5 
33.0 

2.00 

34.0 

38.0 

3.34 

Gowdysville 

Averages 

36.3 

2.00 

3G.8 

3  34 

3,7 

7 

76 

30 
30 
30 

6 
15 
16 

22 
19 
20 

68 
68 
67 

7 

1 
7 

17 
26 
24 

GEOSGIA. 

37.0 
44.6 

4.01 
7.66 

40.8 
47.4 
44.9 

3.55 
6.89 

Penfiel'l 

Averages 

40.8 

5.94 

44.4 

5  22 

3,4,7 

3 

3,7 
3 

78 
78 
70 
S8 
79 
79 

30 
30 
30 

30,31 
30 

30,31 

12 
14 
14 
21 
12 
17 

17 

9 

9,21 

19, 23 

22 
17,22 

es 

72 
62 
72 
7.2 

70 

7 

1 
7 

1 
1 
1 

25 
30 
22 
27 
22 
22 

ALABA3XA. 

Opelika 

44.2 
45.1 
38.2 

8.' is" 

5.65 

47.6 
49.2 
44.7 

"48.'4' 
47.4 

Carlowville 

6.79 
2.26 
4  60 

Pish  Kiver 

Greene  Springs... 
Havana 

42.9 
43.1 

11.04 
11.23 

3.03 
2.79 

Averages 

42.7 

9.02 

47.5 

.■54.0 
56.  8 
59.6 
53.7 

3  89 

4 

81 
84 

31 
30 

29 
34 

10, 21 

10 

3, 4,  6, 7 

78 
84 
78 
73 

7 

29 
31 

1,  7, 29 

36 
40 
27 
35 

FLOmCA. 

JacTiSonville 

Port  Orange 

Gordon 

57.0 
58.1 

2.80 

2.25 

Lake  City 

3,4 

74 

31 

26 

53.2 

9 

2.25 

Averages 

56.3 

2.80 

56.0 

2.25 

5 

5,G 

2 

86 
84 
84 
89 

87 

30 
30 
30 
30 
30 

10 
19 
16 
15 
15 

19,21 

19,25 

24 

19 

20 

80 
82 
85 
7C 
83 

12 
12 
12 
11, 12 
12 

16 
31 
27 
22 

26 

1 

TEXAS. 

41.2 
.t2.  0 
52.0 
42.4 

46.2 

'l.2S 
0.70 
0.36 

49.5 
55.6 
.55.2 
47.6 
54.6 

1.87 
2.20 
3.48 

"Waco 

Averages 

46.8 

0.81 

52. 5 

2.52 

7 

3,4,6 
3 

81 
75 

73 
75 

30 
30 

30 
30 

25 
15 

15 

18 

LOmsTAXA. 

MeTv  Orleans 

Benton  

41.0 

19 

22 
9,24 

78 

70 
74 

1 

12 
1,12 

21 

20 
25 

45.7 

MIS8TSfiTPPI. 

Grenada 

42.7 
46.6 

aie" 

49.9 

4.5.7 

Katchez 

3.38 

Averages 

44.7 

8.16 

47.8 

3.33 

3 

74 

29,30 

12 

22 

76 

12 

15 

AKKAXSAS. 

Helena 

35.7 

45.6 

616 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


Stations  in  PtJites 
and  TeiTitories. 


Date. 


TENTfESSEE.  | 

Elizabethton 

Tnsculum  Collf-j.a' 
Lookout  Mountain 

Austin i 

Nasbville I 

ClarksvUle i 

Mempliis 


Averages. 


KENTUCKY. 

Pin<^  Grove '  3,  ■1,5 

Lexington I  3 

D.invilJe 4,5 

Looisville 4,5 


Averages. 


ouio. 


New  Lislion 

Stenbeuville 

I'aintsvi'.ie 

jililuersviUo 

Cleveiaud 

"W  coster 

Gallipolis 

Kellfy"s  Island... 

Sandusky  

Konralk 

Caison 

North  F.iir^eld... 

"Westcrvillo 

^Vil  1  ianisport 

Clarion 

Jlillsboro' 

Tolylo 

liowling  Green  . . . 

lientou 

Tj  rbanaUuiversit  V 

IJethel ". 

Cincinnati  (H) 

Do (P;.... 

College  Hill 


Averages. 


Monroe  City 

Alpena , 

Stato  Ag.  College 

Litcbflcld 

Grand  llapids  . . . 

Kortiiport 

Holland 

Otsego 

Copper  Falls  ... 
Ontonagon 


Averages.. 

INniAKA. 


Kicbmond . 

Aurora 

Vevay 


4 
4 

23 
4 

23 

4 

4 

20, 23 

23 
4 
4 

2.3 

23 
C 
4 
(i 
(> 

23 
4 
4 


23 
3 
o 

2,23 

5 

23 

2,19 

21 

2,3,5 

4,5 


Deg. 
56 


00 


Date. 


30 
30 
9,29,30 
30 


Deg. 
5 

—  4 


19 
12 

9,10 

9,13 

27,28 

22 

30 

30 

9,30 

9,30 

9 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

9,28 

28 

30 

30 

30 

17 

30 

30 


27 
12 

28 
28 
9 
2G 
20 
27 
11 
7,8 


4,G 
3, 4,  5.  G 

I  4 


Deg. 
33.1 
31.5 


»0  o 


FEunu.^^^. 


Date. 


24.2 
26.0 
20.6 
23.2 
21.5 
^.9 
29.4 
21.7 
19.5 
21.9 
*2.7 
21.0 
20.4 
27.1 
20.8 
24. 2 
21.0 
5H.  1 
27.5 
21.8 
21. 5 
27.0 
31.3 


19. 5 
20.9 
19.0 
IG.  4 
20.5 
20.  5 
23.4 
23. 1 
11.4 
14.0 


21. 2 

aio 

29.2 


Jji. 


33.5  I  4.50 


34.0 

4.94 

27.9 
28.5 
32.6 
29.6 

4.65 
4.81 
3.95 

4.29 

3.43 
9.23 
1.46 


4.42 
1.00 
0.93 
0.94 
0.49 
0.46 
1.81 
C.  45 
1.84 
4.10 
1.25 
3.25 
2.44 
2.44 
4.25 
3.  72 
7.2'J 
8.90 


3.30 


2.20 
1.15 
1.47 
2.34 
4.13 
2.08 
5.  24 
2.00 
6.80 


18. 9      3. 15 


2.57 
4.32 
C.20 


20 
20 
21,22 
23 
21 
23 
23 


20 
19,20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
29 
20 
20 
20 
19 
24 
19,20 
24 
20 
20 
5,15 
19 
24 
20 
21 
21,24 


15 

20 
20 
20 
20 
20 

16,20 
18 
19 

18, 19 


Date. 


Deg. 
CO 
61 
63 
70 
66 
C7 


1 

1 

7 

7 

1, 2, 10 

11 


3 

10 

3 

3 

3,10 

13 

17 

3,10 


Deg. 
9 
3 
14 
18 
20 
19 
18 


—14 
0 
3 

—  8 

—  3 
—12 

7 

—  5 
—12 
—14 
—13 
—13 
—10 
o 

—  9 
2 

—10 

—18 

2 

—  4 

—  1 
6 

14 
0 


—21 

2 

—19 
—30 

—  C 

—  4 

2 

—10 
—16 
—22 


—  4 
0 
5 


Deg. 
30. 8 
36.0 
41.2 
42.1 
41.7 
39.9 
43.0 

40. 1       0. 90 


33.5 
34.2 
39.3 
35.0 


23.1 
28.0 
22.5 
23.  C 
23.2 
25.2 
33.1 
23.9 
23.8 
24.4 
25.1 
24.1 
24.7 
31.7 
23.6 
28.3 
2.3.1 
24.9 
31.2 
25.1 
27.4 
31.0 
35.3 
29.8 

26.5  I 


17.4 
18.7 
18.7 
21.3 
18.0 
23. 5 
26.0 
8.1 
11.9 

18.6 


2.1.0 
30.3 
33.7 


METEOROLOGY    OF    1868. 
i/cieorohgv  of  ISGS — Coutinned. 


617 


JANUARY. 

FEr.RUAi:v. 

s 

ti 

,- 

r: 

h 

i 

-= 

~ 

s 

s 

'~ 

— 

P< 

^ 

^ 

4) 

o. 

p* 

.^ 

c 

Stations  ir.  States 

g 

c 

0 

- 

s 

s 

a 

and  Territories. 

.2  . 

-^  -* 

i 

h; 

a 

> 

Date. 

e£ 

Date. 

_  = 

^ 

'^  z 

Date. 

?.-■ 

Date. 

_  b    1     =■ 

'H  5 

~  "" 

- 

r.  r. 

3~     1      ^ 

es  X 

.| 

a 

_ 

"S 

-           « 

.  c 

3 

1 

■i 

a 

i     !    ^ 

rt 

lisDi.AAA— Con. 

i 

Deq. 

Dea. 

Deg. 

JJK 

Deq. 

Ben.  \  Deg. 

In. 

Mtmcie 

4 

46 

30 

—  5 

20.5 

2.52 

24 

55 

1 

—  6 

26.5 

1.  X, 

Spiceland 

4 

47 

30 

—  1 

23.2 

2.40 

19 

53 

7 

—  4 

27.6 

2.10 

21 
24 
24 

50 
54 
56 

3 
3 
U 

—14 
—  6 

1 

21.9 
25.0 
26.9 

Cartha-^e       '  .        

0.  50 

Indianaijolis 

4 

48 

■   ■  30 

—  3 

22. 2 

2.24 

1.13 

4 
3 

59 

58 

29 
29 

5 

2X8 
27. 9 

2.30 
3.  CO 

24 
24 

59 
60 

10 
10 

1  1  30.  8 

1.00 

Xew  Harmony 

7 

36.2 

0.S2 

24.3 

3.27 

28.4 

1  1- 

ir.T.pcois. 

Chicago 

-4 

4,3 

41 
40 

29 
29 

—16 

19.8 
16.8 

1.28 

20 
20 

56 
54 

\     10 

7 

—  9 
—12 

27.8 
24.3 

0.03 

Xear  Chicago 

Kidge  Farm 

5 

4^ 

30 

—10 

20.6 

24 

CO 

10 

—  4 

29.3 

Marengo 

1 

43 

13 

—  9 

15.5 

i.57 

20 

48 

10 

—27 

20.4 

0.95 

Golconda 

3 

66 

30 

4 

27.8, 

2.20 

26 

82 

10 

10 

40.1 

O.CO 

Aurora 

2 

44 

29 

—11 

14.4 

0.98 

20 

51 

10 

—27 

21.3 

1.1.5 

Sandwich 

2 

42 

13,28 

—14 

14.0 

0.85 

20 

48 

10 

—25 

19.7 

0.65 

Ottawa 

2 

47 

29 

—  6 

16.6 

1.07 

20 

55 

3 

—12 

22.0 

1.40 

"Wapello 

24 

58 

3 

15 

27.4 

1  00 

Winnebago 

2 

39 

13 

—13 

11.5 

0.62 

20 

47 

10 

—26 

18.3 

0.77 

Eochelle 

2 

42 

13 

—16 

12.0 

20 

50 

10 

—32 

19.0 

0.55 

"Wyanet 

2 

50 

29 

—12 

15.6 

6.5() 

19 

63 

10 

—16 

24.1 

0.52 

Tiskilwa 

5 

44 

29 

—10 

17.2 

0.45 

20 

49 

10 

—13 

24.4 

Hennepin 

Magnolia 

5 

46 

29 

—10 

17.7 

20 

56 

10 

—14 

2o.O 

1,5 

46 

29 

—13 

18.6 

1.7(1 

19 

62 

3 

—16 

23.3 

o.eo 

Elmira 

2 

49 

29 

—13 

16.3 

0.34 

20 

56 

-.      10 

—  8 

24.9 

0.83 

5 

51 
52 

29 
29 

—10 
—  9 

18.4 
18.6 

0.77 

20 
20 

55 
63 

♦        1 

10 

—  6 
2 

26.8 
26.9 

0  75 

Springtield 

Dubois 

4 

56 

29 

—  3 

23.0 

2.i5 

24 

56 

11 

0 

26.1 

0.50 

Waterloo 

3 

63 

29 

2 

26.2 

24 

63 

10 

5 

35.7 

Galesbiu-g 

4 

48 

29.30 

—10 

16.4 

0.30 

20 

61 

10 

—  7 

24.5 

0.40 

Manchester 

4 

56 

17,29 

—  6 

20.0 

1.19 

16 

57 

10 

2 

20.5 

0.19 

Mciimt  Sterling. .. 

3,5 

54 

29 

—10 

19.4 

20 

58 

10 

—  6 

29.0 

Andalusia 

19 

43 

29 

—  8 

15.0 

16,19 

52 

10 

—20 

26.4 

5 

55 

29 


—10 

19.5 

0.93 

16,20 

56 

10 

—  6 

23.5 

0.80 

18.7 

1.14 

26.9 

0  "^1 

WIS0O.V6IX. 

Manitowoc 

2,5,0 

37 

9,13 

—12 

15.9 

1.64 

16,20 

47 

10 

—17 

19.3 

1.34 

Plvmouth 

5 

38 

12,13 

17 

12.0 

1.90 

16, 13, 20 

43 

10 

27 

17.0 

2.00 

Milwaukee 

7 

43 

12 

—  9 

16.4 

1.29 

19 

56 

10 

—14 

21.3 

0.92 

Appletou 

4 

37 

13 

—14 

13.6 

1.57 

20 

42 

10 

-19      l(i.  3 

1.  50 

Geneva 

2 

40 

12 

—10 

13.7 

20 

48 

10 

—12     20.2 

0.C8 

"Waupacca 

4 

33 

12,13 

—20 

13.2 

18,20 

48 

10 

—27     17. 4 

Embarr.iss 

4,5,6 

32 

13 

-19 

li4 

.3.20 

19 

47 

10 

—2:5 

1.5.1 

3.40 

liockv  Kun 

2 

38 

12 

-18 

14.2 

1.44 

20 

49 

10 

—40 

16.9 

3.05 

Edgerton 

4 

44 

16 

-14 

20 

56 

10 

—3-2 

18.6 

0.80 

Baiaboo 

4 

34 

12,13 

—20 

9.7 

3.31 

20 

52 

10 

—.30 

10.0 

4.13 

^\ew  Lisbon 

5  2, 3,  4, 

I    5,22 

6 

i34 

12 

—33 

9.6 

10 

55 

10 

—40 

17.4 

Bayfield 

34 

7,8 

—22 

9.1 

18 

50 

9,12 

—24 

11.1 

12.7 

2.05 

17.2 

1.93 

MCfXESOIA. 

Beaver  Bay 

5 

36 

12 

— ^27 

10.3 

2.14 

13 

49 

12 

—31 

9.9 

2.41 

St.  Paid  .  .  . 

r: 

31 

12 

39 

4  5 

1  71 

18 

45 

10 

■iC 

]-->  8 

1  51 

Minneapolis 

3,5 

28 

12 

—40 

3.9 

1.9G 

18 

46 

10 

—26 

12.7 

1.75 

Sibley 

3 

30 

13 

—36 

2.4 

0.7t3 

14 

47 

9 

—35 

11.5 

0.82 

618 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Goutiimed. 


JANUARY. 

f>;x;ul'a; 

.Y. 

S* 

.i 

d     1  n 

« 

rs 

fe 

P. 

^ 

r— 

i^ 

4j 

r— • 

Stations  ill  States 

a 

g 

Fi 

a 

s 

B 

g 

3 

and  Territories. 

3 

3 

-s  o 

^ri 

^o 

p  a 

Date. 

Date. 

ss 

Date. 

|3 

Date. 

g 
o 

S 

s 

a 

3 

3 

y. 

■3. 

2 

y. 

d 

% 

e 

& 

03 
3 

§ 

S 

^ 

JJtoKESOTA — Con. 

Ben. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

In. 

Dcg. 

Deg. 

JJe^l. 

In. 

NnwUlm 

1 

34 

12, 13 

— :i0 

3.8 

0.66 

16 

42 

10 

—28 

13.  9 

0.79 

' 

30 

—21 



5.0 

16 

4:- 

0 

—28 

13  4 

Averages 

5.0 

1.49 

12.4 

1  46 

IOWA. 

5 
0 

40 
44 

16 
29 

—  6 
—12 

14.8 
13. 2 

0.75 

0.38 

20 
20 

53 

10 
10 

—25 
— 25 

23.5 
22.9 

1.00 

DavfUjiOit 

1.74 

Dubuque  

5 

36 

10 

12 

12.4 

0.48 

18,20 

51 

10 

—23 

20.0 

1.03 

MonticiUo 

5 

40 

29 

—16 

11.1 

0.30 

20 

57 

6,9 

—10 

23.0 

0.55 

iUusciitiue 

r 

47 

29 

—12 

13.6 

0.30 

20 

53 

10 

—32 

21.1 

1.50 

Bmliiifrtou 

2,4 

54 

17.29 

7 

17.5 

20 

63 

10 

—  5 

29.1 

0.45 

It.  M.idison 

3 

50 

29 

—10 

17.8 

0.51 

20 

57 

10 

—11 

27.6 

0.40 

Gutteuberg 

.O 

39 

13 

22 

8.8 

0.03 

18 

53 

10 

—37 

17.2 

0.85 

5 
5 

36 
40 

13 
29 

—15 
—15 

12.8 
11.5 

16,  20 
18 

48 
53 

10 
10 

—20 
—20 

20.0 
21.2 

!Mt.  Veruon 

Iowa  City 

4 

50 

29 

—16 

13.4 

0.10 

18,20 

55 

10 

—26 

25.3 

1.51 

IntloppiKlence 

3,5 

38 

29 

—18 

9.7 

1.65 

18 

52 

10 

—31 

19.1 

0.50 

Near  Indcp'iid'iice 

3 

39 

13 

—22 

5.9 

0.80 

18 

55 

10 

—36 

15.1 

0.95 

Waterloo 

5 

40 

10,  29 

—15 

11.0 

18 

52 

10 

—28 

17.0 

Marble  Rock    .... 

3,5 

36 

13 

—20 

7.9 

1. 15 

18,21 

45 

10 

—25 

18.0 

0.83 

Iiiwa  l""alls 

3 
1 

40 
33 

29 
29 

—16 

—19 

7.7 
5.  9 

l.OI 
0.70 

18 

42 

9 

20 

15.3 

Kear  A  Igoua 

3 

35 

29 

—20 

5.1 

0.99 

18 

44 

9 

—20 

16.7 

1.11 

Dakota 

3 
3 

40 
37 

29 
29 

—20 
15 

7.4 
9.7 

'6.'82" 

18 
18 

51 
53 

9 
9 

—20 
—17 

18.3 
19.9 

Fort  Dodi^e 

0.77 

Booiiesboro' 

4 

37 

29 

—18 

8.1 

0.43 

18 

55 

10 

—18 

20.7 

0.68 

Kolfo 

3 

45 

29 

—26 

8.5 

2.  UO 

18, 20 

48 

9 

—24 

16.5 

1.30 

Fontanclle 

> 

►     ^'"^ 

29 

—18 

11.7 

0.  65 

16,18 

58 

10 

—10 

23.2 

0.78 

48 

29 

16 

14.3 

0  70 

16 

58 

q 

17 

"5  4 

0  61 

AVliitesboro' 

1 

41 

29 

—20 

9.1 

0.80 

18 

60 

il 

—17 

22.5 

0.65 

Averages 

10.8 

7.89 

20.8 

0  91 

MIBSOrRI. 

St.  LonisUiiiv 

3 

61 

17,29 

5 

26.2 

1.23 

24 

05 

10 

r 

34.9 

0.41 

3 

67 

29 

o 

24  2 

1   09 

24 

6,j 

—  5 

—  5 

—  3 
4 

—  7 

33  " 

0  b2 

5 

50 

29 

10 

18  1 

0  00 

16  •''0 

CO 

10 

29.0 
34.7 
33.0 
33.5 

Kolla 

4 

07 

29 

0 

26  3 

1.33 

23 
23 
22 

69 

11 

10,11 

11 

0.29 

Jeilersou  City 

05 
69 

Ilemiitage' 

2 

6(» 

21 

—  5 

23.5 

0.63 

0. 15 

HarrisonviHo  .... 

4 

0!) 

29 

—  8 

21.1 

0.  54 

10,21 

00 

9,10 

0 

3.3.2 

0.  24 

Ortjgou 

4 

6;> 

29 

—12 

17.4 

1.00 

16 

66 

9 

—10 

30.4 

1.55 

Averages 

22.4 

1.00 

32.7 

0.58 

KANSAS. 

Atolii.ion 

4 

00 

17 

—11 

17.1 

0.79 

10,18,23 

66 

10 

—10 

29.0 

0.25 

Lenveuwoitb 

05 

17,29 

—10 

18.3 

0.50 

16,23 

68 

10 

—  8 

30.6 

0.36 

Olatba 

2 

57 

29 

—10 

16.0 

0.60 

16 

69 

10 

—  4 

32.0 

1.00 

Baxter  Spriiiga. . . 

5 

64 

29 

2 

24.6 

0.46 

22 

78 

11 

1 

30.9 

0.02 

Lawrence 

2 

64 

17 

—  7 

23.7 

0.50 

23 

72 

9 

—  3 

35.7 

0.19 

Holt  on 

4 

58 

29 

—11 

18.3 

0.  45 

16 

68 

,9 

—10 

30.7 

0.2S 

State  Agr.  ColL  .. 

2 

01 

29 

—12 

18.5 

0.30 

17 

69 

9,10 

—  6 

27.7 

0.18 

Council  Grove 

~ 

00 

29 

—10 

21.0 

0.90 

22 

75 

9 

—  4 

33.4 

Averages 

19.7 

0.57 

32.1 

0  33 

NEUUASK.4. 

Dakota          

] 

50 

27,29 
29 

18 

10  6 

0.70 
0.80 

10,18 
21 

56 
62 

—14 
—14 

2,3.2 
25.3 

0..50 
0.00 

Omalia   Mission . . 

1,3 

49 

—12 

14.8 

9 

Elkliorn 

1 

45 

29 

15 

11  7 

10 
16 

60 
57 

9 
9 

—13 
—17 

24.5 
23.3 

0.35 
0.79 

De  Soto 

1 

43 

29 

—19 

11.5 

0.70 

METEOKOLOGY    OF    18G8. 
Meteorology  of  18G8 — Continued. 


619 


J.>>^"^'AKY. 

FEBRUARY. 

Stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 

1 

Date. 

i 

a 
1 

Date. 

^       1 

.     1 
o 

1 

1 

1 

a 

"          i 

Dite. 

! 

Pa 

1 
Dat«. 

I 

5 

o 
■*-^ 

a. 

c 

s  . 

a 
'S 

X£nK.>.SK.V— C-iu.    1 
Gienrtale ...  | 

"s- 

10  1 

1 
—26 

!      1 

I>eg.     In. 
11.  I     0.  f.T 

16 

Deff. 
66 

9 

Deg. 

Deg. 

24.0 

In. 
1.15 

12.0  I  0.76  i 

24.1 

0.63 

1 
•21 

50 
4<3 

18 
16 

1 
—18 

UTAH. 

Gt.  Salt  Lake  Cit". 

24.3 
14.1 

2.44 
1.45 

Wanship 

13 

49 

1 

—12 

24.2 

0.70 

19.2 

1.95 

24.2 

0  70 

1 
1 
1 

59 
64 

53 

11 

8 
8 

34 
31 
31 

16 
17 

65 
71 

9.10 
9,10 

40 
29 

cjujfosnta. 

San  Francisco 

Monterey 

46.7 
47.1 
43.3 

10.32 
7.65 
7.54 

50.3 
50.9 

4.78 
1.66 

45.7 

8.50 

50.6 
36.6 

3  22 

2 
1 

46 
44 

11,29 
11 

0 
—  6 

25 

62 

1 

10 

OBEGON. 

Corrallia 

22.9 
25.4 

'h'oii 

AJbany 

24.1 

6.05 

36.6 

1 

36 

9 

—23 

14 
17 

54 

63 

8 
9 

—23 
—30 

MONTANA. 

Helena 

2.7 

1.00 

28.1 
29.7 

0  32 

Benton 

Averages 

2. 7 

1.00 

28.9 

0.32 

1 

43 

8 

16 

2G 

54 

8 

20 

WASHINGTON. 

Port  Townaend  .. 

35.3 

1.03 

40.7 

0.55 

;.L\i:cn. 

ATRn.. 

XAINE. 

Stenben 

14 
31 
27,31 
27 
31 
31 
31 

50 
55 
54 
53 
56 
56 
52 

1,2 
6 
6 
6 
6 
1 

1,2 

—  2 

—  5 

—  1 
2 

—  3 

—  4 

o 

29  2 
31.6 
33.0 
31.2 
30.9 

3.80 
3.53 
2.33 
2.19 

28 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 

52 
64 
63 
67 
68 
65 
65 

13 
10 
5, 10, 13 
10 
10 
5,13 
5 

17 
10 
20 
13 
10 
16 
16 

36.2 
38.2 
39.8 
39.1 
37.8 
38.7 
39.0 

4  00 

West  WaterriUe. 

Gardiner 

Standish 

!N orway ..'. 

2.5:1 
2. 23 
2.59 

Cornish 

31. 1     2. 07 
31. 6     2. 18 

2.64 

ComishviUe 

2.31 

31.2  j  2.69 

3S.4 

2.73 

14 

16 

15.17 

1^ 
31 
31 

62 
59 
52 

58 
60 
60 

1 
1 

1 

6 

1,2,3 

1 

1 

—13 

0 

2 

10 

—10 

NEW  HAitrsHifin. 

34.0 
26.2 
33.1 
33.0 
27.9 
32.0 

Stratford 

Isorth  Eamst*ad 

0.95 
2.07 

i'so' 

16,29 

62 

10,13 

9 

34.1 

■  2.95 

Concord 

17 

17,30 

1 

69 

68 
67 

10 

13 

9,10 

19 

20 
16 

42.4 
35.6 
39.8 

Goftsto-w-n  Center 
Claremont 

2.24 
2.94 

31.0  j  1.77 

38.0 

2.71 

31 
31 

57 

53 

1 
1 

—12 
—  6 

16 
16 

68 

67 

10 
.9 

4 
14 

TEEMONT. 

Lnnenbnrft 

North  Craftsbtiry 

28.3 
31.8 

2.80 

1  2.37 

34.3 
36.9 

1.30 
2.17 

)20 


AGRICULTUEAL    REPORT. 
Meteorology  of  16C8 — Continued. 


Stations  in  States 
aod  Terxitoriee. 


Date, 


Tkkmoxt— Con. 


Randolph 

Woodstoclc 

Xear  St.  Albans 
iliddlebury 


Averasea. 


MASS-'CnCSETIS. 


£iB^ion 

Topsfield 

Lawrence 

G«orgeto\ra 

NewUurv 

Milton  .'. 

BrooklJne 

Cambridge 

North  Bilierica  .. 

"West  Xevrton 

Xew  Eediord 

■Worcester 

Hendon 

Lraienhnrs  

Amherst 

Hichniond 

Williams  College. 


ATcra^es. 


RBODR  ISL.O.-I). 

Neirport 

COKXidlCtT. 


Pomfret  

Grotoh 

Columbia . . . 
iliddletoini . 
Cokbrook . . , 
^Vat*rbu^J'  , 


Average*. 


;  £     Date, 


31 

31 

17 

16,17 


J>fg- 
m 

63 

53 


14,15 
15 
14,15,18 
15 
15 
18 
17 


17,27,31 
17 
14 
15 

17 

15,31 
31 
31 
17 


28,31 


KEW    TOJiK. 

MorichcB 

South  n.-utfoTd  .. 
Troy 

G  CTBianto^ra   

.in 

i'-.   I    -V  iMllillIu.et 

Columbia  Coll<'i:'-. 

Flat  Bush 

Xowbnrg 

MinavillV^ 

Con  v<--mrTir 

:nond 

•on 

Oneida 

Dejianville 


31 
31 

15 

.31 
31 
17 
31 
17 
31 
31 
"SI 
17 
17,31 
17 
16 
17 
16 
17 


1,5 


4 

1 
2 
1,3 
1 
1 
3 


6 
1 
4 
3 

3,4 

4 
1 
1 
3 


Deg. 
—16 
—14 
—■23 

—  9 


rs  S     Date. 

s  s 
a  CO 


Deq. 

28.4 

! 

In. 
1.66 

29.6 
30.6 

'2.'25" 

29.7 

2.27 

1,30 

15,30 

10 


36.2 
32.2 
33.7 
3-iO 
33.3 
33.9 
37. 7 


.34.0 
ai.O 
3.=5.2 
33.9 

—  2  i  33. 1 


31.1 
33.8 
37.8 
32.0 


—10 


4.  \-> 
3.41 
1.x 


17 
22,30 


4.  .52 

2.82 


2.30 
3.25 
3.  63 
1.20 


44.4 


32.4 
34.5 
.36.0 
:C..  1 
32.  G 


.65 


2.20 
2.47 


3 
3 
3 
3,4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


0     39.4 

34.8 
35.5 

36.9 


37.0 
37.1 
35.3 
36.7 
39.3 
.36.2 
■XI.  5 
2ft  4 
31"  1 
30.7 
31.  1 
30.4 
.3i  7 


3.2.P 

2.45 
2.06 

4.20 

2.62 


3.69 
2.60 
l.:»5 
2.25 

Tsc 

3.  93 
3.  31 
3.00 


30 


Beg. 
63 
63 
67 
65 


Date. 


32.7 


4.80 
4.47 


17 

1,17 

23,30 
22 
23 

23,  27 
2:j 

27,. 30 
17,30 
15 
15 
15 
1 
30 
15 
15 


.5,10 


9 

13 

6.13 

5,9 

9;  13 

J  5,  G,  9, 

1 10. 11 

5,9 

5, 9, 10 


o    . 

■<-•  Q 
5-2 


D&g. 

4 

8 

11 

13 


Dtg. 
35.1 
36.8 
37.3 
3S.3 


3C.5 


23  43. 1 
21  41.3 
23     41.5 


5, 9, 13 


,  9, 13 
9 
9 
9 
5 
10 


S     G,9, 

X  13, 14 

5,6 

10 

J     5,9, 

I  13, 14 

5,9 

9,13 

9 

6, 9, 13 

5,13 

13 

9 

10,13 

9 

5 

5 

5,13 


IS 


41.4 
39.8 


AT,.  2 
42.9 
40.5 
41.8 
41.2 

40.4 

41.0 
42.0 


39.2 
40.6 
42.8 
42.5 
39.1/ 
42.5 


41.3 


46. 0 

42.2 
42  9 

43.2 

45.0 
44. 5 
45.  is 
4.3.4 
4.->.  9 
43.  3 
46.3 
.50.3 
38.3 
40.4 
35.  C 
riC.5 
38.8 
41.1 
38.8 


38.1 

2.60 

41.5 

4.75 

41.5 

C.87 

METEOROLOGY    OF    1663. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Contiuued. 


621 


1 

JIAB 

'JH. 

APRIL. 

Stations  in  States 
aud  Territories. 

Date. 

s 

3 

H  3 

H 

Date. 

o 
3   . 

5-2 

3 

3 

g 

a 

"3 

• 

Date. 

1 

S 

U 

a 
'P. 

Date. 

0 
a, 

5 

0  . 
■"  P 

1 

i 
1 

■0 

-2 

a  _ 

5g 

Xew  Xoek— Con. 

17 
17 
17 
17 
17,  30, 31 
0,lo 
17 
.50 
17 
23 

JDef). 
68 
65 
GO 
66 
CO 
G4 
72 
68 
64 
63 

1 
1 
1 
5 
1,4 
3 
3 
5 
3 
3 

Detf. 

—22 

0 

—  8 
—11 
—12 

—  4 

—  4 
-22 

—  5 
—11 

JD'eg. 

'33.' 8" 
30.5 
35.3 
29.8 
35.9 
34.8 
33.6 
3S.0 
34.7 

2.23 
3.80 
2.60 

'2.' 46' 
4.38 
2.80 

i'ee' 

.  15 
15 
15 
27 
27 
15 
15 
28 
27 
15 

Deg. 
Ti 

75 
73 
73 
69 
73 
7i> 
74 
63 
79 

5 

9 

13 

13 

5 

5 

■9 

5,8,9,12 

5,9 

12 
17 
15 
18 

8 
13 
21 

9 
22 
19 

Deg. 

39.0 
37.3 
41.9 
37.9 
40.3 
41.2 
38.3 
41.6 
10.9 

In. 
2.43 
1.53 
1.50 

Palermo 

Nichols 

Xe-n-ark  Valley. . . 

"2.33 
1.86 
1.75 

"i."66 

Kochester 

Little  Genesee 

iSuspension  Bridge 
Buflalo 

Averages 

34.4 

3.11 

41.7 

3.20 

1-1,31 
31 
17 
17 
17 
17 

1" 
17 

62 
61 

77 
68 
80 
79 
80 
75 

3 
4 
3 
4 
4 
3 
4 
4 

1 
2 
4 
1 
4 
2 

4 

23 

23 

72 
73 

6 
13 
13 

22 
21 
23 

NEW  JEBSEY. 

P.itcrson 

37.2 
37.3 
36.2 
41.2 
41.2 
38.1 
40.0 
40.2 

2.68 

2.17 
1.60 
2.99 

41.7 
45.1 
44.6 

.'5.35 
5.26 
4.62 

Xe^  BnmBwick.. 
Trenton 

Biu-lington 

3.  GO 

2.68 

Moorestown 

Mount  Holly 

15 

75 

13 

27 

46.1 

5.09 

Klwood 

Rio  Grande 

15 

1 
23 

1 

15 

23,30 

30 

71 
71 
84 
73 
C9 
73 
72 
80 

6 

13,14 

9 

5,6,9 

13 

6 

13 

13 

19 
23 
28 
25 
22 
22 
25 
24 

46.6 
46.0 
45. 5 
44.4 
44.4 
46.3 
47.7 
47.1 

Seaville 



6.15 
2.35 
5.55 

Dover 

17 

17 

17 
17 

68 
73 
80 
76 
81 

3 

3 

1,3,4 

3 

3,4 

1 
4 
4 

5 

36.8 
39.0 
39.6 
40.2 
41.9 

2.41 
3.54 

'5.' si' 

4.82 

Haddonfleld 

Xewfleld 

Greenwich 

Vjiiel:*Tid 

3.87 
5.19 

Arerages 

42.4 

3.18 

45.8 

4.82 

IS 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
31 
31 
17 
31 
17 
15.  31 
17 

70 
78 
70 
80 
80 
78 
69 
60 
62 
69 
65 
75 
68 
70 

1 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3,4 
5 
3 
1 
5 
3 
5 
3 
3 

—10 
0 
9 
2 
2 
5 

—22 

—20 
5 
0 
0 
4 

1 

1,2:5 

23 

71 
71 
70 

5,13 
6 
12 

13 
25 
30 

rEXNSrLVASlA. 

Nyces 

rallsington 

Pliiladelpliia 

GeiTnantown 

35.7 
39.3 
40.9 
38w0 
38.2 
38.2 
32.0 
35.9 
36.5 
34.4 
39.0 
37.1 
40.3 
39.0 

3.30 
2.50 
3.80 

41.0 
46.0 

47.2 

4.30 
4.10 
4.29 

Horseliam 

Plymoutli  ileet'g. 

3.01 

'3.' 26' 
2.37 

23 
23 
28 

23 

27,23 
23 
23 
23 
23 

23,30 
23 
30 
28 
30 

23,30 

73 
73 
71 
74 
72 
70 
78 
74 
78 
80 
75 
73 
80 
78 
Ti 
75 

5 

13 

13 

5, 6, 13 

14 

5,9 

13 

5, 9, 12 

6,13 

5,13 

13 

13 

5 

9 

5 

13 

26 
23 
10 
25 
20 
18 
25 
28 
24 
26 
13 
25 
24 
12 

17 

48.9 
45.7 
38.5 
43.2 
43.6 
40.2 
47.1 
45.4 
47.1 
47.0 
47.5 
45.8 
47.6 
41.1 
43.6 
44.4 

3.94 

Leliisli  Universitv 

-^\'MtebaU .'. 

Facton-ville 

"3.' 82 

Parkers  vUle 

Ephratali 

Silver  Spring 

Mount  Joy 

4.26 
2.1G 

Harrisburg 

Fountain  Dale 

31 

62 

3 

6 

38.6 

2.47 

5.02 
4.27 

.3.60 
.3.85 
4.28 

Tioga 

30 
31 
1.5 
15 
31 
S,  15 
15 
15 
15 

15 

16 

i 

74 
64 
71 
71 
63 
64 
68 
72 
68 

69 

76 

3 

0 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 

3 

3 

—20 
—11 

—  3 
—14 

0 
—25 

—  7 

0 

—  4 

32.8 
35.0 
37.2 
41.0 
32.7 
38.0 
36.2 
42.8 
40.9 

43.3 

43.0 

2.05 
2.38 
2.31 
3.44 
4.03 
3.80 

3.20 
3.76 

LeTvisburg 

Ickesburg 

MlUTVSA-lllo 

Grampian  HiUs.. . 
Johnsto^wii 

28 
29 
15 
23 
15 

28,30 

15 

74 
68 
75 
79 
77 

75 

73 

5, 9, 13 
13 
13 
5 
13 

C   5,8. 

\  12, 13 
13 

10 
15 
15 
20 
11 

1   30 

20 

36.9 
40.2 
40.0 
46.4 
44.5 

46.5 

44.2 

4.50 
7.55 

L'oncellsville 

Xew  Castle 1 

Beaver 

Canonsburg 

2.54 

Averages 

37.9     3.04  1 

1 

39.0 

4  03 

17  1 

80 

V 

4 

0 

1 

73 

13 

27 

JIABTLANT). 

■Wocdla'svTi 1 

39.4 

3.00  ' 

46.8 

4.15 

622 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Mcleorologij  of  18G8 — Continued. 


JLVRCH. 

Al'EU.. 

Stations  in  States 
auJ  Territories. 

Date. 

g 

S 
c 

a 

^    . 

si 

3 
« 

Date. 

s 
'3 

i 

Is 
3 

a 

a 

S 

11 

.3 

*n 
M 

Bate. 

s 
0  . 

a  s 

I'' 
'y. 

Date. 

0 

a 
-•-  p 

3 
■3 
% 

g 

a 

a 
0 

a 

a  a 
a 

•a 

Makyland— Con. 

Annapolis 

St.  Inigofs 

Emmittsbui  g 

Mt. St. Mary  8 Co!. 

IG 
17 
15 
15 

Deg. 
70 
76 
7-2 
6G 

4 
4 
3 
3 

Deg. 
6 

2 

Deg. 
43.5 
44.7 
39.5 
39.6 

In. 
3.41 
3.69 

'2.'4:V 

30 
28 
30 
30 

T)e(). 
71 
72 

82 

77 

6 

5,9 

5, 13 

13 

Deg. 
27 
31 
24 
22 

Deg. 
50.0 
50.0 
46.7 
46.4 

In. 

3.74 

1.75 

"i'ie 

41.3 

3.13 

48.0 

.3.45 

IT 

88 

4 

16 

30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 

.     87 
76 
82 
82 
74 
81 
83 

5 
6 
5,9 
6 
6 
6 
6 

32 
30 
32 

28 
31 
22 

23 

vntGisu. 

Snrry  Court  House 

51.7 

57.5 
52.2 
.55.2 
53.8 
51.3 
48.1 
49.8 

17 
17 

17 
Ifi 

86 
82 
7G 
7-J 

3,4 
3 
3 

3,4 
3 

15 
12 

1!) 
12 
10 

48.7 
48  3 
40.2 
4.5.  5 
46.0 

0.24 

13.25 
2.30 

0.59 

Mount  Solon 

Lynchbtiig 

14.63 

Wythe  ville 

3.31 

48.2 

5.26 

52.6 

6.18 

15 

IG 

15,  1(J 

78 
104 
76 

3 

2,3 

3 

6 
10 

8 

30 

82 

5 

24 

V/E8T  VIKGIKLA.. 

44.4 
.53.1 
49.2 

50.1 

Buruiu'g  Springs. . 
CabellCoui-tUouse 

2.70 

24 

64 

6 

23 

46.7 

1.70 

48.9 

2.70 

48.4 

1.70 

1? 

17 
17 
17 
17 

iJ'l 

85 
S4 
84 
80 
88 
81 
75 

3,4 
4 
5 

3,  1 

4 
3 

20 
23 
18 
22 

5'g 

15 

17 

30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 

84 
87 
87 
80 
91 
82 
78 

14 

6 

13,14 

6 

4,8 

6,14 

6 

37 
38 
36 
33 
32 
30 
31 

NORTH  CAUOLIXA. 

Ken.-insville 

Gold.sboro' 

3t:iU'i"h 

50.9 
53.6 
50.0 
49.0 
51.6 
47.7 
48.9 

2.  36 

3.  35 

4.  60 
4.20 
4.70 
3i25 

59.4 
59.6 
53.5 
53.7 
.58.8 
51. 7 
53.2 

9.96 
5. 25 
3  80 

OxlbrTl 

3.  50 

Albemarle 

Statesvillo 

Ashevillo ' . . 

6.  69 
7.56 

Averages 

50.2 

3.74 

55.7 

6. 13 

Hi 

21 

81 

82 

4,5 
4,5 

32 

:;o 

30 

87 
83 

14 
13 

3,9 
35 

SOUTH  CAIIOLINA. 

55.  8 
52.9 

3.51 

.57.0 

58.5 

9.34 

Gowdyavillo 

Averages 

54.4 

3.51 

57  8 

9  34 

^1 

iC 
lU 

8:i 

85 
Hi 

4 

3 

3,4 

.34 
30 

29 
39 
13 

85 
85 
60 

8 

8 

8,14 

29 
42 
38 

GEORGIA. 

51.  5 
60.  1 
57.  2 

2.71 
4. 35 
3.  40 

.58. 2 
62.8 
60.0 

6  88 

11  36 

I'enflcld 

5  65 

Averages 

57.3 

3.49 

60.  3 

7  96 

2-1 
M,  1.5,l>4 
10 

15,  k; 

l(i 

24 

82 
78 
84 
85 
82 

3 
3 
.3 
4 
3 
3,4 

32 
31 
30 
30 
31 
34 

28 

14,  30 

30 

87 
86 
80 

8 
8 
6 

39 
42 
41 

ALABAMA. 

Ojiclik.** 

('arlowville 

60.6 
62. 2 
55.  6 
63.  5 
60.6 
60.0 

'3.56' 
5.  54 
2.20 
.3.  51 
3.  52 

6.!.  4 
66.  2 
58.6 

5.  75 
10.46 
7  37 

j'"i.sh  Kivor 

(Iruciic  Spring.'<... 
Ilavaua 

13 
13 

85 

8 
8 

36 

37 

0.5.  9 
64.  8 

7.27 
8.33 

Averages 

00.4 

3.65 

63.8 

7  84 

16,17 

00 

5 

46 

• 
20 

92 

8 

50 

FI-OKIDA. 

Jacksonville 

66.7 

1.35 

72.0 

2.83 

METEOROLOGY    OF    1868. 
Meteorology  of  1S68 — Ccntmued, 


623 


ILVSCH. 

ATIUL. 

Stations  in  States 
aiid  Territories. 

Date. 

I 
as 

1 

'2 

1 

1 
Date. 

c 
"**  ? 

a  3 

i 

1  t 

3 
1 

i 
1 

0 
S 

■s  S 

it 

•3 

1 

i 

Date. 

1  = 

Ik 

1 

Date 

P. 

3 
5  = 

1 

s 

0 

1 

1^ 

=  3 
a  I 

a 

I 

Flokida — Con. 

Poi-t  Orange 

Lake  City 

14 

1S,17 

Beg. 
85 

84 

4 

Beg. 
44 

39 

Beg. 
64.6 
62.8 

In. 
'2.88' 

12 
26 

B^. 

88 
85 

8 

8 

Beg. 

48 
43 

Beg. 
7L3 

68.5 

In. 
"i'88 

Averages 

64.7 

2.12 

70.6 

2.36 

14 
10 
15 
22 
14,16 

84 
80 
88 
& 
83 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 

34 
41 
40 
33 
40 

29 
30 
23 
3J 
15 

85 
81 
91 

63 
89 

3 
3 
4 

1 
26 

47 
62 
50 
34 
50 

TKTAR. 

Gilmer 

61.3 

67  8 

66.3 
71.9 
71.4 

67.8 

68.2 

or;.,: 

Colnmbia  * 

67.1  1  1.76 
63.7    10.60 
64.7  i  4.55 

5  96 

"Waco 

5.40 
3.63 

AreragoB 

64.  9  j  5. 64 

69.1 

16 
24 

83 
82 

3 
3 

53 
33 

15 
13,24,29 

82 

84 

4,8 
8 

46 
47 

LOUISIANA. 

65.6 
65.4 

61.6 



Averages 

61.6 

65.5 

16 
24 
IG 
24 

80 
82 
80 
88 

3,4 
3 
3 
3 

34 
39 
37 

23 

14 
liSO 
13,14 
28,29 

84 
85 
81 

83 

8 
4 
4 

8 

33 
45 
42 
32 

SaSSTSKITTI. 

Grenada 

59.0 
63.0 
6a2 
61.0 

'a  42" 

&70 

62.6 
66.6 
69.9 
67.3 

Brookhaven 

"i'ln 

Marion 

ia66 

Averages 

61.3 

8.56 

66.6 

10  81 

24 

10 

86 
T9 

3 
4 

32 
16 

13,30 

30 
24,29 

30 

3d 
29,30 

30 

69 

81 
79 
82 

84 
80 

86 

6 
5 
6,7 
6 
5 
8 

39 

30 
32 
35 
26 
31 
33 

JLKKAXSAS. 

Helena 

5D.2 

62.0 

•  — 

TE^'XESaEE. 

Elizabethton 

Tr.sculiua  College 

50.1 

53.2 
56.2 
60.4 
58.4 
55.4 
60.1 

Lookout  Mountain 

2o 

16 

15,16 

24 

80 
82 
78 
82 

3 
3 
3 
3 

21 
22 
21 
27 

55.1 
57.5 
55.0 
57.4 

'5.2! 
5.52 
4.17 

"9.' SO 
7.61 
7.96 

ClarksviUo 

Averages 

55.0 

4.97 

57.3 

15,16,25 
25 
25 
23 

76 
76 
82 

78 

3 
3 
4 
3 

10 
11 
18 
17 

29,30 

29, 30 

29 

30 

73 
76 
84 
79 

5 
5 
5 
5 

22 

29 
23 
23 

> 

KEKTCCKT. 

Pine  Grove 

Ltxinston 

Danville 

49.9 
53.7 

3.47 
3.86 

5.1.8 
51.9 
56.  G 
63.1 

4  34 
4.92 
4  79 

Louisville 

52.6 

6.  t<3 

C.05 

Averages 

52.1 

4.72 

53.9 

5  03 

S  17,24. 

\  25,  31 
15 
2:5 
17 
15 
15 
23 
15 
15 
23 

J- 

67 
76 
67 
74 
76 
62 
65 
72 
70 

3 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2 
3 
3 
3 

-12 

0 
—10 

—  5 
—20 

3 

—  5 

—  5 

—  6 

—  8 

27,29 

28 
29.30 
29 
28 
30 
29 
29 
29 
231 

63 

76 
75 
77 
77 
78 
66 
74 
76 
78 

6,13 

5 
6 
12 
6 
5, 9, 13 
5 
5 
5 
5 

20 

23 
20 
20 
23 
28 
22 
18 
16 
12 

OHIO. 

Xew  LiBbon. 

Stfubenville 

itiluevsville 

Cleveland. 

"Wonster 

40.4 

44.0 
3a  2 
37.2 
42.0 
48.5 
36.2 
3&2 
39.4 
41.1 

3.12 

'3.'97" 
4.20 

'3.' 69" 
3.91 
5.9(f 
3.57 
3.93 

43.8 

48.0 
45.5 
42.5 
47.4 
51.1 
42. 2 

43.7 
46.6 

2,84 

'i.42 
2.97 

GaUipolig 

IC^Upy's  Tslnnd 

5.06 
1.83 
4.13 
1.69 
L67 

^Torwalk 

Carscn 

(524 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT 
Mclcorologij  of  IdGd — Coutiuue. 


l^tations  in  States 
and  Territories. 


Ohio— Con. 

jN'ortb  Fairfield. . 

W'c.-'tfrville 

Miiriou 

Jliilsboro' 


Toledo 

Howling  Green.. 

ICtuton 

UrbanaUuiversity 

IJcthel 

Ciuciuuati  (H) 

Do.        (P;.... 
CoUcgeHiU 


Averages. 


AiouroeCity 

Aljjtna 

Stato  Ag.  CoUege. 

hitchliejd 

Oraud  Kapids 

X  oithjxnt 

Holland 

Otsego 


Copper  FaUa. 
Ontonagon... 


Averages . 


INDIA^'A. 


Kiclimond 

Aurora 

Vovuy 

!Muucie 

Spiceland 

(Columbia  City... 

Cartbage 

Indianapolis 

State  Uuivcr.sity. 

lUiisselaer 

'Moroni 

Xew  llarmony . . 


Averages. 


n-UNOIB. 


Chicago 

Xcar  Chicago. 
Kidge  Farm... 

Marengo 

Ooleouda 

A  urora 

Sandv.-ich 

Bi^lvidore 

Ottav.a 

Wapello 

AViiinebago... 

Kochello 

AVyauet 

Tiskilwa 

Magnolia 

Elniira 

Peoria 


Date. 


1.5 
15 
2:! 

15 

5  15,23, 

J  30, 31 

23 

10 

15, 23 

15 

15 

15 

15 


30,  :u 

30 

30,  31 

23 

31 

31 

16 

C  11,1.5, 

I  IG,  23 

2fl 

20, 30, 31 


72 
71 
69 
71 


Date. 


i 
3 
3 
A 
■  4 
3,  1 

4 

3 

3,4 

3 

38 


Deg. 
—13 
—  3 
—11 
3 


—  8 
0 

—  7 
—10 

—  6 
—11 

—  8 


8 
10 
4 
5 
o 

0 
7 

14 
8 
7 

15 


12 
—10 


1 
—13 

—  9 
—12 

—  C 
0 

-*  5 
6 
9 


Dcg. 
39.  G 
41.3 
39.  G 
44.5 

33.3 

39.9 
39.8 
42.  G 
40.0 
47.0 
50.7 
45.8 


41.8 


37.0 
30.0 
37.8 
37.0 
38.1 
31.2 
38.4 

40.0 

26.0 


42.3 
48.2 
50.3 
43.5 
43.7 
39.7 
44.5 
44.6 
4G.  9 
42.9 
47.8 
52.0 


45.7 


43.8 
41.7 


38.1 
53.1 

38.  0 

39.  C 


42.6 
45.  5 
38.3 
38.5 
42.3 
42.8 
43.2 
44.7 
45.7 


la. 
4.77 
7.93 
7.42 
6.59 


14.00 
12.  72 
7.51 
5.75 
4.87 
5.41 
10.48 


.3.35 
3.10 
4.05 
5.02 


4.50 


7.70 
6.99 
5.40 

10.00 
7.10 
8.00 
7.75 
7.09 
7.58 

11.  25 
8.55 
6.40 


.82 


5.40 
4.  10 

0.88 
4.86 


4.48 
4.88 
4.78 


6.50 
5.73 
5.38 


Date. 


2,8. 

20 

28, 29 

29 

29 


30 
29,30 
29 
30 
30 


28 
28 
27 
28 
27 
28 

25.26 

26 

20 


29 
29 
27,29 
22,27 
22 
28 


27 
22, 27 


Beg. 


Date. 


5 

5 

5 

6,7,9,13 
5 
5 
5 
9,13 
6 


4,  8, 10 


5 

5,8 
8 


Deg. 

18 
22 
19 

23 


5 
4,5 
4,5 


5 
4,5 
4 
5 
4,5 
5 
4 
4 
4 


5,10 

5 


Dcg. 
44.0 
47.6 
44.3 
47.4 

42.5 

44.  5 
43.8 
46.  7 
4^.3 
49.1 
53.7 
48.5 

46.1 


44.3 
33.7 
42.7 
40.5 
41.8 
37.5 
41.7 

45.7 

14.3 

33.2 


4.5.  8 
50.9 
.53. 1 
40.9 
47.1 
4.5.1 
46.9 


2 


In. 

1.84 

3.57 


3.38 

5.55 
2.44 
3.35 
3.50 
2.  72 
3^30 
4.44 


2.87 
1.32 
1.83 
3.38 


2.53 
3.90 

2.05 


4.02 
3.69 
3. 95 
5.25 
5.70 
6.24 
4.94 


48.8 
44.2 
49.6 
53.6 

48.4 


4.5. 9 
43.8 
42.5 
41.4 
58.0 
42.2 
43.2 
40.9 
45.7 

41.' i 
42.1 

45.0 
47.3 
46.5 
47.6 


5.17 
0.  no 
2. 00 


3.00 

'2.56 
6.06 
4.20 
4.50 
2.45 

'2.56 

4.43 


4.50 
3.15 
3.18 


METEOROLOGY  OF  1868. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


625 


St.atioEs  in  States 
and  Territories, 


ILUNOIS— Con. 


Springfield... 

Dubois 

Waterloo  ... 
Galesbnrg . . . 
Manchester  . 
Mt.  SterUng . 
Andalusia . . . 
Augusta 


Averages 

WISCONSIN. 


Manitowoc .. 
Plymouth  . . 
WUwaukee . 
Appleton  ... 

Geneva 

"Waupacca.- 
Euibarrass... 
Rocky  Run . 
Edgerton  ... 


Baraboo 

Ne'w  Lisbon . 
Bayfield 


Averages . 


MINNESOTA. 

Bearer  Bay.... 

St.  Paul 

Minneapolis . . . 

Sibley 

Danville 

New  Uhn 


Averages. 


IOWA. 

Clinton 

Davenport 

'  Dubuque 

MonticeUo 

Burlington 

Fort  Madison 

Gattenberg 

Ceres 

Mt.  Vernon 

Iowa  City 

Ludcpend'ence 

Xear  Indcjiend'ce 

Waterloo 

Marble  Bock 

Iowa  Falls 

Algona 

Xear  Algona 

Dakota 

Fort  Dodge 

Boonesbofo' 

liolfe  

Fontenelle 

Locran 

vriiitesboro' 


Averages... 

40 


Date. 


10 
Ij 
•23 
10 
15 
23 
16,23 
23 


Deg. 
75 
74 
80 
75 
79 
85 
74 


23,29 
29 


23,30 
IG 
Ifi 
2;j 
31 
16 

16,31 
23 

16,23 
31 

16,23 
23 
23 

23,31 
23 
31 
31 
23 

23,  31 
•23 
30 
23 
22,23,'24 
22 


Date. 


3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2,3 
.  3 
3 


3 

3 

3 

2,3 


Deff. 

4 

8 
18 

4 
11 
12 

2 

10 


Beg. 
44.0 
43.8 
51.3 
43.2 
47.6 
48.9 
44.1 
47.6 


44.7 


—12 


35.0 
33. 0 
36.2 
33.3 
35.3 
35.0 
32.6 


38.5 
40.0 

36.7 

28.2 


34.9 


26.5 
32.6 
32.2 
31.7 
30.5 
34.5 


t;  o 


In. 


5.40 
5.61 


5.63 


3.87 
3.20 
4.59 
1.35 


7.75 
11.25 


1.51 
1. 22 
o!90 
1.  02 


0.51 


32.  3     1. 03 


41.9 
41.6 
39.5 
41.9 
47.6 
45.4 
36.1 
41.7 
41.2 
42.7 
39.0 
38.3 
39.0 
37.9 
35.3 
3,1.5 
36.4 
39.1 
33.7 
38.0 
37.2 
41.6 
43.0 
40.1 

39.9 


Date. 


S5 


Date. 


C25' 
(27, 


8.50 
11.84 
3.83 
4.02 


5.94 


6.31 
3.00 
2.15 


3.16 
4.49 
3.00 
3.76 
2.40 


■22, 26, 30 
22 
27 
30 
21 
22 
27 
21 
2-2 
21 
27 
27 
27,30 


Detj. 

78 
77 
82 
75 
78 
78 
72 


9 
13 

5,9 
3 
9 


Deg. 
•26 
21 
26 
25 
20 
26 


4,8 


Beg. 
45.6 
47.6 
49.0 
44.0 
48.2 
49.3 
40.  0 
48.8 

45.  7       4. 35 


39.3 
38.4 
39.9 
39.1 
41.0 
40.7 
37.4 
41.0 
4-2.2 


43.0 


10 

8 

8 

5,8 


70 
71 
70 
73 
72 
75 
74 
70 
76 
78 
75 
77 
72 


4,5 
8 
9 

5,8 
5 
5 

5,8 
8 


40.3 


30.8 
39.1 
38.6 
37.3 
39.2 
40.5 

37.6 


4.3.0 
43.7 
42.9 
44.5 
46.9 
45.5 
40.3 
4-2.5 
42.9 
44.5 
42.4 
41.2 
40.8 


30 
11 
30 

11 

n  I 


41.9 
40.7 
40.8 


41.6 

'44.'9" 
43.1 
43.4 

42.7 

42.9 


626 


AGEICULTUKAl.   REPORT. 

Meteorology  of  1668 — Continued. 


MARCH. 

APRIL 

g 

6 

•s 
^ 

i 

a 

c 

s 

S 

StatioDs  ill  States 

P. 

S 

B 

n 

"53 

S  . 

p. 

P. 

£ 

a. 

and  Territories. 

^2 

•*^  -ri 

c; 

^ 

^,^ 

■Sc 

p< 

^ 

Date. 

Dat«. 

£3 

3 

11 

Date. 

E  = 

Date. 

ll 

o 

1% 

a 

n 

a 
a 

E 

B 

'a 

g 

^ 

§ 

a 

^ 

§ 

a 

s 

MISSOURI. 

Dcg. 

Beg. 

Beg. 

In. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

In. 

St.  Lojiis  Univer'y 

23 

80 

3 

10 

52.3 

6.54 

22 

77 

5 

30 

51.5 

5.89 

Alleiiioii 

23 

88 

3 

14 

50.2 

8.87 

30 

85 

5 

28 

.■51.4 

6.05 

Hematite 

23 

R4 

3 

18 

51.6 

8.40 

29 

80 

5 

28 

5i8 

7.40 

CViitoii 

2.'{ 

82 

3 

12 

46.9 

4.07 

22 

80 

5 

24 

40.  5 

7.47 

CaiitdU  UniversitT 

23 

80 

3 

15 

48.3 

22 

80 

5 

25 

49.4 

Ki.Ua ". 

23 

87 

3 

19 

51.2 

6.59 

29 

82 

5 

25 

5L0 

7.34 

Jt'tiiiwin  City 

23 

80 

3 

18 

49.0 

30 

7^ 

5 

29 

50.0 

Heiiuilagt! 

23 

84 

2 

21 

50.9 

2.93 

30 

79 

3 

30 

51.8 

i'93 

HairistinviUo 

2.1,30 

88 

3 

20 

.M).8 

2. 22 

ni,22. 

\  23,  3.1 

22 

J76 

5 

26 

47.7 

2.51 

23,24 

87 

2 

17 

48.5 

3.fi0 

83 

- 

22 

47  7 

3.43 

50.0 

5.  4!i 

.00  0 

.5  63 

KANSAS. 

At'Oliison 

23 

92 

2 

18 

4&7 

5.80 

21,22 

82 

5 

23 

4a  7 

7.10 

Lmiveu  worth 

23 

95 

2 

15 

49.0 

5.  16 

11,21 

63 

5 

22 

47.7 

3.44 

OUiilia 

23 
23 

91 
84 

2 
2 

17 
24 

4B.7 
51.6 

7.70 
3.12 

30 
30 

83 
83 

9 
5 

29 
32 

48.9 

56.4 

5.90 

li-nxtei    Springs  .. 

2.80 

Lfiwrfnce 

23 

93 

2 

22 

50.9 

3.46 

11 

83 

5 

25 

49.7 

2.95 

Holtou 

23 

28 

91 

87 

2 

15 
14 

48.3 
49.4 

"0.'93" 

21,23 
11 

83 
83 

2 
5 

26 
27 

48.2 
46.6 

State  Agr.  CoUege 

1.96 

Council  Grove 

23 

92 

2 

23 

52.3 

4.45 

22 

82 

2 

26 

50.6 

2.65 

49.9 

4.38 

49.6 

3.83 

NEBRASKA. 

Dakota 

22,23 

80 

40.4 

30 

72 

3 

21 

44.3 

Omaha   Mission  .. 

22 

80 

2,3 

15 

42.0 

1.32 

30 

79 

3 

23     4,^..  9 

1.00 

ElUljoin 

24 
24 
24 

85 
86 
90 

2 

2 

12 
11 
10 

42.7 
41.7 
45.3 

'i"74' 

1.00 

30 

11 

21,30 

73 

78 
76 

3 
3 
3 

20 
22 
24 

44.2 
44.5 
47.3 

lie  f^'Ho 

3.16 

Bellevue 

2.60 

Gleiidale 

24 

92 

' 

4 

43.9 

2.75 

22 

89 

3,8 

22 

45.5 

3.60 

42.7 

2.18 

45.3 

2.59 

LTAH. 

Wanship 

22 

59 

11 

9 

35.1 

2.00 

CALIFORXIA. 

San  Francisco 

19 

63 

5,13,23 

45 

51.5 

7.54 

24 

72 

15 

48 

52.7 

2.35 

Autioch 

29,30.31 

68 

13 

39 

52. 3     3.  43 

24 

74 

18 

47 

67.9 

1.15 

iliu'phy's 

29 

76 

6, 9, 13 

30 

49. 0     9.  87 

25 

80 

13 

34 

54.8 

2.91 

50.9 

6.96 

58.5 

2.14 

OREGON. 

31 

76 

24 

28 

1 

WASIUXGTOX. 

Port  Townscnd  .. 

1 

65 

11 

40 

52.2 

0.65 

>UT. 

1 

1 

.TJTK. 

UADCK. 

Stenbcn 

31 

66 

1 

32 

48.5    10.05 

27 

82 

9 

47 

5?.  7 

2.00 

TVestWaterviUe.. 

31 

76 

1,2 

34 

51. 9     a  97 

20 

96 

12 

50 

64.6 

2.64 

Gardiner 

31 

69 

1,8 

36 

51.9 

9.58 

20,27 

81 

4 

45 

63.0 

3.20 

METEOROLOGY    OF    1868. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued- 


627 


Stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 


ICaixe— Con. 


Stanrtisli 

Norway  

Cornish 

Curuish^TUe . 


Averages . 


NEW  HAKFSHIBS. 


Portsnionth 

Stnulnrd 

Concord 

Goflstov.-n  Cent«r. 
Cl;u-eiiiont 


▲Teragea. 


\"EKMONT. 


Lnneiibnrg 

Nortli  »;i-;iRsburT 

Kiuxii.lpb .'. 

"Woodstock 

Kear  St.  Albans . 
TVe*t  Charlolt*.. 
Middlebury 


Date. 


31 

28 

28,31 

2e 


e 

31 
29,31 


▲▼enges 

HASSACHT  SETTS. 


Kingston 

Topstield 

Lawrence 

Georgetown 

Xewbury 

Milton 

Cam  bridjre 

^orth  BiU erica.. - 
TTest  Newton .... 

Xew  Bedford 

Worcester 

Mendon 

Limenbnrg  

Amberst 

Richmoud 

Williams  CoUese. 


Averages 

RHODE  ISLAST). 


Xe-wx)ort. 


cox>rEcncuT. 


Pomiret 

Colntiibia 

Middle  town  . 
Colebrook... 
"Water  bury.. 


Averages... 
NEW  roKK. 


Moriches 

Soath  Hartford. 


2? 

27,  2e 
28 

28,29 
29 
29 


Deg. 
75 
72 
74 

76 


Date. 


1.2 

e 


4.8 


23 
28,31 


26 
31 
31 
31 

16,28,31 
31 
31 
28 
17,31 
27 
27 
27 
16 


27,31 


9 
1 

4, 
1,8 
1 
1 
1 


Dto. 
Si 
32 
33 
33 


Deg. 
St.  5 
51.7 
51.3 
51.1 


51.2 


52.S 
hi.  1 
55.2 
55.3 


In. 
10.16 


10.  le 
8.32 


10.33 
4.00 


54.  3  I  tj.  0(j 


62.8 
51.5 
55.2 
52.4 
54.8 
56.9 
54.9 


55.5 


53.3 
50.7 


50.6 
51.4 
50.7 
52.2 
54.3 
54.6 
52.8 
54.0 
50.2 
53.9 
55.1 
56.5 
M.4 


4.50 
4.5-: 
5.33 


6.50 
4.54 


5.  OS 


9.25 
4  72 


9.20 
8.31 


11.62 
9.44 

a64 

6.70 
11.05 
7.86 
6.04 
0.63 


53.0     S.H 


Date. 


o... 

52.2 

aw 

50.9 

7.71 

53.9 

55.3 

7.63 

54.2 

54.8 

9.35 

53.8 

a  23 

55.4 

a  PI 

58.1 

6.20 

15,20,27 

18 

20 

19,2.1 

20 


sl 


Date. 


20 
20 
19 
20 
20 
27 
20 
20 
20 
20 
19 
19,20 


20 

20 

19,20 

20 


I>eg. 

92 
90 
89 
89 


3,4 

3 

3.4 

3,4 


2,3,10 
2 


3,4 
3 
11 


DcQ. 
48 
49 
49 
50 


3 
4 

4,11 
3 
4 

28 
11 
11 
11 
11 
10 
3 


2, 4, 12 


Dfg. 
G5.  4 
C4.  4 
64.3 
65.3 

GO.  8 


64.0 
63.3 
67.2 
66.2 
66.5 

dD.  4 


63.6 
63.3 
65.8 
63.1 

65.9 
70.0 
64.8 

65.2 


64.7 
64.6 
64.7 


46 
45 
49 
48 
52 
52 
49 
49 
49 
51 
42 
47 


65.2 
66.1 
67.5 
67.3 
6^.2 
62.9 
65.3 
64.2 
66.7 
66.2 
68.6 
69.0 

66.1 


60.5 


62.9 
66.9 
65.  7 
64.7 
65.1 

65.1 


68.7 
69.9 


2.74 
2.90 


628 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


Stations  in  States 
and  Tcrritwies. 


Niiw  roRK— Con. 


Troy 

Garriaon's 

Throg's  Neck 

AVHiite  Plains 

Deaf&  Dumb  Inst 
Columbia  College. 

F"latBu8h 

Newburg 

Slinaville 

Gonveniour 

KortL  Hammond. 

Housoville 

South  Trenton 

Caz(-novia 

Oneida 

Depauville 

Oswego 

Palermo 

Nichols 

Newark  Valley. . . 

Creneva 

Rochester 

Little  Genesee 

Su.fitension  Bridge. 
Buflfalo 


Areragea 

NEW  JEBSKT. 

Paterson 

Newark 

New  Brunswick. 

Trenton 

Moorestown 

El  wood 

Rio  Grande 

Dover 

Haddon  field 

Newfield 

Greenwich 

Vineland 


Averages. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

Nycea 

Fallsington 

Philadelphia 

German  town 

Horsham 

Pljnnouth  Meet'g. 

Dy  berry 

Lihi:;h"TT&iver'y  . 

Whitehall 

Fact<)r\"*-ille 

Rending , 

Parkesville 

H'cst  Chester 

Ephrata 

Mount  Joy 

Hanisburg 

Fountain  Dale 

Tioga 

Le  wisburg 

Ickesburg 

•  Grampian  Hills. . . 
Johnstown 


Date. 


27 
27 

14,  M 
27 
27 
•ll 
2.5 
27 

27,  .30 
27 
27 
27 
2!) 
27 
27 
27 

27,  29 
27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
2« 
27 
26 


sl 


2() 

;!i 

27 

:u 

27 
30 
26 
27 
27,  .30 
■M 
■M 
30 


30 
27,  .30 
27 
27 
27 
27 
2G 
30 


30 
30 
27 
27 
29,:«) 
27 
30 
26 
29 


Beit. 
76 
75 
74 
72 
<>9 
69 
72 
80 
74 
&3 
88 
78 
80 
79 
82 
82 
77 
83 
82 
80 
81 
83 
80 
80 
81 


Date. 


a 

8 
8 
8 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

13 

1 

1 

1 

1,10 

11 

1 

1,7,18 

11 
1 
8 


S5 


7,^ 

,7,8 

8 


5,8 


1,9 


4 
9 

8 
8 
9 
8 
4 
8,9 
9 


Deg. 
38 
41 
42 
3.S 
41 
41 
40 
42 
34 
32 
32 
30 
30 
32 
35 
32 
36 

•  34 
37 
34 
35 
40 
25 
38 
37 


Dft/. 
57.6 
57.0 
55.  6 
.55.  5 
54.7 
54.9 
.54.2 
57.6 

54.  3 

55.  3 
57.  0 
54.1' 
50.2 
53.8 
57.0 
54. 8 
51.2 
.54.0 
55.3 
52. 6 
53.8 
54.8 
.5.3.1 
55.7 
54.1 


In. 
6. 33 
8.08 


7.19 
5. 1-4 
5.08 
6.  82 
7.40 
4.23 
5.  37 
1.01 
7.74 


10.05 
5.  48 
3.35 
2.60 


3.74 
6.36 
3.65 


Date. 


19, 


54.9 


57.1 
.55.3 
5.5.  3 
60.7 
56.4 
56.9 
56.3 
55.1 
56.4 
57.4 
58.4 
59.2 


57.0 


53.2 
.57.3 
58.3 


.57.9 
57.0 
52.4 
55  9 
57.0 
54.5 
59.0 
57.1 


63.4 
.59.0 
59.2 
59.9 
51.1 
56.3 
58.3 
52.5 
53.5 


9.  39 
(i.  92 
7.70 
(i.  98 
5.87 


8.54 
7.45 


5. 31 
6.69 


8.90 
6.40 
C.89 


5.85 
4.' 62' 


19,  20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
27 
20 
18 
16 
16 
15,17,18 
14 
18 

15,18 
14 

15,30 
15 
18 

18,  is 

18 
19 
15,18 
15 
15 


Deff. 
88 
92 
90 
85 
87 
90 
8,5 
92 
92 
89 
96 
86 
92 
87 
90 
8o 
82 
93 
96 
,90 
87 
84 
92 
9C 
91 


Date. 


3.C7 


4.40 
7.83 
.5.70 
4.10 
.5.84 
.5.  91 
12. 18 


18 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 

19,20 
20 

18,20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
19 
20 

19,20 
19 
18 
19 
18 

14,18 
15 


93 
89 
88 
95 
86 
88 
89 
88 
87 
91 
92 
92 
92 
94 
92 
91 
92 
101 
91 
93 


11 
4 

4,26 

r>,  11 

5,11 

4 

11,12 

2 

3,9 
7 
2 
1 

2 
2,7 


11 

3 

4,5 

5 

4,5 

3 

3 

4,11 

12 

4 

3 

11,12 


10 

4 

5,11 

11 

4 

4,5 

2, 3, 13 

3 

3 

3 

3 

11 

3 

3 

3,  4,  .5, 11 

3,  4,  5 

3 

10 

3,9 

2,3 

3 

10 


Xi 
53 
51 
53 
.53 
49 
.54 
50 
48 
50 
43 
40 
4G 
46 
46 
44 
41 
44 
44 
47 
48 
40 
42 
47 


49 
.53 
55 
.50 
.5:} 
54 
44 
50 
44 
45 
51 
52 
54 
50 


Deri. 

68.8 

67.5 

67. 

66.  2 

66.0 

07.8 

06.3 

69.  5 

{)7.  0 

06.7 

70.2 

65.4 

65.8 

64.7 

6,5.0 

63.6 

61.2 

65.  7 
66.2 
64.0 
67.0 

66.  4 
64.7 
04.8 
07.0 

66.5 


67.6 
6.5.9 
67.3 
72.3 
68.9 
68.5 
71.3 
67.1 
67.9 
71.0 
69.8 
72.7 

63.9 


67.4 
68.1 
71.9 

70.7 
67.  9 
6H.  8 
64.5 
68.1 

08.  0 
65.9 
71.1 
67.3 
71.3 

70^8 
72.9 
70.  4 
08.1 
68.8 

09.  2 
63.  9 
04.6 


METEOROLOGY    OF    1868. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continned. 


629 


MAT. 

JUNK. 

stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 

Date. 

c 

Cm 

a 
S  _. 

a 

Date. 

s 
s  . 

""  ? 
B  ^ 

a 

'a 

3 
o 

1    ' 

1 

Date. 

0 
& 

a 

£  S 
'2 

Date. 

i 

a 

a 
ii 

0 

D 

s 

Pi 

a 
3 

a 

^ 

Pensa.— Con. 

•26 
29 
29 
29 
29 

De(j. 

79 
82 
61 
81 
80 

10 

8 
11 

7,8 
8 

Deg. 
35 
38 
32 

42 
40 

Deg. 
56.6 

58.8 
58.8 
58.5 
59.0 

In. 
4.  is' 

3.16 

15 
29 
15 
15, 19, 30 
15 

Den. 

92 
90 
90 
87 
89 

10 
10 
10 
9 
10 

Deij. 
50 
47 
39 
50 
43 

Deg. 
68.5 
69.6 
69.4 
69.5 
69.2 

In. 

Connellsville 

New  Castle 

"i.50 

Canoiisbuxg 

0.85 

ATerages 

57.0 

6.11 

68.8 

3.47 

30 
27 
31 

27 

78 
75 
80 
74 

3,8 

8 

8 
8 

44 
47 
44 
45 

20 
20 
18, 19,.20 
18,19 

91 
90 
90 
86 

3, 4, 11 

4, 5, 11 

11 

3,11 

56 
59 
56 
53 

ILUCTLAKD. 

"VToodlawn 

Annapolis 

Emnuttsborg 

Mt.  St.  Marf  8  Col. 

58.3 
59.4 
59.5 
57.4 

5.02 
8.14 

reo' 

70.5 
70.3 
71.1 
68.1 

2.37 
3.37 

"4.65 

Arerages 

58.7 

6.92 



'4.17' 
5.22 

70.0- 

3.46 

27, 29,  30 
2 
26 
1 

89 
80 
78 
82 

8 
8 
,3 
12 

49 
49 
48 
46 

20 
20 
20 
19 
19 
20,29 
29 

93 
89 
91 
89 
85 
86 
82 

1,11 

3,  4, 10 

4, 10, 11 

11 

11 

12,13 

12 

62 
60 
60 
57 

58 
48 
48 

TDIQINIA. 

Surry  Court  House 
Johnsonto-mi .... 

68.5 
62:6 
61.9 
62.9 

75.3 
71.7 
70.8 
71.3 

"3.' 62 

Mount  Solon 

2.43 

SnowviUe 

WytheviUe 

2,27 
1 

84 
81 

10 
10 

39 
44 

59.5 
59.3 

12. 30 
3.80 

67.0 
6.5.8 

1.21 
2.-50 

Areraces 

62.5 

6.37 

70.3 

2.29 

1,6 
29 

4 

1,29 

80 

90 

84 
72 

9,11 

11 

20 
21, 24 

46 

40 

39 
29 

19 
C  4,5,18, 
\  19,  29 

15 

94 

I   90 

93 

TTKST  VIKGDflA. 

61.1 

64.8 

62.3 
56.0 

'4.' 60" 

White  Day 

10 
12 

,     50 
55 

73.5 
71.5 

61.1 

4.60 

72.  5 

3 

2,29 

29 

2 

2,29 
C  1,  27, 
i  28, 29 

94 
92 
94 
86 
95 

I   66 

82 

4 
9 
9 
9 
9,10 

9, 10, 14 

9 

60 
54 
59 
52 
42 

42 

42 

17,19,20 

21 

20 

19,20 

30 

29 

19 

96 
96 
98 
88 
98 

90 

86 

11 

11 

11 

4, 10, 11 

1, 12, 13 

12 

27 

62 
62 
53 

58 
54 

50 

57 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Ken.ansviUe 

Gold.slioro' 

Ilalei"li 

73.0 
69.5 
58.1 
66.0 
65.8 

62.9 

62.3 

3.93 
■4. 22 
3.20 
4.65 
4.31 

3.12 

78.3 
76.5 
75.9 
73.0 
73.3 

70.3 

68.9 

7.38 
4. 15 
1.95 

Oxford 

3.90 

Albemarle 

Statesville 

Asheville 

2.26 
1.25 

65.4 

3.91 

73.7 

3.48 

C  1,5,27, 

i       28 

31 

69 

9 
14 

56 
50 

17,  20 
6 

92 

89 

1 

4,10 

63 
62 

BOUTH  CAROLINA. 

69.8 
68.8 

6.42 

74.1 
74.7 

2.46 

Gowdysville 

69. 3 

6.43 

74.4 

2.46 

1 

o 

1 

89 
91 

89 

87 

9 

9 

13, 14 

9 

46 
53 
58 
50 

19 

90 

23 

58 

GEORGIA. 

Atlanta 

66.3 
71.7 
73.3 
69.6 

4.26 

72.6 

0.50 

Summerville 

Penfleld 

5.83 
4.50 

18,19 
19 

94 
94 

10 
23 

67 
60 

78.4 
76.8 

1.18 
0.30 

70.2 

4.86 

75.9 

0.66 

630 


AGEICULTURAL    REPORT. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


Stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 


Opelita 

Carlowville 

Moulton 

Gretne  Springs. .. 
Havana 


Ayerageo. 


FLORIDA. 

Jacksonrille. 
I»)rt  Orange . , 
Lake  City... 


Averages. 

TEXAS. 

Qiljnafi. 


HooBton. 


Colombia. 

Waco 

Austin.... 


Arerages... 

LOCIfllAXA. 


New  Orleans. 
Benton 


mssissiFPL 


Grenada 

Brookhaven . 
Natchez 


Are  rages. . . 

AS£AN8A8. 

Helena 


TZNNBSSEK. 

Elizabethton. . . 

Tasculum  College. 

Lookout  Mountain 

Austin 

Clarksville .... 
Memphip. 


Averages — 

KXNTUCKT. 

Pine  Grove. . . . 
Lexingt'On 


Date. 


28 

23,31 

27,28 

28 

28 


S3 


I>eg. 
93 
92 
82 
89 
88 


31 


26, 27, 31 


29 
29 
3. 16,  31 


27 


25,26 
30,31 


28 


5 
1,28 


83 


85 


94 


Date. 


13,14 
9 
9 
9 
9 


9, 14. 19 
13,14 


8, 9, 13 


9 

14 

14 

10,18 

8,14 

8 


Beg. 
55 
56 
44 
51 
50 


60 


66 


58 


52 


Deg. 
71.2 
73.3 
60.0 
63.7 
68.8 


69.6 


78.3 
78.7 
72.1 


73.8 


76.6 
76.8 
75.2 


C9.8 


61.8 

64.5 

69.2 

67.0 

65.3 
71.4 


60.0 
62.0 


In. 
3.00 
0.80 
3.48 
4.40 
3.89 


3.11 


2.85 
3.13 


2.31 
3.70 
2.33 


75.  3     2. 53 


1.00 


74.1 

73. 8     3. 98 


2.85 

3.21 
3.45 


6.14 

5.90 


Date. 


13 
2 
19 
29 
18,20,30 


13,14 

8,16 
18,19 


11,12,29 
3,12,19 


15,29 

29 

15,30 


14,16,29 

5  12, 13, 

U6,  28 

19 

f  16, 17, 

il8,29 

19 

19 


el 


I>eg. 
97 
96 
91 
94 
92 


98 


85 


92 


Date. 


26 

23 

9,23 

23 


S 


Dcfj. 

ti" 

70 
.^4 
60 
63 


9, 10, 11 


4,6,8, 

9,10, 

15,20, 

22,23, 

24,25, 

27,29, 

30 

10 


24 


22,25 
22 


11,12 

1,12 

21 

22,24 

22 
22,23 


65 


>  74 


Den. 
&0.4 
81.2 
75.0 

76.4 
76.7 


73.3 


79.8 


80.4 


r7.3 


81.0 


82.5 


In. 

0.25 
2.70 
0.45 
0.88 
0.67 


0.99 


12.40 


4.03 


2.40 


80.3 

2.37 

81.4 

77.6 
79.4 

7&8 

"i.'57 

78.6  1     1.57 

70.9 

73.1 

72.3 

75.5 

71.9 
7P.  1 


1.00 

l!53 


73.  8       1.  55 


70.0 
70.7 


6.34 
6.13 


METEOEOLOGY  OF  18G8. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


631 


stations  in  States 
and  Torritoriea. 


Kentucky— Con. 


Dajirille... 
Louisville. 
Clinton 


Averages. 


OHIO. 


Now  Lisbon 

Steuben  ville 

Milncrs\Tlle 

Cleveland 

"Woostcr 

Gallipolis 

Kelley'8  Island.  . 

Sandusky 

IXorwalk 

North  Fairfield.  . 

"Westerville 

Marion 

Hillsboro' 

Toledo... 

Bowling  Green- . 

Kentou 

TJrbana  Univ'ty. 

Bethel 

Cincinnati  (H.).  . 

Do.        (P.). . 

College  Hill 


XTeragcs. 


Date. 


iDcmais. 


Monroe  City... 

Litchfield 

Grand  Eapida. 
Northport 

Holland 


Otsego 

Copper  Tails. 
Ontonagon. . . 


JLverages 

INDIANA. 

Richmond 

Aurora 

Veva^ 

Mnncie 

Spiceland 

Columbia  City .. . 
Jalapa 

Carthage 

Indianapolis 

State  University . 

Rensselaer 


Merom 

New  Harmony.. 

Averages 


1 

2fi,28 
28,31 


26,28 
26 
24 
20 
26 


26 

26 

4 

26 

3,4 

4 

5,26 

26 

5 

26 

26 

4 

4 

1 

1,4,28 


Beg. 

8B 


26 

70 

4 

84 

26 

88 

25,26 

82 

25 

79 

:  25,26, 

28,31 

5 

28 


Date. 


7,8 
7,8 


1,8 
14 


1,  7, 18 
7 
1 
1 
C  1,7,13 
i  16 
9 
1 
9 


8, 9, 14 

7 

7 

6,7,8 


10 

7 
8 

6 

8 
',13,14 


35 


Deg. 
52 
45 
56 


Deg. 
66.7 
63.0 
08.0 


63.9 


57.3 
61.0 
58.3 
54.  5 
63.3 


5,5.9 
56.4 
5,5.9 
57.9 
57.6 
57.3 
59.4 
58.0 
58.8 
57.3 
60.2 
56.8 
01.  4 
60.0 
63.2 

53.8 


55.2 
56.7 
60. 2 
52.1 

5.5.4 

58.0 
51.2 
48.0 


58.9 


67.6 
61.0 
60.7 
57.2 


50.6 

60.2 
01.4 


64.1 
66.6 


In. 
4.50 
8.45 

2.78 


5.55 


3.24 
4.64 


2.86 
6.11 
3.62 
3.77 
0.10 
4.54 
5.30 
5.31 
6.22 
9.00 
6.19 
6.60 
6.09 
0.01 
8.00 


5.45 


4.19 
5.15 


1.00 
3.05 


3.02 


7.18 


5.93 

8.75 
7.90 
5.25 


11.75 

8.26 
5.20 


4.44 

3.55 


Date. 


15 
16,18,19 


18 


29 
15 
18,19 
19 
18 
19 
19 
19 
19 
19 
15 
18 
5,14,30 
30 
14,15,19 
15 
29 
14 
15 


14 

30 

30 

29,30 

14 

14,30 
17 
30 


30 
15 
28 
.30 
15,30 
16 
18 


15 
17 
17,  18, 
19,  30 
30 
17 


3B 


Beg. 


D.ate. 


10, 11, 12 
22,23 


12 
9 
9 

10 
7 

10 

7 

10,11 

9 

7,9 

10 

10 
11 
9 
9 

10 
10 
10 


23 


2,21 
6,8 


9,10,22 
5 
1 


21,22 
10 

10,22 
in 
21 
21 
10 


9,10 
7, 21, 22 


7 
7,21 


a5 


Beg. 


Beg. 


71.0 

74.5 


71.6 


69.  i 


69.6 
66.1 
7L9 
68.2 
68.2 
68.5 
66.9 
73.9 


67.8 
69.0 
68.1 
70.6 
69.0 
69.0 
67.8 
71.2 
74.6 
70.6 


69.5 


69.2 
68.4 
70.3 
61.4 

66.4 

53.9 
57.0 
59.5 


68.7 
74.7 
76.9 
70.5 
71.0 
73.  C 
67.4 


54  !  67.4 

57  I  71.6 

48  I  70.6 

54  I  74.2 

60  i  75.2 


o32 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


.'iUY. 

Jl/XE. 

3 

o 

i 

1 

0 

S 

s 

rt 

a 

S 

rt 

Stations  in  Stutcs 

Date. 

Date. 

Date. 

Date. 

P. 

and  Territories. 

£S 

a  3 

d 

S  3 

0 

p 

3 
'P. 

.3 

a 

a 

a 

^ 

ci 

r^ 

(^ 

J^ 

M 

3 

a 

r-i 

K 

ILLINOIS. 

Deq. 

Beg. 

Beg. 

In. 

Beg. 

Peg. 

Beg. 

In. 

Cliicaso 

25 

75 

13 

43 

5.5.  3 

2.73 

30 

90 

21 

50 

60.3 

3.11 

JS'ear  Chicago 

4 

H(; 

13 

30 

55.  6 

14 

102 

21.22 

46 

67.3 

Ri<l>re  Farm 

f, 

W) 

s 

40 

61.0 

16.30 

17,18 

94 

0,7,11 

52 

70.8 

2.40 

4 
30 
25 
25 

71t 
!)4 

7i» 

82 

10 

9,21 

7 

1 

34 
56 
42 
43 

56.  2 
70.3 
56.  2 

.58.6 

4.21 
3.20 
3.38 
2.90 

30 

16 

18,  30 

14,  30 

92 

104 

90 

90 

6 
24 

8 

8 

46 
56 

47 

48 

"•k'.'-l 
70.3 
70.4 

9.17 

1.30 

3.00 

Sandwich 

1.47 

24,  25 
25 

81 
8fi 

19 

31 
4') 

56.  2 
51.9 

'7.' 69' 

30 
29,30 

90 
99 

8,9 
6,8 

.50 
51 

67.0 
70.0 

Ottawa 

■Wiiuu'b.igo 

4 

84 

1 

41 

58.7 

3.82 

30 

92 

6 

50 

67.8 

5.12 

5 

84 

8,10 

41 

58.0 

14,30 
17 
17 
17 

17 

93 
93 

8 
22 
22 
22 
22 

50 
47 

68.5 
70  3 

2.4] 

Tisktlwa 

4 

85 

12 

42 

59.6 

4.50 

99 
95 
98 

43 
44 
42 

69.1 
68.0 
70.5 

Magnolia 

24 

88 

19 

42 

00.6 

7.80 

3.70 

25 
25 
C  2,  27, 
\  3U,  31 
30 
30 

80 

82 

8 
12,13 

44 

47 

40 

01.3 
62.1 

61. 1 

7.04 

7.85 

16,17 

18 

30 

94 
•     97 

94 

21 
21 

22 

52 
55 

52 

71.8 
72.7 

70.4 

2.10 

1.43 

Springfield 

83 
92 

8 

40 
51 

61.4 
65.6 

4.75 

18 

17 

16,19 

18 

92 
98 
97 
92 

8 
22 

42 
56 
55 
56 

68.0 
78.0 
75.  5 
71.0 

3.23 

South  Pass. 

Galesbiirg 

25 

81 

7 

46 

60.  5 

6.  74 

1.22 

Manchester 

2!) 

86 

7 

48 

64.7 

5.59 

18,  30 

93 

!) 

55 

73.1 

3.22 

Mount  Sterling.  .. 

31 

88 

7,8 

40 

6().  0 

27 

97 

21 

54 

75.6 

AudaUi.sia 

4,25 

84 

19 

42 

62.1 

30 

95 

22 

48 

70.4 

25 

80 

I 

48 

64.6 

7.03 

18,30 

88 

9 

57 

74.3 

2.04 

Averages 

60.3 

5.60 

71.1 

1.80 

WISCONSIN. 

Manitowoc 

Plymouth 

21 

75 

1 

36 

53.  7 

1.01 

18 

85 

8 

43 

62.7 

7.20 

4,  24,  25 

8l 

1 

36 

56.  0 

1.20 

30 

93 

0 

42 

65.0 

5.90 

!Rlllwaukeo 

22 

56 

1 

35 

51.  5 

2.05 

18,29 

90 

7 

39 

C2.4 

5.78 

23 

71> 

1 

36 

58.5 

Geuova 

25 

82 

1 

40 

57.3 

30 

95 

9 

46 

67.4 

3.62 

5  24  25 

85 

1 

36 

59.  8 

30 

95 

12  3 

45 

08  9 

Euibana.ss 

24 

86 

1,11 

36 

50.  3 

1.74 

30 

90 

1 

47 

06.9 

3.75 

liocky  lluu 

4,25 

83 

1 

38 

58.4 

1.66 

30 

90 

1 

50 

67.7 

3.56 

Edgcrtou 

26 

90 

8 

38 

59.  1 

3.  34 

30 

100 

3 

49 

68.4 

11.33 

Baiaboo 

24 

86 

8,12 

31 

5.  00 

30 

90 

3 

48 

68.7 

4.13 

!Ncw  Lisbon 

24 

92 

1 

37 

61.0 

30 

90 

9 

48 

69.4 

23 

bO 

7 

32 

48.2 

30 

98 

8 

42 

01.2 

56.4 

2.29 

66.2 

MINNESOTA. 

Beaver  Bay 

27 

73 

10 

31 

47.9 

0.80 

30 

79 

3 

41 

58.2 

1.86 

24 

87 

28 

39 

60  4 

3.  96 

30 

94 

4^ 

67  6 

2  ()8 

Minneapolis 

24 

91 

28 

38 

59.6 

4.37 

28 

96 

8 

47 

68.0 

4.  23 

Sibley 

24 

85 

12 

43 

60.0 

3.80 

17 

92 

43 

68.2 

4.34 

:;0 

92 

8,20 
8,21 

m 

67.8 

Kew  Uliu 

24 

84 

8,28 

46 

61.7 

3.68 

30 

95 

52 

70.1 

2.50 

Averages 

57.9 

3.32 

66.7 

3. 12 

IOWA. 

Clinton 

22,24 

82 

7,8 

40 

60.  2 

10.00 

16,  30 

95 

22 

52 

70.9 

5.60 

Daveupoi-t 

4,25 

80 

7 

45 

59.  S 

13.  04 

30 

90 

3 

54 

70.2 

4.f5 

Dubuc|uo 

25 

82 

1,8,  13 

46 

60.7 

3.53 

30 

95 

3,9,20,21 

54 

69.4 

6. « 3 

Mouticello 

2(i 

90 

13,  19 

47 

61.2 

4.  .59 

10,17 

91 

22 

53 

69.6 

3.  -,-. 

Eow'Mi  8  Praiiio.. 

23 

H8 

30 

44 

61.  7 

5.09 

10 

92 

7 

51 

69.2 

4.  r. 

Burlington 

25 
31 

84 

86 

19 

46 
41 

63.2 
62.0 

Fort  Ma<li8on  . . . 

9.84 

14 

9.\ 

21 

53 

72.9 

2.  13 

Guttouberg 

25 

89 

19 

42 

59.  1 

30 

98 

9 

44 

66.3 

METEOROLOGY    OF    1868. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


633 


UAY. 

J17KE, 

Stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 

Date. 

o     . 

a 
« 

Date. 

C 

s  5 

1 

a 

s 

1 

a 

D.ite. 

5 

0  . 
-«  0 

§5 
s 

1 

Date. 

c 
a 
■^  p 

B 

'q 

1 
a. 

S 

3 

"3 

Iowa— Con. 
Ceres 

4 

25 

21 

2.3 

24 

24,25 

24,25 

24 

23 

24,25 

27 

23 

25 

5 

23 

Bey. 
86 

85 
82 
89 
83 
86 
84 
86 
82 
88 
87 
89 
87 
84 
88 

6 
19 
13 

7 

12 

29 

5,8 

7 

7,29 

7 

12 

6,7 

7,11 

12 

30 

Deg. 
40 
40 
46 
45 
43 
46 
36 
44 
44 
44 
44 
42 
47 
40 
44 

Deg. 
62.9 
62.3 
61.6 
61.5 
56.8 
67.0 
63.5 
60.  C 
60.9 
61.3 
62.5 
62.6 
64.7 
CO.  9 
61.7 

In. 

I>eg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

In. 

ilt.  Temon 

Iowa  Citv 

Independence  

Xr  Intlependence 

AVaterloo 

Iowa  Falls 

'7.26" 
3.60 
5.70 

'3.' 28' 

5.02 
6.58 
4.47 
6.36 
4.00 
5.09 

14 

17,18 

30 

17 

30 

30 

16,30 

30 

30 

13,17 

30 

30 

17 

16 

96 
92 
95 
100 
96 
90 
92 
90 
98 
95 
95 
96 
90 
92 

6,20 

22 

21 

21 

20,21 

21, 22 

20 

21 

21 

20,21 

20 

8, 20, 21 

21 

7 

53 
47 
53 
47 
50 
54 
48 
47 
51 
50 
50 
54 
45 
51 

70.5 
70.8 
70.1 
74.9 
67.4 
71.2 
69.0 
67.3 
71.2 
67.0 
71.4 
72.8 
68.2 
69.2 

"if  28 
2.90 
4.10 

"s.'ct 

Xear  AlMna  ..  .. 

Fort  Douge . . 

Boonesboro' .. 

Eolfo 

'4.14 

4  96 

Fontanelle 

7.50 

"Woodbine 

4.17 

Axeragefl 

61.7 

6.09 

70.4 

4.62 

5 

1,25 

1.2 

3,31 

1 

3 

2 

87 
90 
88 
87 
87 
80 
92 

88 

88 

7,13 

19,22 

22 

7 

8 

7 

13 

7 

12 

51 
40 
42 
47 
39 
50 
45 

46 

50 

17 

17 

18 

30 

17 

17,18 

30 

C  16, 17 

1 18,  30 

30 

95 
101 
96 
95 
93 
94 
99 

J- 

96 

21 
11 
10 
22 
22 
22 
21 

6,9,20 

9 

57 
50 
47 
44 
44 
56 
51 

58 

55 

KIBSOUBL 

St.  Lonis  Univ 

AUenton 

Hematit« 

C.nnton 

66.9 
65.1 
66.1 
64.7 
64.1 
65.0 
67.0 

66.3 

66.7 

4.00 
5.71 
7.70 
6.05 
3.39 

i.29 
4.23 
3.50 

74.5 
71.9 
73.6 
72.2 
70.3 
74.0 
75.8 

74.1 

73.9 

1.46 
1.67 
4.80 
2.32 
3.25 

"i."47 
3.93 
3.51 

KoUa 

Jefl'erson  City 

HeiTuitage 

Harrison-ville  ..  .. 

Oregon  

A.Ter»ge» 

65.8 

4.48 

73.4 

"  80 

o 

•2 

~2 

C  1.2.4, 

\  24, 31 

2 

2,5,9 

92 
04 
97 
9C 
91 

1   89 

88 
90 

12 

22 
30 

8 

7 

11 

12 

12 

46 
42 
38 
46 
4C 

4G 

51 

4G 

18 
13 
28,29 
28 
18 

18 

16 
18 

100 
102 

98 
103 

99 

102 

97 
99 

23 
22 
20 
21 
6 

9,20 

21 

22 

53 
42 
55 
56 
57 

56 

53 

54 

KANSAS. 

66.7 
64.6 
62.3 
71.4 
66.7 

70.1 

67.0 

70.8 

9.45 
4.35 
4.90 
2.95 
2.81 

1.38 
3.05 

74.7 
73.1 
74.8 
80.3 
75.1 

77.4 

74.3 

77.7 

5.40 
4.25 
5.80 
0.90 
3.80 

Leavenworth 

Olathe..   .   . 

Baxter   Springs  . . 
La^vrence 

Holton 

State  AgT.  CoUege 
Council  Grove 

3.48 
2.90 

67.5 

4.13 

75.9 

3.93 

31 

5 

25 

1 

1,  3,  5 

1 

90 
84 
83 
85 
86 
89 

11 

6 

6 

6 

8,11 

45 
45 
45 

45 

48 
45 

NXBKASKA. 

Dakota 

64.6 
65.5 
64.6 
65.1 
65.0 
65.0 

Om.aha  Mission... 
Elkhom 

7.' 26' 
8.20 

30 

18 

30 

27 

18,30 

92 
93 
93 
94 

92 

10 
9 
9 
9 
9 

50 
54 
51 
54 
51 

72.7 
71.2 
72.2 
74.6 
72.0 

2.25 

DeSoto ^.. 

Bellevne 

Glendale 

4.13 

"5.' 66 

ATerages 

65.0 

7.70 

72.5 

13 

73 

7 

41 

30 

90 
95 

4 
24,25 

45 
44 

UTAH. 

G't  Salt  Lake  City 
Wanship  , 

56.3 

2.36 

66.3 
63.1 

4.00 

▲Torages 

56.3 

2.36 

64.7 

4  00 

11 

83 

3 

49 

25 

71 

18,19 

50 

CALIFOnNIA. 

San  Francisco 

56.4 

0.13 

56.1 

0.33 

634 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


MAY. 

JUS-t 

Stations  in  States 
and  Tenitories. 

Date. 

i 
i. 

1 

Date. 

i . 

1 

o 

3 

o 

p< 

a 

"*^ 

a 
a 

'3 

Date. 

ci 

o 
P. 

s 

Date. 

1 

6 

a 

a 

a 

3 

1 
a 
V. 

Califorxia— Con. 
Monterey 

.9 

11 
12 

Deg. 
C9 
88 
92 

3,4 
3 
5 

Den. 
47 
4.J 
30 

Deg. 
57.4 
6.27 
56.0 

In. 
0.11 
0.56 

10 

Dcq. 

2 

Deq. 

48 

Beg. 
59.5 

In. 
0.72 

Murphj^'s 

27 

94 

1 

34 

63.3 

0.02 

58.1 

0.27 

50.6 

0.23 

22 

75 

2,8 

42 

19 

82 

9 

50 

WASHINGTON. 

Port  Townsend... 

55.1 

0.63 

59.5 

2.62 

JULY. 

AUGUST. 

UAIKE. 

4 

5 

5 

14 

C  3,  4,  5, 

\  12,15 

15 

15 

81 
96 
90 
97 

99 
97 

23 
25 
23 
23 

6,26 

6 

6 

52 
59 
58 
54 

58 

56 

58 

63.0 
71.9 
69.3 
73.0 

72.1 

72.8 
74.1 

2.40 
3.15 
1.87 
3.70 

2.90 
2.80 

24 

2,  3,  25 

3 

2 

3 

81 

86 
82 
89 

88 

85 

84 

27,  28 
28 
28 
13 

12,28 

17, 18, 28 
(  12. 13, 
I  11,27 

50 
52 
53 
52 

54 

53 

1   50 

64.9 
68.8 
67.5 

3.80 

"West  Watervillo . 

0.96 
1.06 

Norway 

67.6 
67.5 
69.0 

2.30 

ComishTille 

3.13 

70.9 

2.80 

67.6 

2.25 

15 
13 

102 
100 

6 

23 

58 
54 

NBW  HAMPSHIRE. 

72.0 
73.4 

Stratford 

3.05 

2 
2 
3 
19 

86 
93 
92 
66 

17 

18 
17 
13 

46 
42 
56 
46 

64.8 

2.42 

Goffstown  Center. 
Claremont 

15 
13,15 

104 
96 

1 
27 

63 
59 

75.4 
75.0 

2.  40 
1.85 

72.8 
67.1 

3.20 

5.93 

74,0 

2.43 

68.2 

3  85 

3, 13, 15 
14 
13 
13 
14 
14,15 
5 

95 
101 
102 

94 

95 
107 

90 

23 

25,26 
26,28 
27 
27 
27 
26 

53 
56 

57 
52 
58 
64 
57 

3 

2,26 

3 

26 

25,26 

85 
84 
89 
82 
83 
94 
79 

17,28 
17 
17 

17,18 
17 
17 
17 

49 
44 
43 
47 
49 
54 
48 

yXRUONT. 

Lnnonbtirg 

North  Craftsbury. 

72.1 
73.2 
74.7 
71.8 
75.8 
80.0 
73.5 

4.63 
1.42 
1.97 

2.13 
1.91 

67.2 
64.8 
66.4 
64.2 
67.7 
73.4 
06.4 

1.81 
2.20 
3.56 

Woodstock 

Near  St.  Albans.. 
■West  Charlotte... 
Middlebury 

'4' 63 
2.17 

74.4 

2.41 

67.2 

2  87 

5 
15 
15 
12 
15 

5 
12 
15 

5 
5,12 
15 
5,12 
15 
15 
14 

102 
97 
96 
97 

103 
98 

101 
97 

105 
92 
92 
92 
98 
95 
98 

7,29 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6,7 
6 
6 
25 

9,10 
6 
6 
7 
27 
9 

60 
55 
58 
54 
56 
55 
60 
56 
60 
01 
60 
58 
59 
57 
62 

30 

1,3 

30 

2 

91 

88 
85 
92 

28 
27 
28 
28 

51 
53 
47 
53 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Kingston . 

72.8 
73.1 
72.0 
75.2 
73.8 
71.7 
75.3 
74.2 
78.8 
71.2 
74.0 
73.  1 
75.1 
74.0 
78.5 

1.87 
0.41 
1.41 
0.70 

70.7 
69.2 
69.3 

70.8 

3.75 

Topsfield 

3.09 

Lawrence 

Georgetown 

Newbury 

4.45 
3.75 

Milton 

1.11 

i.'ae' 

3.66 
1.08 
1.20 
1.90 
3  28 
2.82 

3 

3,29 

3 

90 
93 

87 

28 

27 

17,28 

46 
51 

48 

66.  5 
72.0 
70.6 

4.25 

Cambridge 

North  IJiilorica... 
West  Newtou 

New  Bedford 

Worcester 

1,  3, 30 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2 

82 
83 

85 
87 
85 
90 

17,28 
23 

27,28 
17 
13 
25 

56 
51 
49 
53 
51 
56 

69.1 
68.9 
68.4 
CO.  6 
69.0 
73.6 

4.29 
3.57 
5.20 

Luiieiibnrg 

3.30 
5  67 

Richmond 

7.10 

METEOROLOGY  OF   1868. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Contiimed. 


635 


JULY. 

AUGUST. 

<s 

c3 

i 

k       i     <s 

g 

o 

s 

Stations  in  States 

a 

?s 

s 

C3 

and  Territories. 

Date. 

3      . 

Date. 

s  . 

u 

a 

o 
S 

Date. 

Date. 

"^  9 

S 

3  — 
3 

4^ 

3 

a 

5"^ 

S 

V, 

"2 

^ 

a 

•5 

a 

s 

s 

S 

S 

M 

§ 

^ 
^ 

^ 

ItASS.— Coil 

Deg. 

Deo. 

Deg. 

In. 

Deg. 

Dea. 

Dea. 

In. 

■Williams  College . 

15 

94 

27 

55 

74.7 

0.37 

2,3 

84 

17 

48  1  67.9 

3.40 

14 

93 

6 

60 

74.3 

2 

85 

•    12 

50  !  r.-r  Q 

4  25 

1  "••" 

Averages 

74.2 

1.62 

69.5 

4  31 

RHODE  IBIJL^'D. 

12, 14 

86 

1,2,10 

59 

69.7 

2.99 

10, 14, 24 

S3 

28 

53 

67.9 

2  71 

COKSSCTICUT. 

5  13 

89 

7 

58 

68  2 

1  35 

1,3,30 
30 

go 

28 

53 

67.5 
72.0 
70.8 

5.63 

11 

98 

6 

58 

76  1 

92 

28 

52 

Middleto-vrn 

13 

95 

7 

61 

74.1 

2.35 

30 

87 

28 

56 

7.38 

Colebrook 

13 

94 

7 

01 

74.7 

2,30 

84 

13,17 

52 

68.6 

NVaterbary 

13,15 

92 

27,29 

61 

74.1 

2.86 

30 

86 

13 

53 

69.2 

6.71 

JLTeniges 

73.4 

2.19 

69.6 

6  57 

NKW  TOSK. 

Moiichea 

13 

105 

29 

66 

78.1 

5.92 

22 

93 

13 

62 

75  3 

4.07 

South  HiUtford... 

14 

98 

9 

67 

79.7 

O.eO 

21 

86 

17 

47 

72.6 

1.84 

Tioy 

15 

100 

64 

79.4 

2  35 

2  19 

87 

17 

54 

71.3 
71.3 

3  85 

Ganisons 

5 

96 

26,28,29 

66 

77.4 

1.63 

30 

87 

13 

57 

6.23 

rhrog'8  Xeck 

5 

95 

28 

66 

76.5 

4 

89 

14 

60 

76  9 

White  Plains 

13,15 

90 

27 

65 

72.8 

1,2 

85 

12 

57 

71.6 

Deal"  &.  Dumb  In'n 

5, 13, 15 

92 

7 

65 

76.2 

6.44 

3 

88 

13,17 

60 

72.9 

8.31 

Columbia  CoUe^e 

5,15 

95 

7 

64 

77.4 

4.72 

30 

83 

17 

61 

74.3 

5.25 

Flat  Bush 

13,15 

94 

24 

62 

77. 2     5.  27 

20 

39 

12,27 

61 

73.2 

2,90 

Ke-wbnrgh 

15 

97 

1,7 

68 

7s.  3 

1.62 

19 

78 

17 

62 

73.3 

5.88 

MinaTille 

14 

100 

27 

61 

79.0 

1.10 

19 

89 

17 

50 

72.5 

2.S9 

Gouverneur 

14 

98 

22 

57 

75.7 

1.91 

26 

84 

12 

52 

66.9 

1.25 

K'orth  Hammond . 

2,15 

100 

26 

63 

80.4 

1.00 

28 

06 

16,17 

56 

72.3 

1.53 

Houseville 

13 

95 

23 

60 

70. 1 

4.35 

2,25,26 

82 

16 

47 

67. 1 

4.88 

Cazenovia 

2 

93 

26 

C2 

7<).0 

26 

84 

17 

47 

67.4 

Oneida 

14 

97 

26 

60 

77.3 

5  97 

2 

87 

16 

51 

69.0 
68.1 

6.60 
3.43 

Depauville 

14 

95 

26 

60 

70.  5 

1.00 

7 

87 

17 

45 

4 

90 

26,27 

61 

72.9 

1  93 

28, 29,  31 

25,29 

29 

82 

17 

49 

67.4 
69.2 
68.7 

3.U 
2.7( 

14 

99 

5 

57 

79  1 

0  70 

87 

17 

48 
49 

North  Volney 

4,14 

96 

26 

61 

77.2 

86 

17 

Xichola     

14 

101 

26,27 
26 

59 

2,26 
2, 22, 26 

9-'> 

17 

52 

70.2 
66.9 

Newaik  Talley. .. 

14,15 

98 

56 

77. 2 

4.25 

86 

13 

46 

Geneva 

15 

95 

1 

67 

79.3 

29 

93 

24 

56 

7:$.  9 
69.8 

1.29 
3.22 

Kochester 

13,14 

93 

26 

61 

76.9 

0.68 

28,29 

86 

17 

56 

Little  Genesee 

14 

98 

27 

53 

74.7 

1.90 

S   7,23, 

\  26, 31 

26 

92 

12,13 

50 

67.8 

1.65 

Suspension  Bridge 
Buffalo  • 

12,13 

102 

17 

62 

77.3 

0.50 

13 

53 

69.3 

2.50 

17 

98 

26 

63 

78.5 

3.11 

29 

92 

13,16 

55 

70.8 

2.43 

ATeragea 

77.2 

2.64 

70.7 

3.61 

NSW  JEESET. 

Paterson 

15 

98 

7,29 

05 

77.8 

7.30 

3 

93 

13 

56 

73.3 

4.15 

Newark 

13 

92 

1 

61 

75.7 

8  54 

30 

87 

13 

56 

4.99 
3.15 

New  BiTinswick-.l 

5.15 

96 

27 

66 

77.4 

5.04 

19 

89 

17 

59 

73.0 

Trenton 

13 

95 

28 

70 

82.3 

4.10 

1,3 

88 

13 

60 

74.8 

3.91 

iloorestown ' 

14 

93 

27,28 

66 

78.4 

3.00 

1,30 

88 

17 

61 

73.2 

3.67 

Elwood 

2 

96 

11,29 

62 

80.2 

31 

90 

13 

55 

75.5 

Rio  Grande • 

14 

102 

27,28 

e2 

79.4 

9.88 

30 

95 

13 

50 

73.8 

Dover 

15 

98 

28 

64 

4  16 

87 

13 

71.9 
72.4 
75.0 
74.2 

4.04 
3.32 

H.tddonfield ! 

3 
1 

89 
95 

14 
13 

60 

Kewfield i 

15 

101 

27,28 

63 

79  1 

Greenwich i 

14 

95 

27 

65 

78.7 

2.68 

1,30 

86 

14 

59 

3.83 

Vineland 

14 

106 

27 

64 

82.6 

3.00 

31 

95 

12,13 

60 

76.4 

6.02 

Averages 

78.9 

5.37 

73.  8  1 

4.12 

!- 

1 

636 


AGRICULTUKAl,   KEPOET. 

MeUorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


.rtT.T. 

AUGUST. 

^ 

<s 

h 

g 

d 

£, 

ft 

2 

t. 

^ 

.5 

Stations  in  States 

E 

S 

a 

5 

s 

,-< 

asd  Territories. 

iri 

o 

^o 

i^, 

Date. 

Date. 

s 

S 

2 

Date. 

es 

Date. 

|3 

s 

s 

X 

s 

a     -3 

.s 

c 

■z 

t^ 

r=i 

s 

P4 

a 

S 

«= 

~ 

PEXXSTLVAMA. 

Beg. 

Deq. 

Beg. 

In. 

Beg. 

Beg. 

Beii. 

In. 

Nyces 

13,14 

95 

26 

58 

75.2 

3.75 

30 

85 

13 

48 

69.5 

5.  CO 

Fallsinpton 

Philadelpliia 

13,  J4 

95 

27 

68 

-ao 

3.80 

30 

90 

12, 13, 28 

63 

74.0 

5.  GO 

14 

97 

27 

68 

81.6 

2.63 

30 

88 

17 

65 

77.5 

2.  .V> 

Gei-mantown 

14,15 

98 

27 

64 

81.5 

20,51 

94 

)  1. 3,  30 

\   60 

73.6 

Horsham 

14,15 

92 

27,29 

65 

76.9 

3.58 

31 

87 

13,17 

59 

72.4 

4.  bi 

Plvmouth  ileefg. 

14 

95 

27 

67 

78.4 

.30 

88 

13,17 

60 

T3.7 

Dvberrv 

14 

97 

27 

56 

73.8 

19 

84 

17 

46 

66.0 

Lehigh  Univer'v. 

14.  l.-> 

95 

28 

64 

77.0 

1 

87 

17 

57 

71.8 

White  Hall 

14,15 

96 

28 

64 

77.7 

31 

K8 

17 

56 

72.7 

Factoryville 

14 

93 

26 

58 

76.9 

1.05 

19 

87 

17 

49 

69.3 

5.3.1 

Re.ading 

15 

98 

28 

67 

79.9 

27,30 

87 

13 

59 

74.4 

Parkejslmrg 

14 

98 

27 

70 

80.5 

5.70 

30 

90 

14 

60 

74.8 

4.G7 

West  Chester 

14,15 

92 

27,28,29 

67 

77.2 

4.14 

13 

60 

72.5 

2.71 

Ephrata 

3dount  Joy 

15 

103 

29 

68 

81.5 

2.48 

19 

103 

29 

65 

80.8 

30 

92 

13 

54 

74.3 

Hamshurj; 

14,15 

96 

29 

70 

82.6 

2.' 36 

27 

87 

13,14 

65 

76.0 

i.  70 

Fountain  Dale 

15 

96 

27 

66 

77.7 

2.67 

1 

86 

13 

60 

71.2 

3.01 

Tioga 

14 

106 

26,28 

60 

79.3 

1.00 

7 

90 

13 

50 

67.0 

3.21 

Lewisburg. 

15 

98 

29 

62 

78.4 

2.05 

2, 19,  30 

87 

24 

53 

71.9 

3.65 

Icke«bnrg 

15 

100 

29 

64 

77.8 

4.08 

26 

89 

15 

55 

71.9 

1.79 

Grampian   Hills.. 

14 

102 

29 

53 

75.8 

3.36 

31 

85 

13,14 

52 

68.0 

3.57 

Johiistovm 

15 

94 

29 

56 

74.0 

5.76 

2 

82 

13 

46 

66.4 

2.50 

Pranklin 

4,15 

98 

26 

57 

77.3 

27 

88 

13 

49 

69.1 

Connellsville  ..  .. 

4,19 

98 

27 

59 

79.6 

18 

90 

12 

52 

71.9 

New  Castle 

15 

98 

17,26 

61 

80.3 

27 

88 

13 

44 

73.0 

14 
5 

94 
97 

17,26 
18,29 

68 
64 

82.4 
78.3 

6.25 
4.08 

18 
27 

89 
90 

13 
13 

53 
50 

75.6 
69.0 

6.50 

Canonsburg 

3.33 

78.  5     3. 10 

71.8 

3.41 

IfABTLAKD. 

Woodlawn 

14,15 

100 

27 

65 

79. 7     4. 78 

30 

90 

13 

63 

74.6 

3.00 

Annapolis 

15 

98 

27,28 

69 

85.4     2.28 

5  1.  li*. 

X  30,  31 

1   88 

14 

62 

77.3 

7.39 

Emmittsbnrg..  .. 

15 

104 

27 

65 

80.4    

30 

90 

13, 14, 15 

60 

73.4 

Mt.St.MarysColl. 

15 

95 

27,28,29 

65 

76.5     3.05 

31 

86 

14 

58 

71.5 

3.c; 

.80.5 

3.37. 

74.2 

4.6H 

\TKGIXIA. 

SarryC.H. 

If, 

99 

28 

70 

82.5 

31 

94 

13,14 

64 

79.0 

Johnsontowu 

15 

100 

28 

69 

79.8 

30,31 

90 

13 

G3 

76.4 

Comom 

Mt  Solon 

15 

97 

28 

67 

82  2 

6  52 

31 

88 

14 

65 

IG 

98 

28 

62 

79.0 

1.00 

26,31 

88 

15 

57 

75.5 

3.24 

Lvnchburg  

16 

96 

27 

61 

80.1 

1 

84 

13,14 

62 

75.1 

Snow^-ille 

lfi.l9 

92 

2.  5,  8, 28 

64 

74.1 

1,  8,  31 

83 

13 

A^ 

69.3 

Wytheville 

IC,  17, 18 

92 

3 

61 

74.0 

6.56 

5,8,27,31 

82 

15 

56 

69.0 

.3.  :'i7 

7a  8 

4.69 

74.1 

2.20 

WEST  VIKGIMA. 

Romnev 

14.19 

98 

28 

62 

79.0 

18,31 

88 

1.3, 14 

56 

72.9 

"White  l)ay 

.3,  4,  .5,  G 

98 

7, 8, 9, 29 

70 

82.9 

26 

95 

13 

53 

7a  4 



7,12,27 

88 

14 

52 

74.7 

1 

( 

81.0 

75.3 

NOBTH  CAJROLD^ 

f  4,  5,6, 
1  18,20, 
1  22,24, 
125,27 

1- 

Kpn»niiTill«    , . 

IG 

105 

27 

72 

82.4 

9.53 

11 

95 

82.2 

i.11 

Goldsboro 

IG 

101 

o 

72 

83.3 

9.30 

11 

96 

13 

64 

79.0 

3.25 

EaJeigh 

IG 

10b 

2S 

70 

84.5 

5.95 

18 

97 

14.24 

63 

79.1 

7.1- 

METEOROLOGY    OF    1868. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


637 


JULY. 

AUGUST. 

stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 

Date. 

a 

a 
1^ 

Date. 

3 
'3 

g 

o 
3 

3 

'3 

Date. 

o 

ft 

i    . 

'P. 

Date. 

1 

B 

£ 

1 

1 

a 
3 

N.CAROLINA—Con. 
Oxtord 

Ki 
10 
4 

Deq. 

100 
99 

J  00 

.    80 

28 
0 
1 
!t 

Beq. 
68 
64 
64 
66 

I)CIJ. 

81.0 
79.1 

80.1 
74.1 

In. 
10.20 
9.  70 
4.00 

1,2,  .3 
10 
1,2 

1,6,7,10 

90 
94 

88 
83 

14,15 
14 

13,14 
13 

De(t. 
62 
57 
56 

58 

Dcg. 
76.3 
75.6 
73.7 
71.3 

In. 
2.65 

Albermarle 

Statesville 

Asheville 

6.44 
12.63 

Avkrageo 

80.6 

8.11 

76.7 

5.81 

17 
10,17 

99 
97 

:i,  5, 31 

71 
72 

11 
[   2,11, 
117,31 

90 
1   DO 

14 
14 

65 
65 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Aiken 

79.4 
82.1 

76.2 
77.6 

6  40 

Gowdeyimllo 

Ayerageb 

80.8 

76.9 

6  40 

17 
17 
17 

98 
99 
101 

8, 13, 14 

30 

1,2,3 

66 
74 
70 

31 

90 

16 

59 

OXOBOIA. 

77.8 
82.7 
81.8 

3.14 
3.93 
3.46 

71.2 

2  17 

Siimmerville 

Penfleld 

2 

92 

24 

65 

79.1 

5.45 

AverAgod 

80.8 

3.51 

75.1 

3  81 

18 
18 

18 

18 

17,18 
18 

103 
100 

92 

97 

96 
92 

29 
29 

i  30,  31 
(  0,  12, 
{  25,  27, 
(28,30 
9, 20,  30 
7.16 

70 
70 

\- 

71 
72 

12, 20 
10,11 

.29 

10,28 

11 
8,  9, 10 

93 

92 

84 

89 

89 
90 

14, 16 
C  13, 23, 

\  24, 28, 
(       29 
C13,22, 
\       25 

23,24 

23 
23 

71 

\- 

1   62 

64 

C6 
75 

AT.A-HAMA. 

OpeUka 

Carlowvillb 

81.6 
81.2 

78.2 

79.8 

80.0 
76.4 

6.28 
5.70 

3.60 

5.33 

4.72 
8.00 

79.2 
76.1 

74.2 

77.8 
74.0 

3.28 
3.13 

2.42 

3.72 

Grreene  SjMings. . . 

Havana 

Fish  Kiver 

AToragea 

79.5 

5.61 

76.3 

3  14 

17 

20,21 

20,21 

24,25 
17 

28, 29, 30 

101 

100 

84 

95 
100 

90 

31 

7,27 

C  3,.5,14, 

I   30,31 

3 

7 

3,4 

74 

74 

1   73 

73 

73 

72 

11,12 

15 

10,17 

16,17 

13 

(2,14, 

<  15, 16, 

1 17, 18 

97 

100 

84 

98 
100 

t  90 

23 

C  19, 22, 
^24,26 

2 

26 
20 

20 

74 

J, 3 

66 

72 
09 

71 

FLORmA. 

Jacksonville 

82.8 

7.70 

83.6 

4.70 

TEXAS. 

Gilmer 

83.5 

76.2 

82.5 
87.1 

82.2 

3.00 

8.35 

3.29 
1.40 

2.55 

84.1 

76.6 

82.2 
83.4 

81.7 

0.38 

Columbia 

Waco 

7.83 
o  39 

Aastin.. 

7  no 

Averages 

82.3 

82.8 
83.8 

3.72 

81.6 

4  33 

19 
(  16, 17, 
<  18, 19, 
(20,21 

98 
[   92 

28 
7 

74 
74 

12 

93 
92 

24 
22, 23 

78 
72 

LOUISIANA. 

Xew  Orleans 



62.1 

Averages 

83.3 

82.1 

19 

93 

C  1,  2,  7, 
<  10, 14, 
(       15 

\- 

10 

90 

23 

60 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Grenada 

79.9 

77.3 

638 


AGEICULTUEAL    REPORT. 
Meteorology  of  1668 — Continued. 


Stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 


Ml££ISbIFPI — Con. 


BrookhaTen. 
Xaiches 


Arerages... 

TKXXKSSEK. 


Elizahethtnn .  . 
Tnscilluiii  CoUese 
Lnnkont  Mountain 

Ansrin 

Clark  sville 

Memphis , 


Date, 


Ifi.  17 

17,  l!» 

17 

17 

13. 18, 19: 


B'3 

B 


Beg. 
96 


96 
98 
96 

100 
94 

101 


Average*... 

K-EVri-CKT. 


Pice  Omre. , 
Lexingion.. 

Lotiisville 

Clinton 


Arerages 

OHIO. 

yew  Lisbon 

Stenbenville 

Painesrille. 

Milnersrille..... 

Cl«*vt-laDd. 

Wimster 

GalliiMilis 

Kflleys  Island. , 

Sainlusky 

^Torwalk 

2s"ortb  Fairfield. 

"We-^terville 

MaricjQ , 

Hillslwro' 

Toledo , 


15 


93 


100 


Bowling  Green. 


Kenton 

Urbana  Univer'y. 

Bethel 

•T.ncksonbnre. 

Cincinnati  (H) 

Do.(P) 

CoUege  HiU 


Areragee. 


taancAS. 


Monroe  Citv- 


4 

a.  4, 18 

14 
13 
3,18 
18 
13 
15 

15  I 

16  1 
14, 18 

4,13,1 

14. 15, ' 

18,21, 

17 

18 

14,15 

17 

19,23 

17 

15 

14,16 


99 
92 
100 
98 
92 
92 
94 
98 


Date. 


C3 

s 

a 

5 

.rf  d 

Fh 

E  3 

«» 

s 

^ 

c 

c3 

6 

27 

30 

1.2 

1 

8 


5.28 

6,28 

29 

1 


Deg. 
70 
72 


Deg. 

78.5 
8L9 


In. 


9.64 


a).  1  I  9. 61 


2.95 


77.3 
60.1 

eo.  I 

66-0  1  1.82 
79.  4  !  4.  41 
H.  6  !  2.  74 


61. 3  ,  2. 98 


26 


17,27 
28 
28 
29 
8.9 
23 
26 
28 


60 


98  25.23.29 
94  26.27.23 
94  ;  25,26  : 
100  I  27 


^12114,    > 
(15,18  l) 


99 

101 
96 
96 
96 
99 

1(» 
99 


96 


S:.-\teAoT.Colle<^ 

Litrhrtpld '13,14,17,      98 

Cold  Water I         18        99 

GrandEapids....!^J--2-j|.j|  gs 

Xonhport '    K  17  {      94 

Holland i         18        96 


96 

27 
5S 
5,10,26 
8 
29 
28 
5,6 


70  0  ;  1.  78 

7».  6  I  2. 75 
81.7  I  5.  10 
S2. 2  ;  3.  05 


80. 8  I  3. 17 


80.3 


78.9 

83!  2 
79.2 
81-7 
82.9 
78.1 
79.9 


4.80 


2.65 
0.45 


Date. 


I  73.5 
77.7 
79.7 


83.6 


71 
67 

681 

66 ; 

69  ! 

73 

70 


26 


27 


25,26 


63 


87.3 
80.5 
80.7 
80.9 
82.1 
85.8 
82.0 


3.65 
0.53 
0.48 

L33' 
2.99 
2.32 

2.87 
2.50 

4.98 

4.25 
1.88 
4.38 
1.50 
1.21 
1.70 
2.50 


81. 0  ,  a  47 


80.9 


a39 


79.2 
77.5 

81.5 

75.3 

78.9 


2.80 
L63 


0.42 
0.73 


8,29 
•ill 


6,17 

17,29 

17 

7,29 


§5 

a 


=      Date. 


Beg. 
94 


J   3,17, 

125.27  1 

18,31 

31 

17 

8.31 

17, 26, 27: 


Beg. 
69 
67 


13 
13 
13 
13,14 
13 
22 


13 

13 
12 
13 
13, 23 
13 


15 

8 

7. 26. 31 

17.31 

27.31 

17, 27, 31 

28 

28 


6.20 

16,17 

17 

19 

17,98 

28 

1 


15,20 


...  25 
1 

28 

17,27 

6 
I  6,17, 
;26,27 


12 
13 
13 
13 
12 
13 
13,14 
10 

12 

24 
12 
13 
15 
13 
13 
15 


Deg. 
79.4 
81. 

79.5 


83.5 
74.9 
70.  5 
73.0 
7:j.  I) 
79.1 

76.7 


72.0 
'2  6 
74.3 

74-2 

73.3 


73.9 

76.0 
69.4 
71.8 
69.2 
75.0 


12 

10 
10 
13 

11,22 

21 

10,21 


92 

Sfl 
55 

48 

54 
46 
53 


73.0 
70.3 
68.9 
71.2 
69.8 
69.9 
68.1 
69.8 

73.0 

77.2 
71.5 
72.6 
7a4 
TJ.  0 
76.4 
73.1 

72.1 


69.9 

70.1 
65.2 
67.6 

68.1 

C6.0 

67.2 


METEOROLOGY  OF  1868. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


639 


stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 


Date. 


a 
•a 


Date. 


Date. 


Date. 


Michigan— Con. 


Otsego 

Copper  Falls. 
Ontonagon  .. 


Averages.. 

INDIANA. 


18,22 

11,16 

16 


Beg. 
89 
91 
98 


Deg. 
50 
51 
56 


Deg. 
67.3 
70.2 
73.5 


In. 

6.' 70 


23 

6 

6,24 


76.0 


Kichmond . 
Aurora  ... 

Yevay 

Muncie  ... 


Spifclaiul 

Columbia  City... 

.Jal;!p:i 

ludiauapnliR 

State  University. 

lleuHselaer 

Meiom 

New  Harmony. . . 


15 
4.  14,  16 

17 

4,  14, 

15,  16 

4,  15 

12 

17 

16,17 

IG 

18 

7 

18 


95 
102  J 


98 
100 
97 
95 
94 
100 
99 
99 


26,27 
6, 8, 9, 
26.  28 
26,27 

26 

5,25 
3J 
26 
26 
26 
25 
25 

9,25 


Averages. 


ILLINOIS. 


Chicago 

is'ear  Cliicago 
Ilidge  Farm  . . , 

Marcng^o 

Golconda 

Aurora 

Sandwich 

Belvidere 

Ottawa 

Winnebago  . . . 

KocheUe 

TVvauet 

Tiskilwa 

Hennepin 

Magnolia 

Elmira 

Peoria 

Springfield  ..  . 

Dubois 

Waterloo 

South  Pass  . . . 

Galesburg 

Manchester  .. 
Mt.  Sterling  . 

Andalusia 

Augusta 


Averages. 


4 
4 

7,13 

17,18 

19 

17 

:  1, 12, 

14, 30 
18 
18 

17,18 
28 
14 
4,18 
18 
18 

17,28 
14 

16,18 
18 
18 


100 
1U2 

98 
100 
107 

95 

I   97 

96 
102 

97 
100 
101 
102 

98 
105 

97 

99 
103 


27 
25 
29 
25 

25 

26 
25 
26 
25 
26 
26 
28 
25 
26 
25,26 
2 

9,28 
26 


18 
18 
17 
17 
14,15 


96 
100 
103 
100 

94 


Manito-woc  . 
Plymouth  . . 
Milwaukee  . 
Geneva 

Waupacca. . 

Embarrass  . 
Kocky  Eun 
Edgertoa  . . . 


14 

1,13 

1 

13,18 

12, 13, 

14 

10 

17 

16 


94 
97 
96 
98 

\  ^"^ 

96 

98 

102 


26 
24 

25 

26,28 

26 

26,27 


a3.8 

84.8 

81.5 

81.7 
82.9 
80.3 
60.8 
el.  1 
82.0 
85.3 
84.1 


82.3 


81.4 
84.8 
82.1 
79.9 
83.0 
77.5 

80.4 

78.6 
78.4 
79.1 
80.1 
79.1 
80.9 
79.0 
84.8 
81.9 
83.1 
81.7 
79.5 
88.0 


82.3 
84.0 
88.0 
82.2 
84.5 


81.8 


73.6 
78.0 
74.6 
80.2 

79.7 

77.4 
80.4 
80.6 


1.17 

2.40 

4.00 
3.44 
2.  46 
4.  4U 
2.  38 
2.  .55 
1.00 
2.42 


17,28 


28 
17 

16 

6. 2.'* 

7,17 

28 

28 

17, 27 

28 

1 


2.81 


2.87 
i.75 


2.10 
2.28 

3.63 


1.96 
2.93 


2.03 


2.40 
1.25 
1.47 


1.79 
1.70 


5.24 


17, 27 

17 

17 

6 

1 

27 

6,17 

27 
16,  27 


27 

27 

27 

26 

27 

26 

7 

2,6,27 

6,  7, 16 

1,29 

27 

6, 26, 27 

26,27 

6 

27 


2.45 
3.00 
3.73 
1.05 


3.59 
5.19 


Deg. 

89 

79 
84 


12 

13 

13 

14 

12 
10 

ly 

13 

10.  12 

13 

12 

12,21 


11, 12 
20 
12 


14,17 

22 

22 

30 

11,30 

30 

12,30 

21 

21 

4,30 

21 

30 

21 

11 

21 

21 

21 

31 

12 

30,  31 

21 

29 


21 

11 

30 

22,30 

ni-21, 

i  30,  31 

13 

9,31 

19, 29,  30 


Deg. 
46 

47 
58 


Deg. 
63.0 
60.1 

68.3 

In. 
"5.16 

66.6 

2.52 

70.8 

74.5 

76.3 

72.1 

71.8 
70.5 
69.  7 
70.9 
72  4 
70.0 
76.7 
74.9 


72.6 


73.1 
73.0 
70.5 
83.8 
75.  I 
66.  1 


67.6 
71.4 
68.0 
68.5 
70.1 
66.7 
69.0 
67.6 
68.9 
71.5 
T2. 1 
67.6 
78.8 
76.0 
68.1 
71.9 
73.8 
70.1 
73.2 


71.2 


66.2 
67.0 
60.0 
67.8 

68.2 

63.9 
66.0 


640 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 
Meteorology  of  16G8 — Continued. 


Stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 


■WisooNsrs— Con . 


Bar.iboo 

Xew  Lisbon. 
Eayfield 


Averages.  - . 

lIDrKKSOTA. 


r.eaver  Bay  . 
St.  Paid 


Minneapolis . 

Sibley. 

X-^wUlm... 
Sauk  Center. 

Averages . 

IOWA. 

Clinton 


Davenport  

Dubuque  

MonticeUo 

liowen's  Prairie  . , 

Ft  iladison 


Guttenberg  — 

Mt.  Vernon  . . . 

Towa  City 

Independence  . 
X*r  Independence 

Wat^loo 

Marble  Rock  . 

Iowa   Falls  ... 

Alsrona 

!Near  Alcona.. 
Fon  Dodjre  . . . 
Boonesboro'..  . 

Kolfe 

Fontanelle  .... 

Locan  

Whitesboro' . . . 


Averages... 

MttSOCRI. 

St.  Loais  TJniver. 

AUenton 

Hematite 

Canton 

RoUa 

Jefferson  City . . 
Hennitajre  .... 
"\VaiTen.sburg .. 
Ilarrisonville  . . 
Oregon 


Averages. 


Atchison 

Leavenworth  ..  . 


Date. 


IT 

1-2 

11,14 


B5 


Deq. 
Jt'lt 
101 


16 

16,29 

10 


13,14 

17,18 
17 
17 
•.iO 

18 

11,17, 

19,20 

13, 14. 17 

14,28 

17,20 

17 

15 


1& 
18 
13 
18 
17,16 
19 

20,  22 
19 
21 


20 
21,22 


97 

101 

98 
96 
97 


6 

5, 25, 27 

4,5,24, 

25,27 

24 

25 

27 


95 
97 
96 
94 

103 

(   96 


96 
101 
105 
100 


93 

96 
99 
101 
99 
103 
100 
104 


98 
109 
102 
106 

96 
101 
108 
104 
105 
105 


107 
108 


Date. 


26 

26 

26 

26 

25,26 

26 

26 

26 
26 
21 
25- 
26 


25 

4 
27 
28 
24 
31 
24 
25,26 
24 


25,26 
28 
27 
25 
28 
1 
26 
26 
,  11, 25 


24,25 
24 


55 


Z>f/7. 


Deg. 
77.  7 
81.2 
72.4 


77.8 


65.1 

7&4 

7a  5 

77.5 
80.8 
75.5 


76.0 


83.8 

81.1 
81.3 
80.2 
7.0.1 

84.2 

77.1 

80.9 
80.8 
82.3 
83.5 
81.8 


83.3 

77.2 
7&1 

80.7 
79.0 
80.2 
84.2 
79.9 
81.8 


80.5 


84.2 
81.6 
82.3 
82.6 
79.5 
8.3.0 
Pa  8 
84.5 
82.9 
84.5 


82.9 


86.0 

85.4 


In. 

1.00 


2.86 


5.02 
4.07 


1.73 
3.62 
5.72 


3.60 

5.43 
3.67 
2.90 
2.45 


6.15 
3.10 
4.80 


4,59 


5.34 
4.60 
1.26 
6.75 
2.25 


1.61 
2.30 
a65 
2.  :i6 
1.67 


4.09 
1.75 
1.53 
4.22 


2.  51 


3.45 
3.10 


Date. 


ES 


25, 2(>.  2" 


C  15, 24, 

^26,27 

26 

27 

2C 

26 

n5,i7, 

^26,27 

27 

26 

24 

26 

25, 27 

15, 25 

1 


1 

6,7,8 
6 
6 
6,10 
11 
5 


Deq. 

80 
94 
90 


94 
95 
92 
95 
100 
92 


94 
100 


Date. 


21 

20 

10,31 


12 
30 
29 
30 

30 

21,30 

21,29 

12, 21 

30 

29,30 

30 

Cll,29, 

i30,31 

30 

30 

20, 29, 30 

8,9,31 

30,31 

29 

11, 29, 30 

30 


Den. 
48 
50 
.12 


12. 21. 30 
12, 21 

9 
13 
9 

10. 22. 31 
21 
29 

29, 30,  .SI 
29 


12, 30, 31 
21,22 


Dcq. 
fi5.'6 
73.3 
65.6 

67.4 


64.1 
67.1 

66.1 

65.2 
70.5 
66.5 


56     71.7 


6a8 
6a9 
eai 

67.6 
70.3 

64.2 

67.7 
69.1 

6a9 

cas 

70.0 
67.8 

79.8 

C6.2 
66.5 
6a4 
67.2 
6a  0 
09.0 
66.5 
67.4 

6a  S 


ra.  8 

70.1 
73.2 
75.0 
73.2 
74.2 
71.7 
7a  1 

73.1 


T2.1 
69.3 


METEOROLOGY    OF    lSo8. 
Meteorology  of  1668 — Continued. 


6-41 


Stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 


Date. 


SS 


rt 

jj 

e> 

S4 

a 

S 

0  . 

-*j  p 

d 

SH 

d 

0 

s 

a 

Date. 


Date. 


S5 


RANaAj — Con. 


Olathe 

Baxter  Springs  .. 

Lawrence  

Holton 


State  Agr.  College 
Council  Grove.. 


Averages. 


SEBEASKX. 

Omaha  Mission. . 

Elkhom 

DeSoto 

FoRtaneUe 

BeUevne  

Glendale 

Nebraska  City 


Averages 

UTAH. 

G't  Salt  Lake  City 
"Wanship .'. 


21 

20 

20,21 

21 


Averages 

CALIFOEXIA. 

San  Francisco 

Monterey 

Morpliy's 

Averages 

WA5mXGT0S. 

Port  To'wiisend  .. 


7,29 
24 


Beg. 


106 
101 
111 


105 
102 
104 


4, 24, 31 
24 
24 


99 

106 

99 


95 


24 

24,25 

25 


Beg.    Beg. 


GO 


70  'P'2.10, 
'"    i       25 

2,3 


84 


52 
52 


53 


Itu 


66.3 
85.9 
89.1 
60.2 
85.8 


3.40 
4.05 


4.70 
3.05 


4 

2,9 

1,5 

5 

1 

1 


Beg. 
97 
100 
93 
97 
92 
94 


20 
31 
31 

30,31 
30 

20,22 


85.  5  I  3.63 


74.2 
74.2 
71.1 


83.5 
81.4 
82.0 


85.2 
83.7 
83.2 


2.00 


3.39 


1.40 
3.00 
2.82 


23 

5,23 

16 

24 

1,5 

2,23,24 


73.8 


73.8 


57.1 
60.7 


0.00 
0.06 


76.0     0.00 


64.1 


0.00 


S  1.6.19, 
l£0,21 


71 
83 

•100 


17,18 


85 


55  j  75.  6  j 
....I  73.6  j 


22 
29,30 

29 
29,30 

29 

31 


oas 

71.8 
70.0 
69.6 
73.0 

70.5 


73.3 
72.2 


29,30 
27 

26 


19,20 


73.  8  I     3.  69 


57.1 
55.0 


78.0 


50 


EEPTEirBEB. 


siaist:. 


Steuben 

"West  Waterville. 

Gardiner 

Standish 

Norway 

Cornish 

Comishville 


Averacres. 


NEW  HAJIPSffiEE. 

Stratford 

Shelbume 

STorth  Bamstead. 
Goffsto'wn    Center! 
CJaremont 


Averages. 

41 


17 
18 
18 
30 
17 
17,18 
17 


18 
18,22 


53.9 
56.7 
56.3 
56.9 
55.3 
55.5 
58.2 


56.1 


53.9 
56.2 


57.5 
57.6 


7.50 
4.73 
8.24 
&82 


8.79 
7.13 


6.17 


16.40 
6.00 


56.3  9.52  44.1 


24,31 
24 
31 
30 
31 
24 
30 


24 

24 

24,30 

18,24 


10 
14 
25 
25 


41.2 
42.7 
43.5 
44.2 
41.6 
452. 3 
42.  9  I  0. 65 

42. 6   1.  32 


39.6 
43.0 
45.4 

48.2 


642 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued. 


Stations  in  States 
aud  TeiTitoriee. 


Lnnonbuig 

Nortl)  C'ral'lHbury 

Randolph '. 

Woodstock 

Ke.ar  St.  Allians.. 
West  Cb.irlotto  . . 
Middlebuiy 


Averages. 


JIASSACUUSETTS. 


Kingston 

To])8aold 

Lawrence 

Georjietown 

Newbury 

Milton 

Canjbridco 

North  Hillerica  . 
West  Newton  . .. 
New    Bedlord  . . . 

Worcester 

Weudon 

Luiieubiirg 

Amherst 

Williams  College 
Hinsdale 


Averages. 


BHODE  ISL/iXD. 

Newport 


COViECTICUT. 


Pom  fret 

Columbia  ... 
iliddlftowu 
Colebrook  ... 


Wateiburv 
BrookfieUl. 


Averages... 
NEW  TonK. 


Moriches 

South  Hartford 
Troy 


Garrison's. 


Throg's  Neclc 

White  Plains 

DeafA  Dumb  Inst 
Colunibin  College. 
Flat  Bush 


Newbnrgh  . 


Minaville 

Gouvernenr 

North  Hammond. 

Ilor..sevillo 

Sont-h  Trenton  .. , 

Cazenovia 

Oneida 


SEPTEilBEK. 


Date. 


1 

13,18 
1 


1 
11 

11. 12, 13 


13 

12 

13 

12,  13 

12,13 

13 

13 


Dcg. 
80 
80 
86 

78 


62 


Date. 


18 

22 

17,18 


17,22 
17,  22 


Dc.7. 
25 
29 
30 
30 
32 
36 
38 


18,22 

nils 

18 

18 


18 

18 

18,  22 


18 

18,22 

17 


18 


(  17, 18, 
^22,  30 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 


17 
17 
21 
22,29 
21 
17 


48 


44 


Deg. 
55.0 
52.2 
57.0 
33.  8 
56.3 
61.2 
56.6 


50.  U 


63.3 

58.5 
56.6 
59.0 


57.8 
62.1 
59.7 


62.5 
59.8 
59.1 


59.5 
58.4 
56.5 


03.7 


58.5 
63.4 
61.6 
."19.  0 
59.6 


68.3 


60.9 

62.0 

65.  6 
62.  5 
64.4 
0.").  0 
65.1 


57.6 
54.3 
61.1 
56.4 
59.5 
56.9 
60.0 


In. 
6.08 
5.  65 


11.00 
4.99 


4.71 
9.01 
13.42 
9.25 


7.54 


5.71 
8.60 
7.30 


10.  63 
6.50 
10.  30 


8.67 


12.28 


10.48 


8.03 


8.48 
10.30 


9.  60 

8.81 
5,  99 


6.26 
3.  59 
5.  6fl 
5.35 
7.15 


10.70 


Date. 


5,11 
8 
11 
11 
11 
11 


8 

5 

8,11 

11 


11 
11 

11 

11 
9 
11 
19 
11 

11 

11 

7 
10,14 

7 
6 
5 

7 


Deg. 
65 
60 
03 
62 
69 
68 
63 


Date. 


24,30 
31 

24,  31 
23, 24,  31 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
30 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 
30 


24,  30 
30 
30 

24 

24,30 

18,24 

18 

30 

24 

17,18, 

23,  24, 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

29,30 

29,30 

29,30 


\^ 


Beg. 
15 
11 
15 
11 
16 
22 
23 


28 
18 
24 
23 
22 
22 
22 
16 
20 
27 
26 
22 
21 
19 
18 
16 


24 


Dcg. 
41.6 
37.4 
41.6 
39.5 
41.8 
40.0 
43.6 


41.6 


50.1 
44.7 
44.7 
4.5.3 
4,5.  3 
47.0 
48.2 
45.1 
48.2 
49.1 
46.2 
45.0 
4.5.5 
45.3 
47.5 
40.0 


40. 1   1.  4 


21 

44.6 

22 

48.7 

25 

47.3 

20 

43.7 

21 

45.7 

22 

48.5 

46.4 


54.1 
46.2 
47.0 


50.7 
50.0 
51.3 
50.5 

50.9 

42.9 
42.3 
47.3 
42.1 
42.6 
43.4 
42.0 


METEOROLOGY    OF    1868. 
2Ieicorologi/  of  lc;6&— Ck)ntinued. 


643 


stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 


SEi'TEilBEK. 


Xew  Toek— Con. 

Dopanville 

Oswego 

Palermo 

North  Volney 

Xicbols 

!N'ewark  "Valley  . . 

Kocbester 

Little  Genesee 

SuHpension  Bridge 
■Buflalo 


Averages 

NEW  JERSEY. 


Paterson 

Kewark 

Kew  Brunswick.. 

Trenton 

Moorestown... 

EUvood 

Eio  Grande  ... 

Dover 

Haddonfield... 

Ivewfield 

Greenwich  ... 
Vineland 


Averages. 


Date. 


S3 


11 

3,10,11 

10,11 

1-2 

1-2 


11 

2,12 

12 


11 
13 

12,13 

13 

12 

11 

6,23 

12, 13 
12 
13 
12 
13 


PEN"X6TLVAXU. 


ITyces 

Fallsinfrton 

Philadelphia  .... 
Genuantown...  . 

Horsham 

Pl.\Tuonth  Meetinj 

DybenT 

Lehigh'University 

^Vhite  Hall 

ractor\-ville 

Beading 

Parkersbiirg 

West  Chester  . . . 
Silver  Spring  . . . 

Mount  Joy 

Harrisbius 

Fountain  Dale. . . 

Tioga 

Lewisburg 

Ickesburg 

Grampian  Hills . 

Johnstown 

Franklin 

Connnellsville... 

Jsevr  Castle 

Beaver 

Canonsburg  


Averages... 

JIABTLASD. 


Woodla^vn 13 

Annapolis 10,11 

St.  In;goes 12 

Emmittsburg I  12 


12 

12, 13 
12 
13 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 

11,12 
11,12,13 

11, 12 
12 
12 

11, 12 
12 
12 


12 

2,13 

11 

12 

12 


Deg. 
82 
73 
81 
82 
87 


78 


Date. 


18 
18 
19 
18 
19 
18 
18 
19,30 
18 
30 
18,19,30 
18 


17 

18 

17 

28 

18 

13,19 

18,19 

18 

18,19 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

19,30 

18,19 

19 

17,19 

30 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 


Deg. 
34 
43 
36 
39 
36 


Deg. 
57.3 
58.1 
57.7 
58.3 
59.4 


58.4 
59.6 
CO.  7 
59.5 


60.4 


63.2 
6.3.9 
64.5 
68.2 
65.3 
62.2 
69.3 
63.1 
67.7 
66.9 
67.2 
68.2 


65.8 


58.0 
66.0 
67.9 
65.7 
64.1 
65.1 
56.6 
61.6 
63.6 
53.7 
63.9 
66.5 
62.3 
64.1 
64.7 
65.1 
62.8 
62.5 
60.7 
61.9 
56.6 
57.3 
59.2 
61.4 
61.8 
60.8 
61.4 


62.2 


66.0 
69.7 
70.3 
64.1 


Date. 


In. 

4.45 
4.71 
4.10 


7.51 
2.95 
3.75 
5.06 


6.44 


7.71 
8.96 
7.99 
7.25 

a  27 


5.13 

10.85 
10.10 


7.79 
5.45 


4.90 
6.80 
8.61 


8.40 


4.50 


9.40 
8.24 


5.58 
6.86 
7.90 
5.71 

4.86 
6.36 
1!'.  92 

4.  63 


2.00 
7.96 


6.70 


8.13 
6.34 
6.15 


7 

7 

7 

5 

5,  7, 11 

7 
7 


11 

1 

1 

1,5 


1,6, 
1, 


Deg. 
70 
68 
71 
72 

66 
73 
74 
76 
76 


Date. 


30 
30 
30 
29 
18,30 
24,30 
18 
18 
18 
29 


24,30 
24 
24 

18,30 
24 
18 


18,24,30 

24 

18,24 

18 

18 


30 
24 

18,24 
24 
24 
24 

18,30 
24 
24 
18 

18, 24 
24 

18,24 
24 
18 
24 
18 
18 
18 
30 
18 
30 
18 
18 
18 
18 

18,24 


De^. 
23 
26 
20 
24 
23 


Deg. 
43.2 
45.6 
43.4 
45.2 
45.7 
22     43. 4 

27  I  44.3 
18  I  45. 3 

28  i  46.  4 
27     47. 2 


46.2 


27     49. 3 

23  :  49.8 


29 


48.8 
53.5 
51.4 
53.9 


49.2 
51.2 
52.2 
33.4 
53.5 


51.5 


44.6 
51.7 
53.4 
51.2 
50.5 
51.1 
43.3 
47.2 
48.1 
44.8 
51.6 
52.4 
5tJ.0 
50.7 
50.9 
51.0 
49.5 
41.6 
46.8 
48.5 
43.5 
46.8 
46.4 
49.5 
50.2 
50.3 
50.0 


48.8 


52.2 
56.1 
54.5 
49.9 


644 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 
Meteorology  of  1666 — Contiuuccl. 


SEi'TE.'MUEU. 

OCTOr.El!. 

Station^  iB,^tatfs 
and  TtTiitories. 

Date. 

s 

0    . 

il 

a 

r5 

Date. 

c    . 
*"  9 

S 
'a 

2 

a 

s 

'5 

Date. 

« 

0 
g< 

c 

0    . 
""  & 

'y. 

cs 

Date. 

u 

0 

g 

d 
3 

a 

S 

1 

.9 

iL\K¥L.V>D^Cou. 

Mt.  St.  Marys  Coi. 

1-2 

De-j. 
63 

17,16 

Den. 

44 

Deg. 
62.2 

In. 

7.78 

11 

^^9 

24 

Dog. 
29 

Deg. 
49.9 

In. 
1.97 

Averages 

66.  5 

7.10 

52.5 

1.58 

l,i3 
1,11 

93 
89 

17,30 
17 

50 
32 

1,8 

1 
1 
1 
1 

11 
11 

83 
76 
75 
74 

78 
72 
75 
76 

23 

18 
24 
18,23 
18.23,29 
18 
18 
23 

33 
36 
34 
35 
32 
37 
24 
26 

VIKGIXU. 

StirryCt.  Hfluse.. 
Johnsontown  ..  .. 

74.1 
71.7 

59.5 
57.7 
55.7 
53.0 
56.5 
57.2 
51.4 
53.3 

"i.'jo 

Staxuiton 

ilt.  Solon 

LjTichbiirg 

Suow^-ille 

TVytlieviUe 

12 
27 
11 
11 
11 

84 
86 
84 
85 
84 

18,19 
25 
18 
18 
18 

45 
32 
47 
36 
30 

66.8 
50.6 
69.1 
63.8 
64.0 

0.68 
4.50 

ii'Co' 
4.27 

2.88 
4.00 

i7.'26 
2.55 

67.0 

63.5 
68.5 
63.8 

5.51 

55.5 

5.55 

11 
12 
12 

86 
86 
85 

•    18 

18 

18.19 

38 
40 
40 

1 

2,7 

78 
84 

18 

18 

26 
26 

>VEST  VTRGrNTA. 

51.2 
55.3 

• 

"White  !Dav 

"Weston 

Averages 

65.3 

53.3 

13 

2 

10,12 

2, 1:5 

; 

8, !),  12 

96 
96 
95 

88 
90 

65 

83 

30 
30 
30 
30 

16 

30 
30 

46 
51 
49 
44 

42 

41 
42 

14 

7,8 
1,14 

8,12 

n-2,11, 

>  13, 28 
11,12 

82 
82 
85 
78 
83 

75 

23 
23, 24 

25 
18,24 

24 

24 

23,24 

38 
38 
35 
30 

28 

29 
31 

KOBTH  CAEOLDCA. 

Kenansvillo 

Goldsboro' 

75. 2 
75.2 
73.8 
71.4 
71.0 

56.9 

66.7 

1.41 
0.92 
2.66 
2.95 
7.29 

3.69 

62.2 
61.2 
60.5 
56.5 
57.2 

54.7 

55.6 

11.22 
S.'OO 
3  75 

Oxford 

Albemarle 

Statcsvillo 

Asbeville 

1.80 
5.54 

5.25 

Averages 

70.0 

73.1 

72.8 

3.15 

58.3 

5.43 

J  1, 13, 

X  23, 24 

12 

69 

18 
18,30 

50 
50 

8 
8 

79 
82 

23,24 
23,25 

42 
37 

SOUTH  CVHOLIXA. 

Aiken 

Gowdeysville 

4.04 

62.0 

3.  5; 

Averages 

73.0 

4.04 

62.0 

3  57 

1 
14 

87 
90 

18,19 
18 

48 
48 

12 
12 

76 
79 

24,25 
24 

35 
37 

GEOKGU.. 

Atlanta 

70.1 
74.0 

3.84 
3.18 

55.7 
61.4 

8  67 

Pcniield 

3  "0 

72  1 

3.51 

58.6 

6  04 

13 
16 
11 

1 
1,11 
13,15 

91 
91 

86 
89 
87 
69 

18 
26 
26 
26 
26, 27 
25 

54 
56 
47 
51 
52 
63 

11 

i 

7 
1 
5 

87 
£2 
76 

78 
80 
83 

20 
24 

2S 

23,25 

25 

43 
46 
34 
39 
40 

ALABA3I.V. 

Opelika 

74.9 
76.3 
C9.0 
73.7 
72.6 
79.4 

4.59 
6.21 

xh 

4.98 
6.20 

62.7 
65.4 

58.5 
61.9 
62.6 

9  75 

CarlowviUe 

17.06 

1.58 

Greene  Springs... 
Havana 

7.17 
10  00 

Fish  River 

Averages 

74.3 

5.15 

62.2 

9.11 

24,25 

94 

18 

62 

8 

88 

24,26 

55 

FLORIDA. 

Jacksonville 

81.2 

6.15 

72.9 

3.20 

METEOROLOGY   OF    18G8. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Continued 


645 


SEPTEMBER. 

OCTOBER. 

stations  in  States 
and  Tenitories. 

Date. 

c 
3 

o     . 

+-  p 

'P, 
=s 

3 

Date. 

3 

S 
c    . 

ii 

"a 

c 
S 

1 
5 

a 
a 

Date. 

1 

ll 
'P, 

Date. 

t 

a 

1 
1 

i 

1 

o 

ft 

1 

<» 
1^ 

a 

TEXAS. 

Gilmer      

8 

(;  9,10. 

i  11, 12 

12 

20 

12, 22,  24 

Deg. 
98 

1- 

97 
96 
94 

2C 

24 

26 
23 

'  23 

Beg. 

48 

65 

59 
53 
53 

Deg. 
74.6 

73.6 

78.5 
77.0 
77.4 

In. 
5.51 

2.50 
2.60 
1.72 

3 

7,14 

14,15 
6 
5 

Deq. 

68 

79 

93 

88 
93 

22 

9, 26,  29 

9 

23,25 

24 

Deg. 
38 

60 

47 
47 
45 

Beg. 
66.9 

70.2 

71.2 
67.3 
69.0 

In. 
2.14 

Columbia 

3.63 

Waco 

4.80 

Austin 

4.65 

76.2 

3.13 

68.9 

3.81 

22  24 

""'"s 

7,    8 

10 

,  11, 12 

89 
89 

88 
92 
88 

18 
26 

26 

26 

25,27 

72 
50 

44 
53 
55 

12 
14,10 

1,   6,   7 
13 
1 

80 
82 

80 

82 
60 

24 
9 

23 
23 
23 

60 
42 

37 

44 
40 

LOUISIANA. 

75.0 

65.9 

spssissffpi. 
Grenada 

72.9 
77.0 
73.8 

'i'so" 

62.6 
63.0 
66.7 

Brooldiaven 

"i'is 

74.6 

3.50 

64.1 

2.85 

11 
11 

8 

2,8,9 

8 

7 

89 
91 
85 
86 
87 
95 

30 
18, 19,  30 
25,26 
26 
25 
24 

42 
46 
49 
44 
45 
51 

13 

80 

22,23 

28 

TEKSESSEE. 

Elizabethton 

67.2 

68.8 
70.0 
68.7 
65.8 
71.7 

5.15 

i6.'26' 

3.80 
9.31 

56.9 

Lookout  ilountam 

0,  7, 12 
7 
7 
1 

74 

82 
77 
85 

9 
23 
23 
23 

42 
32 
33 
36 

60.1 
57.8 
56.0 
59.1 

0.75 

ClarksviUe 

1.56 
0.06 

68.7 

7.12 

58.0 

0.79 

9 
8 
15 
8 
8 

86 

84 
90 

87 
88 

26 
17, 18, 26 
17 
26 
26 

36 

42 
48 
38 
43 

2 
o 
2 

7 

78 
76 
88 
81 

78 

18,23 
18 

18,23 

23 

9 

28 
29 
35 
30 
31 

KEXTUCKT. 

Pine  Grove 

Lexington 

63.3 
03.6 
68.8 
65.4 
66.2 

8.03 
7.81 
9.75 
5.57 
5.89 

54.0 
54.2 
60.4 
55.5 
55.5 

2.02 
1.95 
1.53 

Louisville 

1.95 
2.25 

65.  5 

7.53 

55.9 

1.94 

11 
2,12 

12 

1 

12,15 

14 

1 

85 
78 

78 

85 
79 
86 
87 

18 
18 

17,21 

18 

17,18 

17 

18 

34 
43 

44 

36 
43 
38 
38 

2 

7 

7 
5,7 
5,7 

2 

7 

7,30 

5 

5 
7 

7 

7, 13 
1 

70 

74 

70 

75 
75 
74 
78 
80 
73 
73 
72 

72 

73 
73 

74 

80 

67 
75 

78 

18 
18 
C  9, 17, 
\  18,  24 
23 
18 
18 
18 

18,23 
23 
23 

18,23 

23 

23 
23 
23 
23 

23 

17  23 
2^ 
23 

20 
27 

1- 

26 
29 
26 
27 
28 
32 
25 
26 

26 

21 
21 

27 
19 

20 

36 

22 
26 

omo. 

Xew  Lisbon 

Steubenville 

Paintsville 

ililnersville 

Cleveland 

Smithville 

"Wooster 

63.0 
64.1 

59.3 

59.3 
59.7 
62.4 
63.7 

2.38 

7.75 

5.33 

4.72 

"ass" 

51.5 
52.0 

47.0 

48.7 
48.3 
50.3 
51.5 
53.3 
50.8 
49.0 
48.8 

50.2 

49.3 
47.2 
50.8 
47.9 

49.9 

50.7 
49.9 
50.5 

1.19 
2.06 

"i.bb 

"6.' 52 
1.15 

Kelley's  Island  . . . 

Sandusky 

Xorwalk 

Xortb  Fairfield.  ^ 

■STesterville 

■MfiiHoTi 

10,12 
10 
3 

3, 10, 11, 

12, 15 

3 

3,8 

8 

11,12 

5    5,8, 

i  11, 12 

1 

8 

8 

83 

78 
78 

80 
78 
78 
82 

80 
81 
85 

25 

17 

17,26 

26 

26 
17 
17 
17 

17 

18 
26 
26 

47 
40 
42 

42 

42 
36 
40 
36 

38 

46 
37 
38 

63.9 
57.6 
59.6 

60.6 

59.6" 
60.2 
59.9 

62.1 

63.9 
60.5 
61.0 

3.29 
3.20 
2.17 

2.71 

5.72 
3.57 

8.89 
2.50 

0.30 

8.19 
3.61 
6.75 

0.78 
1.12 
0.31 

0.77 

0.95 
0.97 

Hillsboro' 

Toledo..: 

Bo^vrling  Green  . . . 

Kenton 

1.24 
1.63 

l.K 

2.13 

TJrbana  University 
Bethel 

1.17 
1.U 

646 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 

Meteorology  of  1868 — Contini\ctl. 


Stations  in  States 
anil  Tcriitot'ies. 


SEPTEinJER. 


Ohio— Con. 


JaclMonbiirfr  .  - 

Cinciiin,ati  (H). 

Do.        (P) . 

College  Hill . . . 


Averages. 


MICH1GA>:. 


Sronroo  City 

State  Aai-.C'ollego 

Litchaeia 

ColdWator 

Grand  liapids 

Northpoit 

Muskogou 

Hollaud 

Otsejiio 

Copper  Falls 


Ontonagon . 


Averages. 


Aurora 

Vevay 

Muncio 

Spiceland 

Columbia  City 

Jalapa 

Indianapolis 

Stnte  University. . 
Eensselaer.  ..  . . . . 

Meroni 

New  Harmony 

Averages 


ILLINOIS. 


Chioaso 

ICear  Chicago. 
Ridge  Fann  . . 

Marengo 

Golcouda..  .. 

Aurora 

Sandwich 

iJehndere ..  .. 

Ottawa 

"Winui^bago... 

Rocliello 

Wyanet 

TisUilwa 

Ileunepiu  ..  .. 

Eliuir.T, 

Peoria 


Springfield  . . 

Dubois 

Waterloo. ... 
South  Pass.. 
Galcsburg . . . 
ilancbester.. 
Mt.  Sterling. 


Date. 


10,11 
10 

7 


8 

8,15 

11 

11 

8 

8 

V2 

8,1;) 


12 
2 

10,11 
12 
10 
12 
10 
•J,  12 
2 
10 

10,12 
10 
10 
10 
10 
12 

I'J 

12 
2, 11, 12 
8 
10 
11 
10 


Date. 


Deri. 

81 
82 
84 


21,23 

17,21 

21,25 

21 

21 

20 


21 

21 

24 

;  20, 21, 

-  23, 24 


26 

17,26 

26 

17, 26 

17,19,28 

25 

26 

17,25 

17 

17 


23 
16,17 
17, 23 
17 
17 
23 
23 
21 
23 
23 

aa 

23 

23 

23 

23 

17 

C16,  17, 

\  18,24 

26 

23 

23,  26 

23 

16 

23 


as 


Der). 
41 
43 
44 
40 


Def). 
62.5 
62.3 
67.7 
63.1 


61.6 


5.3.2 
58.8 
57.6 
57.2 
57.  8 
55. 2 


57.4 
57.1 
46.3 


64.1 

65.8 
61.6 
60.6 
56.3 
60.4 
59.7 
62.6 
62.9 
64.4 
07.5 


62.4 


03.2 
61.3 
61.3 
55.  5 
72.6 
50.  7 
57.9 
55.8 
58.3 
58.9 
56.5 
59.5 
58.5 
59.0 
58.2 
61.3 

59.4 

50.8 
65.  6 
67.0 
59.0 
63.3 
64.3 


Date. 


In. 
6.69 
7.  19 
8.21 

5.88 


5.18 


3.  .')5 
2.  95 

4.  19 
4.25 


5.66 

2.29 


3.82 


6.03 
0.72 
6.30 
4.27 
6.03 
0.50 
5.31 

ii.'sf 

0.12 

8.49 


5.90 
6.67 
4.70 
5.47 
2.  10 
7.  10 
3.48 
5.23 


4.61 


2.61 
4.40 


13.  6d 


5.28 

3.89 


27 

5 

30 

5,  30 

30 

5 

30 

10 

10 

4 


30 

7,30 

2,7 

26,  30 


26 
10,  26,  30 
30 
30 
6 
26 
30 
26 


26 

20 

6,25 


Date. 


De!7. 
76 
75 
86 


23 
23 
23 

18,  23 


23 

18 

17,23 

23 


23 

18 
17 

17,  2S 


17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 

8,  9, 17 

10 


8,17 
17 
17 


Berj. 
28 
30 
34 
30 


Dnr/. 
52.7 
52.  5 
57.4 
57.  7 

50.' 


40.8 
4.5. 2 
44.6 
41.7 
44.9 
43.1 
4.5.  3 
4.5.  3 
4.5.1 
36.7 

43.3 


52. 5 
.54.  9 
50.4 
50. 


50.0 
50.5 
51.6 
51.  9 

54.  3 

55.  4 


52.9 
50.3 
51.5 
45.2 
66.8 
46.2 
46.  1 
45.8 


4.5.  6 
46.2 
49.  0 
48.9 
51.0 
49.6 
51.9 

51.6 

47.8 
57.1 


27  I  48.  0 
29  I  53.3 

28  53. 5 


METEOROLOGY    OF    1818. 
Meleorology  of  1868 — Contiuued. 


647 


Stations  in  States 
and  Territorios. 


Illinois — Con. 


SEPTF-ilKEK. 


Andalusia . 
Augxista . . 


Averages . 


ilanitowoc  . 
Pl.uiiouth  .. 
Hiiii;lianj  . . 
ililwaukee  . 
Appletun  ... 

Geneva 

Waiipacca. . 
Enibanass. 
Kocky  liiin. 

Edgerton... 

Baylield.... 


Date. 


Date. 


Dea. 
81 
83 


10,12 
10 


Averages. 


MUTNESOTA. 

Beaver  Bay . . . 

St.  Paul 

Minneapolis... 

Sil)ley 

Xew  trim 

Sauk  Center... 


Averages. 


IOWA. 


Clinton 

Davenport 

Dubuque 

Monticello 

Bowen  8  Prairie  .. 

Fort  Madison 

GuttPuberg 

Mt.  V'enion 

Iowa  Citv 

Indepeuiience 

N'r  Independence 

"Waterloo 

Marble  Rock 

Iowa  Falls 

Algona 

5vear  Alguna 

Fort  Dodge 

Boouesboro' 

Eolfe 

Fontenelle 

Logan  

"Woodbine 


8,12 
12 
10 
1 
1 
1 
0,  11, 
12,13 


5,8 

9,11 

4 

11 

11 


23 
16, 17, 23 


Deo- 
33 
42 


21 

23 

21,23 

20 
23 

23 

25 


Averages 

MIS60CRI. 

St.  Lonis  Univ"ty. 

Allenton .'. 

Hematito 

Canton 

EoUa 


9,10 
10 
8 

2,8, 

10.  II 

11 

II 

1,11 
8 

1,10 
11 
1 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 


25 

25 

23,25 


17 
23 
25 

17,23 

23 

23 

2:3 

23 

17,23 

23 

22,23 

22 

24 

17,23 

25 

22 

23.  24, 25 

17.23 

23,  24 

22,23 

23 

23 


Dej. 

59.  8 
C2.8 


55.3 
53.1 


5G.4 


56.9 
54.3 
52.0 
55.0 

57.2 

49.2 


54.4 


In. 
4.29 


3.72 
3.  CO 


4.21 


Date. 


Date. 


5.<C 
i.  88 

2.13 


48.7 
51.5 
.iO.  5 
46.6 
56.9 
48.9 


50.5 


61.2 
57.9 
57.1 

55. 1 

54.5 
60.1 
53.  1 
56.6 
58.8 
55.3 
54.8 
54.8 
54.7 
57.3 
52.2 
52.0 
.53.8 
56.6 
53.  5 
57.  2 
54.9 
54.8 


4.67 

2.88 
2.78 
2.96 
3.89 
.3.44 


3.44 


5.20 
5.  85 
5.06 

6.72 

7.20 
2.05 


5.17 
6.00 
8.60 


55.8 


64.7 
62.5 
64.4 
62.3 
64.1 


1.85 
3.55 
4.89 
5.63 
4.20 


5.43 
7.  19 
7.05 
4.64 
4.85 


5 
4 
5,27 
4 
5 
26 
4 
5 
4 

26 


26 
26 
26 

25 

26 

30 

26 

26 

1,26 

26 

26 

26 

4,24 

26,30 

4 

4 

26 

25.26 

4 

26 

4,6 

6,26 


Deg. 
70 
70 


17 
17 
17 
22 
17,22 
17 
17 
17 
17 

17 


Den. 
26 
26 


83 
84 
73 

78 


*= 

« 

Deq. 
50.2 
.12.2 

In. 
i.76 

50.5 

1.23 

43.3 
42.0 

44.8 
4.5.6 
43.1 
45.9 
44.1 
42.1 
45.2 


2.31 
2.80 


1.35 


2.51 
1.53 


46.5       3.00 


44.  3  1     2.  10 


40.5 
43.6 
42.7 
43.  1 
47.0 
41.1 


2.03 
4.  .56 
4.92 
2.25 
2.66 
1.49 


43.  0       2.  99 


.52.  2 
47.8 
47.1 


1.20 
2.64 
1.31 


45.6  I     0.65 


49.  0 
51.0 
43.  1 
46.  1 

49.8 


1.26 
1.83 


46.4 
46.0 
47.2 
49.7 
45.2 
45.0 
46.6 
48.1 
46.7 
49.0 
49.4 
46.4 


0.33 

1.70 

0.06 

2.26 


1.20 
0.24 
1.25 
1.13 


47.5  I     1.22 


55.7 
54.4 
.57.  3 
51.8 
55.  4 


1.97 
1.90 
1.80 
2.37 
1.34 


648 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 

ifeteorolofjy  of  1868 — CoiitiiiiiTcd. 


SEPTEMBER. 

OCTOBEK. 

Stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 

Date. 

o 

5 
V. 

Date. 

25 

1 
o 

a 
a 
o 

'3 

Date. 

0 

S5 

1 

3 

Date. 

2 

Ci 

£2 

1 

'a 

0 

s 

1 

MissoUKi— Con. 

Beg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

In. 

25 
6 
6 
6 

25 

Deq. 

to 

88 
83 
86 
83 

8 
8 
8 
8 

Deg. 
30 
30 

28 
28 
29 

Deg. 
54.0 
56.7 
58.2 
53.8 
55.1 

In. 

Hermitase   .". 

TVanensburg 

HaiTisonvillo 

Oregon 

5 
11 
U 

11 

90 
90 
80 
93 

17 
23 
23 

23 

37 
35 

40 
35 

65.6 
65.1 
61.9 
61.1 

6.12 
2.24 
6.63 

2.87 

1.47 
2.05 
2.53 
1.08 

63.5 

5.22 

55.2 

1.90 

0,11 
11 
11 
5 
11 
10 

5,11 

91 
90 
90 
95 
93 
93 
87 
88 

23 
23 
23 

17,  23,  24 
23 
17 
23 
23 

30 
26 
33 
46 
29 
32 
34 
33 

6 
6 
6 
5 
6 
6 
6 
6 

84 
84 
81 
86 
81 
83 
79 
84 

8  23 

8 
22 
22 

22 

28 
24 
26 
34 
27 
25 
32 
31 

KAXSAS. 

Atchison 

Leavenworth 

Olatlia  ...:  

Baxter  Springs  . . 

Lawi'enco 

Holtou  . 

61.8 
60.6 
61.3 
69.8 
62.4 
62.1 
60.7 
65.6 

7.30 
2.72 
0.50 
13.65 
4.29 

5.' 72' 
10.25 

54.5 
52.3 

'ho.  8 

53.1 

52.4 
53.1 

57.7 

8.80 
1.71 
2.50 
2.15 
1.58 

State   Agr.  CoU.. 
Council  Grove 

2.51 
3.05 

63.0 

6.35 

54.8 

3.19 

4 
4 
4 
4 
25 
4 
4,6 

90 
78 
82 
81 
88 
82 
85 
60 

17 

17 

7,17 

17 

17 

8,17 

7,21 

17 

22 
26 
28 
25 
25 
33 
25 
33 

NEBRASKA. 

48.7 
50.3 
50.6 
49.3 
52.2 
52.5 
49.7 
53.5 

:;::::::': 

1.70 

Ellvhorn 

8G 
80 
90 
85 
80 
84 

22 
22 
23 
23 
22 
23 

36 
33 

30 
36 
30 
41 

56.9 
54.5 
57.7 
59.1 
57.3 
63.6 

'3.' 27" 

'2.' 26' 
2.35 

0.82 

Pontenelle 

1.60 
1.30 

Glendale 

Nebraska  City 

1.90 
6.47 

58.2 

2.61 

50.9 

2.30 

3 

75 

8 

21 

UTAH. 

54.7 

4 
9 

1 

70 
81 

98 

12,13 
21,22 

19 

50 
46 

36 

CALIFOnNIA. 

56.7 
45.0 

65.8 

0.00 
COO 

0.00 

Monterey 

Mnrphy's 

10 

8,  9, 10 

90 
84 

30 
C 16, 19, 
<  28,  30, 
t       31 

41 
i   32 

57.1 
56.3 

0.  55 
0.12 

55.8 

0.00 

50.  7 

0.34 

XOVEMBEK. 

DE( 

:embeu. 

ILAIXE. 

Stcnben 

57 
50 
56 
54 
52 
54 

17 

17,  28 
17 
17 
17 

28 
28 

11 

16 
17 
18 
10 
13 
16 

31.8 
32.4 
33.7 
34.4 
31.0 
31.2 
32.0 

5.  69 
7.90 
6.76 
6.91 

h'.hh' 

G.64 

8 

8 

8 

21 

8 

21,22 

21 

38 
39 
39 
38 
36 
34 
3C 

27 
31 

27 

25,27 

27 

27 
27 

—  8 

—  7 
—10 

2 

—18 
8 

—  1 

22.0 
19.5 
20.  9 
21.3 
16.6 
18.  5 
19.5 

2.10 

West  Watervillc. 

Gardiner 

Standish 

Norway 

1.60 

2.04 
2.06 
2.06 

2.96 

Comishvillo 

2.65 

32.4 

6.59 

19.8 

2.21 

1 

55 

17 

19 

NEW  nA.MPSIIIi:F.. 

Concord 

35.0 

METEOROLOGY    OF    1868. 
Iftteorology  of  I860 — Continnecl. 


649 


stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 


Xew  Hajitshiee 
— Contiuued. 


Stratford , 

Shelburne .•, 

Xorth  Bamstead. . 
GoffstowTi  Center. 
Claremont , 


Ayerages. 


Ltinenbnr^:  

Korth  Crattsbniy. 

Eandolpli 

"Woodstock  

Xear  St.  Albans.. 
"West  Ch-ailotte  .. 
iliddlebury 


Averages. 


MASSACHVSETTS. 

Kincston 

Topslield 

i.iwrence 

Georgetown 

IKeTvbury 

ililton  .' 

C.-unbridsre   

Isorth  BfUerica  . 
"West  Xe-srton... 
Xew  Bedford  . . . 

"Worcester 

Mendon 

Lnnenburg  

Amherst 

Richmond 

"Williams  College 
Hinsdale 


XONTlilBEE. 


DECEMBER. 


Date. 


Ayerages. 


RHODE  ISLA^^). 

jS'ewport 

COXXECTICUT. 


Pomfret 

Columbia  . . 
ilidiUetown  . 
Colebrook  . . 
"Waterbury  . 
Brookfield. . . 


Averages... 

XEW  TORE. 

Moriches j 

Sonth  Hartford.. I 

Troy i 

Gariison's | 

Throg's  ITeck j 

"White  Plains 

Deaf  &  Dumblnst. 
Columbia  College.  '■ 


1 

1 
1 

14 
1 
1 
4 
1 
1 
1,  5.  9 
o 

1 
1 
1 

9 
9 
9 


9 
9 
9 
9 
9 
9,10 
9 
9 


Defj. 
50 
57 

43 
oG 
52 


Date. 


17,30 
17 
-24 
4,23 
16 
17 
30 


17 

IT,  28 

17 

13 

13,  IG.  1' 

17 

17 

16,17 

13, 28 

10, 28 

16,28 

16,17 

16 

20 

30 
16 


23 
17,30 

30 

28 
23,28 

24 
13,23 

23 


Deg. 
5 
20 
24 
23 
20 


Deg. 
27.6 
32.6 
34.8 
36.8 
33.2 


33.3 


29.6 
27.4 
31.6 
29.9 
30.2 
34.5 
32.5 


42.2 
34.6 
36.8 
36.3 
36.1 
36.6 
37.8 
35.5 
37.4 
40.5 
37.6 
36.2 
35.2 
36.5 
35.7 
36.0 
33.9 


24 

45.1 

22 

36.5 

26 

38.3 

26 

•39.2 

30 

4-2.0 

27 

42.9 

30 

42.1 

30 

42.4 

In. 
6.88 


2.87 
5.60 
5.90 


7.15 
5.84 
7.03 


8.88 
6.38 


30.8     7.06 


3.62 

4.88 
6.69 
5.60 


4.49 


2.85 
4.24 
3.25 
4.90 
4.80 
6.40 
4.42 
4.35 


36.8 

4.65 

39.4 

4.32 

36.6 

4.42 

39.6 

38.5 

3.85 

35.1 

38.5 

4.94 

38.9 

3.50 

37.9 

4.18 

5.  54 
8.30 
4.94 
6.42 


5.13 
3.46 


Date. 


21 
21 
17,21,22 
21 
21 
21 
21 


21 
7 
21 
22,29 
21 
21 
21 
28 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 


21 
21 
21 
17 
21 
2,8 
21 
21 


Beg. 
33 
36 
54 
39 


Date. 


27 
19,27 


27 
19 

39   24,2.1,26 

36 


25,27 

25,27 

25 


27 
27 
26 
27 
25 
25,27 
27 
25 
27 


Deg. 

—20 

—26 

0 

0 


—30 
—10 
—24 
—25 
-19 
0 
—13 


10 
2 
3 
0 
2 

4 
3 
1 
2 
6 
3 
1 

—  1 

—  5 


0 

—  2 


46 


24,25 

24,27 

25 

11,24 


54] 
38  I 
42 
44  ; 
48 
50  I 
43  ' 
411 


4 

4 

3 

—  1 


—13 
0 


Deo. 
13.9 
16.2 
2a  8 
24.0 


13.8 
14.5 

16.6 
14.5 
15.3 
21.9 

18.8 


16.5 


31.0 
23.1 
25.0 
23.5 
»4.9 
37.2 
26.0 
25.4 
26.3 
28.5 
23.9 
22.5 
22.6 
22.8 


21.8 
19.5 


32.3 
21.9 
24.4 
25.2 
28.4 
28.5 
28.1 
28.0 


24.6 

1.83 

26.4 

2.54 

23.0 

1.10 

25.7 

23.5 

2.38 

19.5 

25.1 

3.31 

25.7 

3.50 

23.8 

2.57 

650 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 
Meteorology  of  166^5 — ConTinned. 


Ko^TMLr:- 

i 

I'Emn;-.?- 

i 

o 

p. 

i 

J 

1 

I- 

E. 

~ 

Stntions  in  Stntee 

c 

im 

s 

s 

1 

g 

= 

= 

and  lerritoriea 

io5 

o  ,- 

5. 

Hr. 

1 

id 

i 

> 

Date. 

J 

a 

Date. 

C  3 

c 

=  i 

Date. 

H 

Dale. 

■: 

r  X 

I 

*= 

~" 

•^ 

^ 

^ 

— 

Kew  Toek — Con. 

Den. 

Den. 

Xtetr- 

7n. 

, 

"i 

Dtj- 

De^ 

Ik. 

Flat  Bush 

9 

67 

28 

29 

39.8 

4.03 

21 

25 

U 

2a9 

2.42 

9 

1 

70 
54 

16 
30 

17 

41.9 
32.4 

4.28 
5.81 

28 
21 

44 
34 

24 

10.27 

—  5 

36.9 
18-1 

3.14 

Mm:n-ille 

X40 

Gonverueur 

13 

46 

23 

15 

32.0 

5.13 

20 

39 

27 

-36 

19.3 

L77 

Kiiilh  Ilanuuoinl. 

1 

56 

23 

20 

33.2 

a37 

80,21 

42 

24 

—  8 

20.5 

1.97 

Houseville   

A 

49 

30 

14 

3X4 

4.J<5 

80 

37 

24 

—  8 

lti.3 

X97 

Soiitli  Trt-aUm 

27 

44 

3 

22 

32.6 

4.74 

16 

38 

26 

—10 

20.3 

X39 

Cart- liOTia 

10 

59 

30 

15 

35.5 

30,89 

37 

19 

7 

22.2 

5.57 

4 

4,14 

53 
50 

3J 
23 

19 
18 

36.0 
34.1 

ia64 

au9 

80 
80 

40 
40 

84 
34 

C 
—  4 

210 
20.7 

4.00 

De]>auville 

2.90 

13 
4 
4 

49 
51 
54 

30 
30 
30 

22 
15 
18 

37.4 
34.4 
35.8 

&44 
&63  1 

89 
S3 
80 

40 
39 
40 

19 
19 
19 

6 

—  6 

—  3 

24.0 
30.0 
3^6 

3l"i2 

6.80 

1<  ortb   Voliiev 

Kicliols 

9 

66 

30 

24 

3B.3 

•    29 

43 

12 

1 

25.3 

Ik'ewark    TalleT-- 

9,10 

CO 

30 

20 

35.7 

80 

40 

11 

t 

^0 

310 

lUKhfster 

4 

52 

30 

84 

37.5 

4.42 

80 

41 

34 

7 

23.8 

323 

Li  ttJe  Genesee 

10 

G4 

30 

S2 

36.6 

a.  25 

90 

43 

11 

—14 

22.1 

3.45 

Sue^utrusiou  Bridge 

4 

58 

30 

25 

3&2 

4.95 

SO 

49 

94 

6 

ffiLl 

2.60 

Bufl-Jo 

4 

57 

30 

83 

38.2 

4.  .02 

80 

40 

94 

• 

25.4 

2.25 

37.  5      :>  fi\ 

eiO 

122 

h"EW  JEESET. 

Pat^reon 

9 

70 

23.28 

87 

41.3 

&05 

81 

42 

95 

5 

9S.7 

4.S 

Keirajk 

9 

63 

13,23 

29 

42.3 

4.38 

21 

43 

S 

e 

28.1 

\e5 

Xew  Brnnswick.. 

9 

66 

28 

26 

4L7 

4.«> 

17 

42 

S 

9 

27.3 

X£ 

10 
10 

70 
73 

28 
28 

28 
25 

45.7 
43.0 

5.00 
4.91 

81 
80 

47 
45 

25 
34 

11 
u 

3L2 
29.2 

5.13 

Hotirestown 

3.98 

Elwc>od 

10 

73 

28 

23 

43.6 

17 

17,21,28 
17,21,28 

46 

42 
40 

1L24 

11 

11,25 

« 

6 

8 



33.9 
38.0 
ai.0 

2.45 

9 
9 

71 

70 

13 
13 

2C 
23 

41.6 
39.8 

4.82 
6.  TO 

4.87 

Kew  GennantOTm 

l.» 

Haddonfield 

9 

66 

28 

30 

413     5.60 

90 

43 

24 

15 

30l3 

XS& 

ICe-vrfieltl 

10 

75 

28 

21 

42.6    

i 

50 

25 

10 

29l7 

.. 

Greenwich   

10 

73 

13,28 

30 

44.8     a39 

t 

3D 

13 

15 

32.1 

3.93 

TiEeland 

10 

ii 

28 

ae 

43.  7     7.  24 

21 

50 

24,35 

10 

29.9 

4.40 

42.  8  .[  5. 50 

28.7 

161 

PKSX6T1.VAX1A. 

9 
10 

66 
72 

28 
13 

16 
29 

3L5 
43.3 

5.10 
4.70 

28 
28 

43 
43 

11 
24,» 

—  e 

21.3 
39.7 

F.'dlRinfrton 

330 

Philadelphia 

10 

72 

23 
C12.13. 

) 

45.9 

4.53 

21 

43 

24 

18 

32.6 

4.37 

G^rmanto-vai    

10 

a,7 

<22,23, 

i       24 

28 

J29 

42.2 

7 

45 

35 

13 

SS.7 

Horsbani 

9 

71 

27 

42.6 

6.35 

30 

46 

13,34 

11 

9a3 

3.10 

Ph-nicmth  Meeting 

10 

71 

13,28 

27 

48.6 

80 

47 

34 

13 

S9L5 

L19 

IJvIk-it\'   

9 
9 

62 

68 

28 

28 

18 
26 

3Sl8 
40.9 

17 

38 

U 

—  9 

8Le 

LeliighVniTersitv 
TATiite    Hall ". 

9 

68 

28 

23 

41.8 

5,81,ite 

1      » 

U 

1 

97.1 

Kai  toryrille 

10 

65 

24 

82 

37.8 

4.22 

17 

38 

11 

—A 

SIC 

Lis 

rLeadiu'fi 

9,10 

73 

28 

30 

44.1 

6 

44 

11,13 

U 

30.1 

Parkesville 

10 

70 

23.28 

30 

42.3 

4.56 

90 

44 

13 

K 

39.0 

2.43 

■West  Chester.... 

10 

72 

<  12. 13, 
}23,28 

i^ 

45.1 

5.47 

88 

48 

13 

13 

3D.5 

X14 

Silver  Spring 

10 

7S 

28 

26 

42.4 

90 

45 

96 

7 

39lO 

Moimt  Jov 

e 

86 

13,14 

31 

46.1 

15 

47 

as 

10 

30.8 

Hanisburg 

9,10 

67 

28 

31 

413 

6.2! 

6,18 

38 

96 

13 

28.7 

iB2 

Fountaindale 

9,10 

72 

28 

86 

42.5 

5.12 

17.21 

42 

11 

9 

27.7 

3  10 

Tio^a 

9,10 
18 

60 

68 

30 
14,28 

le 

85 

336 
39.7 

4.80 
540 

17,30 
17 

36 
41 

90 
11 

1] 

17  7 

305 

Levnsburg 

0     24.9 

3.14 

Ickegburg 

9,10 

70 

98 

20 

41.3 

6.8)6 

17 

46 

11 

0 

96l3 

355 

Grampian    HiUs.. 

4,9,10 

60 

28 

20 

35.5 

3.26 

80 

38 

13 

4 

20.5 

4  53 

JcibuMo'R-ii 

8,9,10 

60 

24 

83 

sae 

6 

47 

11 

3    as.7 

3.90 

FraiiLliTi 

9 

C2 

27 

94 

33.8 

4.'45 

90 

SO 

10,12 

0 

84.7 

3.07 

METEOROLOGY    OF  le6S. 
Meteorology  of  1868 — Contimied. 


651 


SOVEMBEB. 

DECEiOJER. 

stations  in  States 
and  Territories. 

Date. 

§■2 

3 

Date. 

2. 
Is- 

S 

-  I 

Date. 

1 

Date. 

|- 

3 

S    X 

Pen-na— Coa. 

Connellsville  ..  .. 

]Sew  Castle 

Beaver 

Canonsburg 

9 

9,10 

9 

9 

67 
69 

3 

27 

3 

3,28 

Deg. 
24 
24 
28 
25 

Deg. 
40.1 
41.2 
42.6 
41.3 

In. 

...... 

3.10 
2.96 

20 
20 
20 
20 

52 
51 
53 
57 

12 

11 

11 

11,12 

Beg. 
0 

7 
10 

7 

Deg. 
26.4 
27.0 
30.  7 
2c.  3 

In. 

aio 

1.69 

Averages 

40.8 

4  e'-' 

27.0 

■>  g^ 

10 
10 
9 
9 
9 

74 
74 
76 
72 

3, 13, 23 

23 

23 

13,23 

28 

30 
23 
32 
24 
23 

21 
21 
20 
2 
17 

55 
52 
52 
52 
42 

13 
13 
13,25 
11 
12 

10 
12 
13 
6 
11 

MARTTJLNT). 

■^oodlawn 

Annapolis 

St.  Inigoes  

Hmniittsburg  .... 
Mt.St.ilaiysCoL 

43.  S 
4A4 
49.2 
42.1 
42.1 

S.  ■!:: 
5.49 
3.95 

5.S7' 

29.6 
35.9 
33.4 
23.7 
2S.3 

3.61 
3.03 
2.70 

"2.26 

Averages 

45.  i 

5.&3 

31.2 

1  91 

10 

10 

9,10 

9 

82 
77 
74 

-5 

24 

13 

19, 23. 24 

<  13, 14, 

i24,s8 

25 
32 
32 

20 
21 

67 
58 

13 
13 
25 

12 

13 
12 
12 
12 

10 
15 
10 

9 

2 

14 

0 

—10 

Surry  C.n 

Jolmsonto'WTi  .... 
Coiiiom 

43.4 
49.3 
45.8 

43.8 

'2.55" 
2.32 

37.6 
37.4 

32.0 

34.1 
37.4 
30.0 
29.5 

"i'42 

Staunton 

Mt.  Solon 

20 

20 
20 
20 
13 

51 

62 
55 
63 
50 

2.67 
6  00 

Lynchburg 

Snoiiwille 

"STytheville 

10 

10 

7,8,9,10 

6d 

28 
13,24 
13,28 

33 
20 
21 

48.7 
40.6 
39.6 

'sJeo' 

1.25 

6.16 
3.20 

Averages 

45.2 

2.93 

34.0 

3.88 

9 
8 

76 
75 

28 
23 

22 
26 

28 
C  17, 19. 
^20,23 

52 

13 

12 

4 
10 

WEST  ymGisiA. 

42.4    

46.0  ' 

28.5 
33.3 

"VThiteDay 

Averages 

44.2 

30.9 

10 
10 
8,10 
10 
10 
10 
9 

76 
77 
73 
75 
82 
72 
70 

22,23,25 
24 
13,14 
14 
23 
23 
14 

31 
23 
29 
27 
18 
20 
21 

XORTH  CAROLDCA. 

Kenansville 

50.0 
50.1 
49.6 
45.6 
44.5 
41.6 
42.5 

2.05 
1.60 
1.45 
2.10 
1.00 
2.00 

GoliLsboro' 

Eakigh 

18,20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 

65 
63 
56 
64 
55 
60 

25 
12 
12 
25 
12 
12 

15 
12 

3 
4 

0 

—  1 

41.2 
38.7 
34.0 
35.5 
32.1 
33.5 

1.33 
3.60 
1.55 
4.44 
4.75 

Oxford 

Albenia-.le 

Statesville 

Averages 

46.3 

1.70 

35.8 

3  13 

tl 
10 

79 

78 

21 

21 

33 

30 

20 
19 

69 
65 

25 
12 

12 

4 

SOUTH  CAKOUXA. 

Aiken     

1 

4-Z4 
38.3 

2.C7 

Gowdeysville  .... 

51.2    

Averages 

51.2 

40.4 

2.  67 

9 
10 
10 

74 
75 
75 

13,27 

21,23 

21 

27 
31 
28 

20 
20 
20 

62 
69 
64 

12 
12 
12 

6 
13 
12 

OEORGL\. 

Atlanta 

44.2 
50.1 

43.3 

3.12 
0.51 
0.C3 

37.4 
41.9 
39.9 

5.12 
5.32 
3.85 

Penfield 

Averages 

47.7 

1.42 

39.7 

4  76 

9 

73 

23 

25 

20 

67 

12 

11 

AL.AB.',JIA. 

Opelika 

4a  8 

2.94 

44.0 

4.12 

G,52 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT, 
Meteorology  of  18G8 — Contiuncd. 


XOVEMUER. 

DECEMEEi:. 

Stations  in  States 
nncl  ToiTitoiios. 

Date. 

o 

s 

«    . 

5-2 

Date. 

3 
3 

1 

1 
3 

a 

r3  o 

a 
'3 

Date. 

3  = 

Date. 

u 

1 

'a 

"S 

(V 

P- 

a 
1 

ri  c 

a 

Alabama— Con. 
CarlowvUle 

9 
!) 

8 
8 

y 

Dcq. 
79 
69 
72 
73 
76 

21 

21,  23 

21 

21 

21, 22 

Beg. 

28 
23 
26 
26 
34 

Deq. 
52.2 
46.  1 
47.1 
43.0 

In. 
3.  4 1 
3.  00 
4.17 
3.45 

20 
20,30 
31 
31 
30 

Dc(]. 
68 
59 
69 
65 
69 

12,  25 

25 

25 

21,  25 

Beg. 
16 
12 
11 
15 
26 

Jkg. 
42.1 
39.  0 
43.3 
42.0 

6.  90 
2.96 

Greene  Springs  . . 

Havana 

Fish  River 

4.19 

5.08 
2.75 

48.4 

3.40 

42.3 

4.33 

10 

85 

21 

35 

4, 19,  31 
31 

72 
71 

25 

25 

20 
22 

FLORIDA. 

Jacksonvilie  ..... 

58.8 

0.25 

57. 1 
53.4 

2.05 

58.8 

0.25 

55.3 

2.05 

•1 

3, 8,  y 
y 

8 
8 

80 
76 
88 
83 
83 

21 
17 
11 
17 
12 

29 
55 
35 
32 
34 

20 

78 

11 

18 

TEXAS. 

Gilmer 

51.5 
64.0 
58.1 
54.4 
55.7 

6.  68 

40.7 

5.18 

Columbia 

"Waco 

5.  97 
3.05 
4.17 

20 
19 
19 

81 
74 

11 
11 
25 

24 

18 
21 

51.9 
45.7 
48.4 

8.84 
4.  95 

4.96 

56.9 

4.97 

48.2 

5.98 

<1 

4,  7,  8,  y 

8,0 
9 

y 

79 
80 

78 
79 
79 

21 
21 

21 

21,22 

21 

42 

28 

27 
30 

28 

28 
20 

19 
19 
19, 29,  30 

76 

70 

m 
m 

25 
11 

25 

32 

18 

14 
16 
16 

LOUISIANA. 

Benton 

51.2 

44.9 

Mississirn. 

51.3 

50.8 
51.5 

5.  07 

Brookhavon 

45.  7 
46.8 

"4."ii 

51.2 

5.67 

46.3 

4.11 

10 

71 

12 

24 

20 
19 
30 

19 

19,  20 
19 

02 

58 
58 

64 

59 
63 

12 
12 
12 

12' 

11,12 
11 

—  8 

—  9 

4 

1 

8 

TENJJESSEE. 

Elizabethton 

42.8 

32.  6 
32.  2 
39.5 

37.3 

33.4 
36.6 

0.  92 

Lookout  Mount'u. 

Austin 

CLarksvillo 

Mempliis 

9 
9 

8 

8 

73 

78 

7-1 

78 

20 
C  12, 19, 

I  23, 28 
23 
23 

26 

1   23 

25 
26 

48.7 

45.2 

44.7 
46.8 

3.65 

2.02 
2.14 

7.00 

5.37 
4.27 

45.6 

2.00 

35.3 

4.39 

9 
9 
9 
9 
U 

74 
74 
79 
76 
75 

12, 20, 23 
12 
12 

12, 23, 27 
23 

26 
24 
24 
24 
21 

19 

19 
19 
19 

20 

."6 
58 
lit 
59 

12 
12 
12 
12 
11 

—  3 

KENTUCKY. 

Pino  Grove 

Lexington 

42.4 
43.0 
47.3 
44.4 
42.8 

2.33 
3.24 
2. 28 
2. 26 
1.95 

31.2 
29.  8 
35.4 
31.1 

28.8 

3.  45 
3.77 

4.  13 

Louisvillo 

4.01 

44.0 

44.5 
43.2 
40.4 
38.4 
40.3 
42.  2 

2.41 

31.  3 

3  84 

10 

9 

4,9 

9 

IG 
9 

8!) 
69 
56 
71 
66 
67 

3 
3,27 
30 
27 
27 
27 

22 
29 
28 
19 

27 
24 

5,18 
20 
20 

49 
46 

11,  12 
I'J 
12 

11) 
11) 

onio. 

New  Lisbon 

STeubenville 

Painesville 

MilnersvUle 

2.58 

5.  55 
1.86 
3.73 
2.45 

30.  3 
30.  1 
25.8 

1.76 

Cleveland 

Wooater 

20 

48 
55 

^ 

3 

26.  3 
27.8 

1.48 
0.70 

METE0K01.0GY    OF    13G8. 
Mdcorologij  of  18G8 — Coutinued. 


653 


DZCEjIDEB. 


^ 

« 

s 

p 

1 
S 

Z 

z 

— 

9. 

% 

s 

Stations  in  States 

- 

=: 

a 

't 

and  Territories. 

z.  -■ 

i.r- 

> 

ir: 

S.r, 

P4 

^ 

Date. 

1- 

Date. 

ci 

Date. 

Dale. 

§5 

a 

1 

ri  o 

y 

.- 

2 

t; 

9 

^ 

S 

" 

s 

s 

S 

Ohio— Con. 

Deg. 

Beg. 

Deq. 

In. 

I>eg. 

Beg. 

Beg. 

In. 

Kelley's  Island  .. 

4 

59 

18,19,20 

31 

41.8 

2.24 

20 

46 

12 

1 

27.1 

0.45 

Siuidusky 

•1 

59 

27 

27 

39.7 

2.57 

20 

52 

12 

0 

25.1 

0.84 

2»  orwalk 

3 

67 

27 

27 

41.3 

1.94 

20 

52 

12 

0 

26.1 

0.90 

Xo.  Fairfield 

4, 14, 15 

63 

12,20 

27 

41.6 

2.37 

20 

51 

12 

—  3 

26.5 

0.69 

WesterTille 

9 

70 

23 

fS 

40.9 

1.35 

20 

51 

12 

0 

27.9 

1.45 

9 

67 

n2,20, 

122,24 

20 

1- 

24 

39.5 

2.10 

20 

50 

12 

—  3 

25.0 

a87 

KiUsboro' 

9 

70 

41.7 

1.83 

19,20 

49 

•    12 

—  1 

26.3 

2.34 

Toledo 

13 

62 

20 

25 

39.5 

2.88 

20 

44 

12 

—  3 

25.2 

1.06 

Bowling  Green  .. 

3 

65 

27 

23 

40.7 

3.00 

20 

50 

12 

—  3 

26.2 

2.55 

Urbana  Univ 

9 

70 

12 

21 

40.4 

1.77 

20 

50 

12 

—  6 

25.7 

1.57 

Bethel 

9 

70 

12 

<« 

41.0 

1.08 

20 

52 

12 

—  4 

26.7 

3.00 

Jacksonbui-g 

9 

72 

12,29,23 

26 

43.0 

2. 25 

20 

52 

12 

—  9 

26.6 

2.00 

Cincinnati  (H.)  .. 

9 

73 

12 

20 

42.8 

1.70 

19 

55 

12 

0 

29.1 

2.07 

Do        (P.)  .. 

8,16 

70 

20 

30 

46.6 

1.16 

o 

58 

12 

2 

33.1 

2.12 

CoUege  Hill 

9 

72 

19,20,24 

28 

43.2 

1.60 

20 

52 

12 

—  6 

27.3 

3.96 

43.6 

1.81 

27.2 

1.  SO 

MICHIGAX. 

. 

Monroe  Citr 

3 

»     54 

6,27 

13 

34.1 

3.61 

20 

40 

12 

—  7 

20.7 

1.30 

State  Aericl  Col.. 

3 

58 

27 

16 

36.8 

3.44 

17 

42 

11 

—15 

21. 2 

1.35 

Litchfield 

30 

60 

27 

21 

37.8 

2.67 

17. 19, 20 

36 

12 

—  2 

19.3 

2.30 

Cold  "SVater 

15 

60 

18,27 

22 

36.7 

3.69 

18,19 

40 

12 

—  8 

21.8 

Grand  Kapids 

13.14 

54 

19 

21 

36.5 

17 

44 

11,26 

8 

24.4 

2.27 

Xorthport 

3 

46 

30 

24 

35.4 

3.78 

16,17 

38 

10 

10 

25.3 

1.-20 

iiuskegon 

3 

60 

26 

24 

3a4 

3.00 

17 

58 

16 

10 

2ai 

1.50 

Holland 

14, 15 

57 

18,19,27 

25 

38.2 

5.20 

17,19 

42 

16 

1 

26.4 

2.29 

Otsego 

8 

66 

23 

26 

39.4 

3 

44 

26 

6 

27.0 

Copper  Falls 

o 

46 

3U 

15 

31.3 

3.55 

17 

34 

9 

—  4 

17.2 

6.54 

Ontonagon 

3,  7, 13 

46 

27 

24 

36.2 

3.60 

16 

40 

12,13 

0 

23.0 

36.4 

a  62 

23.1 

1.59 

D,■DIA^"A. 

9 
9 
15 
9_ 

74 
78 
66 
67 

11, 12 
23,27 
12,24 
12,24 

24 
28 
23 
25 

40.7 
44.1 
41.9 
41.0 

1.63 
1.73 

2.77 
1.46 

19 
19 
19 
19 
20 

52 
57 
54 
53 
40 

12 
12 
12 
12 
12 

—  6 

—  2 

—  5 

—  6 
—10 

26.7 
30.1 
2&2 
26.0 
23.5 

2.46 

2.82 

0.85 

1.25 

Columbia  Citv 

0.90 

9,16 
9 

62 
70 

12 
12 

•28 
24 

415 
42.3 

4.43 
1.87 

19 
19 

51 
52 

11, 12 
12 

—  4 

—10 

27.8 
24.5 

2.  IS 

Kniuhtsto-wu 

1.53 

Indianapolis 

14 

67 

24 

25 

41.5 

1.29 

19,20 

49 

10 

1 

26.8 

1.62 

State  University . 

S,  9 

70 

12.27,29 
C    1, 17, 

26 
>   26 

42.1 

1.34 

19 

56 

12 

—10 

27.4 

1.54 

Eensselaer 

3,0 

6-2 

<  IS,  23, 

sag 

5.45 

18 

48 

11 

—18 

22.2 

L60 

i       27 

s 

8 
8 

71 
75 

11 
23,27 

27 

23 

42.6 
44.6 

1.70 
1.96 

19 
19 

56 
53 

11,12 
11 

—11 

2 

29.1 
30.9 

2.25 

Xew  Haimonj- 

1.92 

42.0 

2.33 

26.7 

1.74 

nxDCOis. 

3 
3 

62 
60 

18 
19 

26 
12 

41.9 
34.3 

2.60 

19 
19 

48 
44 

11 
12 

—11 

—13 

25.3 
20.2 

1.41 

2\ear  Chicago 

13 
9 
3 

15 

62 

80 
58 
58 

18,19 
12 
19 
19 

18 
22 
13 
11 

36.2 
51.9 
37.6 
36.4 

3.18 
1.00 
2. 55 
3.00 

19 
19 

47 
06 

11,12 
11 

—13 
0 

20.8 
34.9 

i.38 

3.30 

Sand\vich 

13 

41 

12 

—13 

19.7 

0.60 

Belvidere 

4 

61 

18 

14 

36.5 

3.36 

17 

43 

11,12 

—16 

20.7 

1.40 

Winnebago 

3 

60 

13 

11 

35.6 

3.3^1 

17 

42 

10 

—16 

18-2 

1.30 

Bochelle 

3 

66 

19 

10 

36.2 

19 

44 

11 

—22 

20.2 

0.85 

3 
15 
3 

70 
62 
64 

22 
19 
19 

15 
20 
20 

39.2 
39.3 
38.0 

3.57 

19 
19 
17 

48 
47 
45 

11 
11 
11 

—IS 
—14 
—16 

22.9 
20.2 
25.0 

1.20 

Tiskilwa 

0.72 

Hennenin 

Ebnira* 

3 

64 

19 

20 

38.5 

3.20 

19 

47 

11 

—20 

17.9 

i'36 

65: 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 
Meteorology  of  I60B — Continued. 


1 

^■o^-E^L 

ei 

i    it 

e^      1  "^ 

e: 

<3     . 

0 

!    0 

0 

s 

c 

Stations  in  St.ites 

c 

t  5 

t 

E 

'    B 

E 

s 

•ind  Territories. 

s<    . 

fs 

J: 

1    s*    . 

u 

Date. 

S 

Dat«. 

i 

i 

Si 

Date. 

Date. 

1 

1 

a 

1     -3 

"  0 

s2 

X 

"2 

=     1.S 

K 

= 

.s 

S 

<i 

<k       — 

«= 

"^ 

"^ 

" 

ILIXNOIS— Coil. 

i           i 

Dtg. 

1  BeK,. 

I>to\    In. 

Deq. 

Dtg. 

!  Dm. 

Iru 

Peoria 

3 

65 

17.19 

i      25 

41.3  1  4.50 

19 

;    ^ 

11 

—13 

1  aatb 

1.81 

Sprin^eld 

3.8 

70 

17, 18, 20 

26 

41.1    

19 

62 

11 

—18 

;  25.6 

Loami 

7 

70 

17 

22 

41.  0  1  5. 15 

1          19 

55 

11 

—18  :  24.6 

3.'i6 

Dubois 

4 

65 

11 

20 

40.3 

L52 

!         19 

CO 

11 

—  8  1  29. 7 

2.30 

Waterloo 

8 

8 

73 
74 

19 
20 

29  1  46.  4 

I 

Soutl)  Pass 

26 

44.6 

19 

60 

ii 

—10  ;  30.3 

G.oJesburg 

8. 

66 

17, 18, 19 

25 

40.4 

3.74 

19,30 

46 

11 

—17  j  2i  0 

0.40 

il.iiicbester 

7 

72 

17 

23 

4il 

ai2 

19 

57 

1       " 

—15  i  2«x4 

2.25 

Mount  Sterling... 

7 

75 

11 

24 

41.8 

19 

57 

11 

—IS     25. 0 

Andalusia 

3 

60 

11,19 

24 

39.9  1 

19 

47 

11 

—12  ;  22.  7 

3,15 

61 

19 

25 

40.  8  !  5. 02 

19 

S2 

11 

— 19  1  «-l.  5 

2.67 

Averages 

40.  1      3.  26 

23.7 

1  63 

WISOOXSDf. 

Manitowoc 

3 

57 

18,27 

2i 

36.0     3.04 

17 

43 

10 

—  8  '  22. 0 

0.67 

Pl\-mouth 

3 

54 

27 

17 

32.8     4.40 

19 

41 

10 

—  9 

19.0 

LIO 

Hiugham 

3 

56 

18 

17 

35.5    

17,19 

42 

10 

—  8 

20.5 

Milwaukee 

4 

65 

18 

20 

37.0  i  3.23 

19 

48 

11 

—  8 

^5 

0.88 

3 

57 

27 

21 

36  4 

19 

43 

10 

6 

21.5 

0  93 

Geneva 

3 
3 

62 

58 

18 
13 

18 
20 

3ai 

35.5 

5.70 

"Xraujiacca 

19 

42 

10 

—  8 

26.7 

Emliarrasi! 

3 

56 

27 

16 

31.4  ;  3.53 

19 

36 

12 

—13  j  17.8 

L45 

Hoekv  Kan 

3 

60 

27 

16 

34.6  I  4.94 

17 

44 

10 

—10  1  20.0 

0.79 

Edgerton 

3 

62 

18 

16 

36.9  1 

19 

45 

10 

14  1  ia8 

1.15 

Ba\-field 

16 

40 

11 

—  6     17  9 

Averages 

35.2  :  4.14 

20.0 

0.99 

.  . 

JOXXESOTA. 

Beaver  Bav 

7 

43 

2>,27 

16 

31.7 

a70 

3 

40 

9 

—14 

17.3 

LIO 

St,  Paul.;. 

2 

57 

11 

10 

31.1 

a68 

16, 17, 1£ 

36 

11 

—17 

16.4 

0.M 

Minneapolis 

0 

59 

27 

10 

30.5 

4.13 

17 

37 

10 

—19     15. 2 

0.55 

Siblev 

2 

60 

27 

3 

31.3     3.00 

16 

35 

10,11 
10 

20  1  ia4 

2 

62 

27 

8 

3a  4     3.  73 

19 

38 

13     IR  n 

0  61 

Sauk  Center 

57 

26 

3 

27.5  .  2.73 

5 

33 

10 

—23 

1-7 

L53 

Averages 

3a8  1  3.50 

15l2 

0  84 

• 

IOWA. 

1 

Clinton 

13 

64 

18 

14 

41.  0  '  4.  45 

17 

50 

11 

—15 

2>  fi 

LIO 

Davenport 

3 

61 

19 

21 

36.5  !  4.77 

19 

45 

u 

—17 1  aa  1 

L52 

Dubnqne 

3 

60 

18 

17 

37.3  1  1.13 

17,19 
19 

42 

n 

10  1  20  3 

2. 16 

MontictUo 

3 

62 

11,17 

18 

3a4     2.05 

42 

11 

—13     15.0 

0.77 

Eowens  Prairie.. 

2,15 

60 

17 

18 

36.2  1  4.50 

19 

46 

10 

—20  ;  19.8 

5.30 

Muscatine 

3 
3 

61 
65 

19 
11,17 

21 
22 

38.1  i  2.71 

42. 2  4. 02 

Port  Madison 

19 

50 

11 

— eo     2iO 

L64 

Guttenbers  

3 

62 

07 

12 

34.5    

17 

44 

11 

— ^ 

ia2 

Mount  Vernon 

14 

62 

11.17 

18 

36.3    

19 

44 

11 

-16  ! 

19.4 

lown  City 

2,3 

63 

17 

18 

33.0 

4.38 

19 

50 

11 

—13  I 

21.2 

L62 

Independence 

0 

62 

27 

14 

34.5 

1.90 

19 

43 

11 

-20 

16.8 

Near  Independe. . 

14 

63 

27 

10 

31.9 

2.70 

19 

44 

11 

-24  ! 

14.  5 

O.Sl 

"Waterloo 

2, 3, 14 

62 

26 

14 

36.2 

19 

42 

11 

—19 

19.0 

Marble  Rock 

14 

54 

27 

19 

34.  1 

19 

46 

11 

—13     19. 6  I 

0.95 

Iowa  Falls 

2 

64 

27 

17 

36.2 

2.65 

19 

42 

10,11 

—12 

2.46 

Aljiona  

2 

C4 

11,26 

12 

31.1 

17 

43 

10 

—17 

16.2 

!Near  Alpnna 

2 

68 

27 

9 

30.7 

19 

38 

10 

—18  ' 

14.4 

2.n 

Fort  I>)d<:e 

0 

64 

17 

18 

22.  9 

1.04 

19 

41 

10 

—18  ' 

17.0 

L95 

Boonesboro' 

2 
2 
14 

64 
71 
67 

27  1 

27 

17 

13 

7 

14 

33.1 
31.3 
35.3 

1.52 
1.65 
1.48 

11 

10 

11 

—20 

—27  1 

Rolfe 

19 
17 

43 
42 

1-5  0 

2.07 

Fontenelle 

—21  '  ia8 

L90 

Logan 

2 

72 

27 

10 

33.6 

2.40  i 

17 

45 

11 

—90     20.0 

2.94 

Woodbine 

2 

70 

27 

10 

Xi.~ 

i 

r 

1 

Averages 

35.3  1  2.71  1 

16.4  1 

L99 

1 

\ 

METEOROLOGY    OF   1868. 
Meteorology  of  1868—  Contiiiued. 


655 


NOVEJIBER. 

DF.CEilBEK. 

Stations  m  Stales 
and  TeiTitoiies. 

Date. 

1 

a 

1-5 

a 

Date. 

i 

i. 

3 
a 

g 

D 

2 

o 
&. 

a 

S 

S 
3 

1 

Date. 

*^  0 
3  3 

3 

■a 

Date. 

i 

3 

0  . 
■*^  P 

s| 

1 

S 
1 

a 

c3 

0 

1 

a 

'3 

inssouRi. 
St.Louis  Univer'y- 

8 

3,8 

8 

3 

Deg. 
fi 

77 
78 
66 
75 
79 
81 
73 
72 
78 

19 

23 

23 

11,27 

23 

19 

22 

16 

17, 19,  20 

19,  26,  27 

De-7. 
31 
13 
19 
26 
20 
26 
20 
23 
20 
19 

Deg. 
45.7 
42.9 
46.4 
40.9 
42.9 
46.0 
42.0 
•42.9 
40.5 
39.1 

In. 

1.90 
2.01 
2.05 
5.01 
1.47 

3.3.5 
5.01 
6.20 
3.05 

19 
19 
17 
19 
19 
19 
19 
19 
19 
18 

64 
66 
56 
68 
68 
62 
59 
54 
55 

'  Deo- 

11  i  —10 
11—6 

Dcg. 
30.4 
28.5 
31.8 
25.7 
29.3 
26.0 
26.9 
27.6 
26.0 
24.0 

In. 

2.73 

3.22 

Hematite 

3.45 
2.33 

Eolla : 

Jefferson  City 

HermituKe 

"Wavreusbiirg 

Harrison  ville 

8 
7 
8 
7 
3 
2 

—  8 
—12 
—14 
•—18 
—15 
—16 

2.56 
1.60 
3.42 
2.25 
4.86 
2.17 

Averages 

42.9 

3.34 

27.6 

2.86 

2 
2 

g 
2 
2 
2 
2 

78 
74 

n 

79 
73 

77 
71 

78 

26 
26 
17,19 
19 
26 
2fi 
26 
27 

17 
16 
20 
22 
17 
15 
16 
20 

17,18 
18. 19.  20 
19 
19 
19 
17, 18,  20 
28 
20 

50 
46 
54 
70 
49 
46 
57 
50 

—17 
—19 
—20 
—  6 
—16 
—19 
—16 
—15 

KANSAS. 

38.8 
37.9 

45.' 4" 
38.0 
37.7 
38.1 
42.3 

8.40 
5.17 
5.70 
4.00 
4.14 

2.72' 
3.45 

24.3 
2:!.0 
24.  2 
33.8 
24. 3 
2\6 
25.3 
28.0 

2.20 

Leavenworth 

Olatlia 

2.17 
3.50 

Baxter  Springs... 

Lawrence 

Holton 

State  Agi-ic'l  CoU. 
CouncU  Grove 

3.05 
2.13 
2.70 
0.81 
3.15 

39.7 

4.80 

26.1 

2.46 

2 
2 
2 
14 
2 
2 

68 
73 
73 
70 
73 
71 
75 

71 

27 
17 
27 
27 
16,17 
27 
27 

f  16, 17. 

I  19,  27 

7 
16 
13 
11 

18 
17 
9 

1   20 

16 
16 
2 
17 
17 
17 
17 

17 

49 
48 
45 
46 
50 
45 
45 

49 

11 
10,11 
11 
11 
10 

11 
11 

—19 
—  8 
—15 
—15 
—12 
—20 
—30 

—17 

NEBIIASKA. 

Dakota 

34.1 
36.5 
34.2 
3:3.3 
37.3 
37.1 
33.9 

38.1 

i.'se" 
i.'is' 
'6.' .56' 

1.90 

2.10 

20.7 
24.0 
2ii.5 
19.9 
21.8 
22.5 
19.4 

23.2 

Omaba  Mission... 
Elkborn 

1.50 

De  Soto 

2.00 

Omaha  City 

Bellevue , 

1.81 
6.40 

Glendale 

2.10 

Kebraska  City 

2.58 

35.6 

1.41 

21.5 

2.73 

17 

7 
15,16 

52 

66 
68 

6 

9 

8 

3 

34 

UTAU. 

27.3 

1.40 

1 

82 

9 

.36 

CALIFOKXIA. 

Monterey 

57.5 

1.42 

51.8 
44.0 

4.30 
5.20 

'  37-  5  i  1  40 

1 

47.9 

4.75 

INDEX. 


A. 

Page. 

Ainrtion  in  cmTS,  report  on ^ , 493 

Ap-icultiirp.l  aud  liorticidtuial  periodicals -, ^ ,  608 

A.gricaltttral  annua] ^ ^ 581 

bonks,  leocnt -^ _ 555 

chair  in  University  of  Eilinburgh ^ 133 

cbcmical  exporinipiital  stations - 155 

College,  Ma.ssachnsetts ^ 543, 548 

Mieliigan  _ 4%,  544 

Koyal,  at  Cirencester   ^ 131 

colleges.    (See  imhistrial  oolleges^ 541 

college  scrip,  bx^ation  of,  on  public  lands 4C7 

course  iu  University  of  Leipzig ; 148 

education 1 

in  Europe,  report  on 127 

exports 24,  47,  52 

institutions  of  Crt^rmany I37 

productions,  bireip^n 435 

resounve.s  of  Alaska,  report  on 172 

scbool  of  Plagwitz 148 

societies  in  Europe •. ..  135 

their  objects  and  management ; 504 

Society  Michigan 497 

Royal,  England 136 

Agiiculture  and  mral  economy,  American  works  ou 507 

"  current  facts  in 435 

Depaitment  of,  building  and  grounds  of 15,  19 

high  school  of.  at  Tetsclieu-Liebwerd,  Bohemia 152 

influence  of  forest  troes  ou 447 

in  New  Jersey 451 

in  North  G-ei-many 450 

in  the  Papal  States 450 

Royal  Institute  and  Aca<lemy  of,  at  Poppelsdorf 145 

southern 2 

I)eculiai'  wants  of 396 

State  reports  of 472 

systematic ■ 2 

Alabama,  crops  of 27,  31 

live  .stock  of -.  45 

the  public  lands  of 465 

Alaska,  apricidtural  nvsourccs  of,  report  ou 1T2 

AJaskan  plants,  useful  indigenous. , 187 

Alder,  Enropoan 202 

Aleutian  district,  Alaska 178 

American  Agricultural  Annual _ 581 

cotton  seed  in  India '. 4.52 

crab  apple 203 

dair^-ing,  progTcs.s  of 489 

dairj-meu  in  Switzerkiud 441 

cbu 198 

fish  culture 319,  500,  592 

ivy 204 

lime  or  linden 198 

stud  book .'>92 

wheat  cnltui-ist 500 

works  on  agricultum  and  nu'al  economy ; 555, 597 

.'ijialicim,  Los  Angeles  Co.,  California 449 

Analyses  of  limestone, 371;  3T2,  374,  370,  377,  381, 383,  384, 387 

marls 61, 62,  63,  05, 68,  09,  370,  371,  373,  374,  370,  378,  381,  384,  385,  388 

New  York  g;\-psxnn  and  tufa ' 378 

South  Carolina  idiosphates 74,  400 

Anti.sell,  Thomas,  chemist,  report  of 59 

-Viits  at  the  root.s  of  fruit  trees 433 

Apple  culture  iu  Inwa,  reports  ou 521,  522 

Maine 473,474 

aiichigan • 499 

New  England 473, 482 

New  York 493 

economic  value  of  the 474 

orehard,  })renuum.  in  Michig;m 499 

oreliards  of  New  England 4T2 

Arboretum  ;md  Department  grounds 11, 122, 193 

42 


658 


AGKICULTUEAi,    REPORT. 


Page. 

Arbor-vitae,  American - 196 

Arrbiti-ct  of  Peuaxtmcnt  bnilding,  rejwrt  of 15 

Arizoua.  the  imblic  lands  in ^,'*^ 

Arkacsa*.  crojis  of 28,31 

live  stock  in <3 

the  iiulilic  lands  of 463 

Ash.  English.  Euioi>eaii  monntain.  creeping,  and  white 13S,  199,  S01,2C« 

Aeh-leaved  maple "^^ 

Aastralia,  grapes  from US 

B. 

Rihyloaian  wiUoir 2^ 

Rilkon  vine 206 

Barley  crow  of  1?6S 25.32 

cnitiire.  profits  of  in  Ohio 509 

in  Iowa,  i-ejxjrt  of  committee  on 519 

Bams,  tlip  construction  of •ITS 

Bartnim  oak 202 

Bean  i-nltnrc.  profits  cf  in  ilaesachnaetts 461 

Beech.  European 201, 202 

Bee  hi ve.s 274 

Bee  ke«»pinp.  «tatiBtics  of 27-2 

Bee  pii.st  urage 2tO 

Bees.  dis«-ases  of,  in  1S6S 2T8 

foul  biixxi  amo&g 277 

wintering 275 

Beetle*,  the  frxil  and  habits  of 78, 306 

Beet  sugar  at  Cbat.-iworth.  niincis - 168 

in  Euroi>e,  rejwrt  on - 158 

the  manufacture  of 164 

B«-bprry - 197. -3)2 

Bignonia.  solden 203 

Bireh.  white 2:1,202 

Bitter  sweet,  climbing - 2M 

BIac}<  susrar  raanle 158 

Black  ualnnt ..." 201 

Boardni.in.  ?L  L..  secretarr  Maine  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  report  of 472 

Bombvx  inori  in  Califnrcia ^  293 

Bone  (lust  r.*  a  fertiiijer r 467, 503 

Bone  phosphates,  how  to  utilize r 400 

of  South  Carolina 73,398 

Book  of  Evergreens 579 

Boston  livestock  market 56 

BreadsuifSs  at  New  Vork.  prices  of M 

Cf.li  fomia.  expHi>rt«  of r 452 

vrJuc-  of  esports  of ^-  48 

Bridges.  con.«tnictioB  of 351,364.366 

Bnxmi-com  culture,  profit*  of 527 

Bnivai  I'niversitv,  industrial  course  in 547 

BuckTliom  he<lgB" 196.245 

Buckwheat  crop  of  lc68 ?5.3i 

Iowa,  report  of  committee  on - 518 

culture  in  Maine 475 

Bnfialn  grass 489 

Butter  and  chee*e  factories  in  the  United  States ' 436 

chei-se  ajid  milk  in  Ohio 510 

making  from  whey 437 

C. 

CaLunprli.<i  sc.'.1»er 206 

Caicareotis  ma> Is  and  potash  greetiands 402 

C«lifumia,  crop-s  of 30.31,444,443 

exiMirtx  of  brea<Uta&s 452 

live  stock  of 45 

silk  culture  ia 291 

temix-rature  of 294.  612 

the  public  lands  of 461 

tini'>cr  in 449 

Camperdowu  elm 302 

Camtis  as  an  article  of  food 452 

Canadi.".))  rfH-i]in»citv • 3 

CaneiTiHf  a.s  a  fen  ili.'er 446 

Capnin.  Ilorace,  Ommissioner,  report  of 1 

Carolina  jasmine .- S04 

CataJiia 200.203 

CatUo,  diseases  of 4. 37,  41, 595 

fattenir.g,  efl'ectsof  stonay  satnmn  upon .- 452 

in  Iowa,  reports  upon -- 515,516 

1"'          •    • neglect 37 

f.                      .   Couuty.  Ohio 508 

:-■                        the  United  States 45 

Charco,,!  ,■-  ;  ■■■  ^..  ..  i 561 

Chatsworth.  lliinois.  beet  sngar  oxpcrimcEts 168 

Cheese,  American,  causes  of  bad  flavor  in 501 


INDEX.  659 

Page. 

Cheese,  amount  of  caseine  in 437 

and  butter  factories  in  Ohio 510 

the  United  States 436 

Lntter  and  milk  in  Ohio - 510 

comparative  prices  of 437 

consumption  of 493 

factory  system,  superiority  of 437 

making  i:i  Michigan 500 

premium,  iu  Lorain  County,  Ohio 510 

production  of.  Great  Britidn 490 

Ke w  York '    489 

the  United  States 4S9 

of  1863 437 

skim  milk 501 

Chemical  division  of  the  Department 8 

Chemist,  report  of 59 

Cherokee  rose  hedge 245 

Cherries  in  Iowa,  report  of  committee  on 520 

Cherrv,  best  varieties  of  the 521 

dwarf .■ 200 

EngUshbird 201 

Eocky  Mountain 113 

wUd 200 

Chesapeake  oysters 341 

Chestnut,  European  and  horse 1S9, 201,  203 

Chicago  live  stock  market 57 

Chinese  evergreen,  v/istaria  and  yam 2W,  205 

Cinchona  planting 7 

Cirencester.  Royal  Agricultural  College  at 131 

Cisterns,  advantages  of 524 

Climbing  auuual.s" 205 

Clover  benefited  by  the.  tramping  of  sheep 503 

experiments  with 411 

plaster  tor 511 

Cluss,  Adolph,  architect,  report  of 15 

Coal  ashes  as  a  fertilizer 446 

Cocculus r 205 

Coftee  tree.  Kentucky , £00 

Cold  Spring  trout  works.  Charlestowu,  Xew  Hampshire 337 

Colleges,  industrial  or  agricultirral 541 

veterinary 5 

Colorado,  public  lands  iu 459 

Commissioner  of  Agricuiture,  Horace  Capron,  report  of 1 

Concentrated  fertilizers  in  the  southern  States o!)6 

Coniferre,  treatise  on 579 

Connecticut,  crops  of 25,  31 

Industrial  College 541 

live  stock  of 45 

mineial  fertilizers  of 376 

Convolvulus,  double 205 

Cornell  University,  Xew  York 546 

Corn,  Iniliau,  and  wheat,  exports  of 47,  49 

crop  of 25,  31 

cultuie,  profits  of,  in  Massachusetts 479 

Ohio 508 

experiments  with » : . . .  419 

fall  plo'W'ing  for 511 

iu  lowra,  reports  on 515,  518 

meal  for  butter  making 489 

Cotton  crop  of  1868 22 

culture 562 

exports,  from  1626  to  1868 24 

manulactui-es  in  the  United  States 23 

seetl,  American,  iu  Iiulia 452 

Country  road  engineering 363 

roads  and  roail  liiws 348 

Cowdin,  Ellintt  C,  silk  commissioner,  report  of 282 

Cows,  abortion  in,  renort  on 493 

IVxit-rot  iu '. 488 

Crab  apple,  American 203 

Cranberry  culture 442,  432 

in  Massachusetts 432 

Crops  and  live  stock  of  Ohio,  1867 507 

of  Iowa,  1S07.  reports  on 515,  518 

of  le08 25, 34 

average  yield  and  valiio  of,  per  acre 34 

premium,  in  Oliio 503 

relative  profits  of 518 

Cultivation  of  the  peanut 220 

Culture,  fai-m.  necessity  for 497 

CiUTaut  cidture ". 520, 521 

Utah 113 

Current  facts  in  agriculture 435 

Cupressus  Canadensis  hedge t 196 

Lawsoniana  hedge 196 

Cypress  vine 205 


660 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


Pago, 

Dakota,  tho  public  lands  in 4C0 

l/airies,  London ^ 438 

Dairy,  choice  of  brcoda  for  tho -. - 437 

famis,  profits  of.  ;n  New  Yo"i-k. 48!) 

Dairying,  AmoricJin,  progress  of 4S9 

DairjTnen,  American,  in  S\vitzorIaud 441 

Dairy  products , 437 

protK.s  of,  in  Massachusetts 48.'! 

Dall,  Williara  U.,  report  of,  on  Alaska 172 

Dario  graiKJ ;, 118 

Dean,  Seneca,  Sfiiiorintendent  seed  division,  report  of 125 

Deep  plowing',  advantages  of 512 

Delaw  arc,  crops  of 20,  31 

live  stock  of t.'i 

mineral  fertilizers  of 03,  383 

ptaches 443 

Diseases  of  farm  Ktork 4, 37,  41,  51)5 

Dodge,  J.  11.,  editor,  report  of liK) 

stati.st  i!'i;in,  report  of , 10 

Dogs,  losses  of  sheep  by  depredations  of 42 

Dogwood 203 

Double  convolvulus ■ i'.05 

Drainage,  effects  of 480 

in  Ma.Hsachnsctts 485 

in  Michigan 498 

in  AVood  county,  Ohio 51 1 

profits  of ■ 435,498,504 

Draining,  and  the  grasses,  for  improvement  of  soils 513 

for  Profit  and  for  Health 594 

Dwarf  cherry •- 202 


Earth  closela 587 

Edinburgh  University 133 

Editor's  report 190 

Education,  agi-icultitral 1 

Elements  of  agriculture 5.)5 

Elm,  American,  (;ampcrdown  and  English 198, 20],;J02 

English  alder  hedge 107 

ash,  bird  cherry,  filbert,  and  maple 197, 198, 201, 202 

Entomological  division 10 

Eutomologj;,  practical,  for  farmers'  sous ;)05 

Esparto  cra'ss 200 

habitat  of  the » a 200 

imports  of  tho 207 

reports  on  the 262, 205 

seed,  importation  of  the 207 

the  nature  and  u.ses  of  the 26] 

trade,  progress  of 202 

Exchanges,  foreigii 4,  530 

international 4 

ExLatiRtive  vs.  restorative  crops : IH 

Experimental  garden 11 

Experiments  in  tiuniji  culture ^ , 421 

in  stock  feeding 427 

in  top-dressing 425 

Avith  clover ". 411 

A^rtilizers 430 

field  scwls 405,  409,  410,  412,  419 

grass  and  hay .^. 42.'! 

Esrports,  agricultui-.il ' 24,  47, 52,  49 

cotton,  1820  to  1808 2) 

of  brea<lstufl's 47,  49 

European  alder,  beech,  chestnut,  hornbeam,  larch,  linden,  moiintaLn  ash,  oak,' and  red  bud 197-202 

EvMgi-eens 2'J4, 522,  579, 580 

proitagatiou  of ^ 522 

Everlasting  pea 205 

F. 

Fall  plowing  for  corn , 51 1 

Eartu  crops  nf  1808 ." 25 

culture,  necessity  for  improvement 497 

I'-armers'  and  Me<'hani"c3'  Mjinual .'. 560 

Farm  experiments 412 

fencins  in  Elaine : 470 

Lraplemeuts  and  farm  machinery ri8'.S 

])roduetH,  profits  of,  in  Massachusetts 479 

Eanus,  premium,  in  Michigan 497 

Farm  stock,  c<nidition  and  number  of 35-40 

dis«'ases  of 4,  37,  41,  595 

in  ^Sla.ssachu.'witts,  valuer  of 483 

relative  profits  of.  in  Iowa , 517 

Talk 559 


DsDEX.  661 

Page. 

Feeding:  stock,  esiierimeuts  La "l^ 

Fence,  hedge  and  ditch • 253 

F'^nces,  live  and  dead  comparative  cost  of "^ 

Fencins,  farm,  iu  Maine ^'^ 

Fenuentod  and  cooked  food  for  stock 428 

Fertilizer,  salt  froiu  sea  water  as  a ^^ 

Fertilizers.  artiUcial  effects  of 503 

in  the  southern  States -^ 

tlie  u.se  of- ^    4 ; ', 

expcrinjents  with - 'l"^i  '*■•'* 

for  com  compared ^^|; 

home-made ^^ 

mineral Cl-63-367-3e9 

Field,  Forest,  and  Garden  Botany ^' ' 

seeds,  experiments  with  . .  - -  -  - '^''^^' 

Filbert  EusiHsh  _    '^~ 

Fish  beds  of  the  Charleston  basin -. '^  333 

breeding  works  at  Meredith  Village,  New  Hampshire  -  — 33o 

Fish  cult-ore 310,  590, 5b2 

at  Charlestown.  New  Hampshire '-^i 

at  Meredith  Villaice.  Xew  Hampshire ^^ 

at  Jvf.shna.  Xew  Hampshire *~ 

at  Trontdale   New  J.i-sev - 334 

at  West  Blooaofield,  New"  York ^■- 

in  Africa 3^.1 

in  Europe 31 J 

labors  of  Commissioner  Green  in 331 

logisLition  on 333,  330 

no  novelrv - 31^ 

on  Lous  Island .^ 

prizes  for  encouragement  of -*-  -  - - 32a 

recent  progress  in - ^*^ 

Seth  Green's  jwnds  for - 333 

State  action  for  promotion  of -  3"-3'  3^ 

what  may  be  done  ia  the  United  States ^r- 

Fisherics.  commissioners  of 3-^ 

Fish  fjirming.  area  for 330 

Fishing  in  American  waters -  ^*i; 

F!as  and  hemp  culture ^^^ 

Flint.  Charles  L..  Secretary  Magsachusens  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  i-eportof J22. 

Floriculture.  Practical. ..."- • ''}~ 

Florida,  crups  of 27, 31 

gardening  in ■*'^5 

Eve  stock  cf 45 

mineral  fertilizers  of , 383 

the  pubhc  Luids  ia • ^65 

vegetables  and  exports ^^ 

Flour,  exports  of ^J 

Flowers,  cultivation  of.  in  Massachusetts ■*j3 

Food  and  habits  of  beetles '''^ 

materials,  values  of - 429 

Foot-rot  in  cows ^^ 

Foreign  exchanges 530 

Forestry  in  India ' 443 

Forests'and  timber 447 

Forest  trees,  relative  growth  of .• 5"^ 

FT;uice,  milk  transportation  in 441 

French  vine  iand^v  high  i)rices  of 444 

Fiinge  tree.  Tircrinia 203 

Fruit  crops  of  ifassachusetts,  value  of 431 

culture,  iu  Ohio 444 

profits  of.  in  Maine 473 

pi-odnction 442 

products,  and  varieties  of 473 

region  of  Grand  Haven 443 

small,  culture 56C 

trees,  ants  at  the  roots  of 433 

Fruits  and  vegetables,  the  economic  value  of 474 

In  Iowa 519.321 

small,  in  New  Jersev 442 

In  Ohio .". 510 

sub- tropical , fi 

6. 

Garden  and  grounds,  report  of  Superintendent  of 11^ 

Garden,  experimental 11 

Gardening  lor  Protit 563 

for  the  South -. 565 

in  Florida 443 

Gennert,  Theodore,  report  of,  on  beet  sugar  in  Europe 153 

Georgia,  crops  cf £7.31 

live  stock  of 45 

mineral  fenilizers  of 383 

wheat  experiments  in 412 

Germany,  agricultaxcl  institutions  of 127 


662  AGEICCLTUKAL    REPORT. 

Page 

Glnjiiotree 202 

Glovor,  Townend,  iirticle  on  the  food  and  lialiits  of  beetles 78 

Goldca  bi^nonia 203 

GoC'Sebeniea  in  loTra,  report  of  committee  on 520 

Grand  Haven  fmit  region 443 

Grape  culture 207,  5C7 

in  ilissonri 524 

Grape  Cnltnrist SG? 

Grape.  Dario 118 

foreign,  culture 216 

rot,  eflect  of  soil  on < 214 

Scnppernong 1 1 3,  443,  574 

Grapes  ami  wine 6 

effects  of  di-aining  and  sulv.soiling,  elevation,  shelter,  Sec,  on 214, 215 

foreiCT 6 

for  Massachu.sctt.< 482 

from  Australia 118 

in  Iowa,  report  of  committee  on 519 

insects  most  injurious  to 2l9 

native 119 

soils  most  favorable  to 214 

Grape,  vaiietiea  of  the,  {jivincr  the  heaviest  must  on  ths  sngar  scale 212 

in  highest  repute  a.«  wine  erapes £12. 217 

most  popular  as  table  finit'. 21 1,  217 

mo.^t  subject  to  leaf  disease 212 

moijt  subject  to  rot 213 

principally  grown 212,  218 

Grape  Tine,  treatise  on  the '..'. 570 

Grass  and  hay,  experiments  with 423 

Grass  land,  liquid  manure  on ■. 424 

Gravel  aiid  earth  roads,  stones  on ., 360 

Gravel  roads '. 356 

Great  le."vVod  magnolia 200 

Greensand  marls,  action  and  value  of 69 

Green,  Seth,  Commissioner,  labors  of.  in  lish  culture 331 

his  trout  .streams  and  ponds 333 

Gmino.  effects  of.  buried  at  dilierent  dejyths 433 

Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects ; 590 

Gypsum  in  Virginia 395 

21. 

Hardy  herbaceous  perennial  climbers 205 

ligneous  climbicg  plants 203 

Hay  and  grass,  experiments  with 423 

cr»p  of  leCi ! 25,  33 

cutting  and  curius 4C3^  470 

premium  crop  in  OTiio '  509 

profits  of,  in  Alassaohusetts 481 

Hawthorn 203, 245 

Hedge  and  ditch  fence 258 

best  form  for ' , .>. 195 

close  trumuing,  results  of 254 

herring  bone 257 

layhig  without  trimming,  and  trimming  without  laying 258 

single,  laj-ing ." 256 

single  row,  not  sniScient  unless  stake<l 251 

Hedge  fence,  training:,  repairing  and  relaying 255,256 

Hedge  rows,  double  line,  farrow  trenches  for 252 

pleaching,  stout  or  tangled 257 

setting  quicks  in 252 

Hedges,  as  harbors  for  insectivorous  birds 25U 

disadvantages  of  live  stakes  for 251 

plants  for 1 94-1197, 245,  251,  258 

pleacliing 255 

prepai-ation  of  ground  for 243 

repiiiring,  for  first  pleaching 256 

tnmmiug  and  dwarfing 249 

two-row,  strength  of,  when  pleached 251 

Hedging  tools 256 

Heilging.  without  laying 254 

Hedge  st-tting,  guide  for 2.'>3 

Hcdgf  trimming  tools *. 255 

Hemlock,  spruce,  hedge ...........'.! 190 

Hemp  and  liax  culture 526 

Hen  nianui-e  as  a  fertilizer '.'...'... .....'.'.'. 487 

Hiph  culture,  ad  vantages  of .' 51 1 

Highland  ACTicultiiral  Society,  ScotJaud .........!..............!.......  135 

Hints  in  horiiorJturc yji 

History  of  the  plow .'".]....!!!!!!!!]!!!!.'..!.....'..  -194 

Hog  cholera "_ '_ 5 

Hogs,  e>q>eriments  in  fattening ....V...\..V.V...\...V/...V..... .//...  4^ 

statistics  of ' " ' 40 

Hohenheim  Academy ."!.!].].!!.'.'!.!!!].'!.."..!!!!'.!!!!!  143 

Holmes,  A.  J.,  Secretarj-  Indiana  Stat*  Board  of  Agriculture,  report  of !!....!!!!!!.!!.....       .  512 

Homesteads  on  public  lands 405— 3G8 

Honey W.'.. ...... '.'..V..\\l'..'..V.'.'.'.\'.[  275 


INDEX.  663 

Page*. 

Eoney  locust  hertgo ^^^'^^''^f 

Honey  locust  tree rj^ 

Houiysuckle,  Jajjau r:"! 

Hops'as  a  fertilize]- r^J 

HopH.  variation  iii  prjce  of i  " 

Hill  ubeaui,  European,  hedge ," A^  .-«m  ioQ 

Horse  che.stimt 199,201,^;? 

Horse  Portraittire "'^j 

Horses,  diseasea  of .^ ' 

in  Iowa,  report  of  committee  on - ''^i 

statistics  of *q 

Horticultural  and  a^icultural  periodicjils r^° 

Horticulture,  hints  in i^ 

Hov,-  crops  grovT  ■ ^ 

Howard,  Sauford,  Secretary  Michigan  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  report  of 4^" 

I. 

Idaho,  the  puhliclands  in f^ 

Hliuois  and  Missouri,  relative  progress  of oo^ti 

Illinois,  crops  of kio 

Hlinois  Industrial  CoUege -^'^ 

live  stock  of *^ 

Immigration ™ 

to  Missouri •^'-^ 


Imperial  Paulowuia. 


^     203 

Imports  of  wools  and  woolens ^^ 

India,  forestry  in oq  ^i 

Indiana,  ci"oi)3  of a^ 

live  stock  of -  - .   *^ 

State  reiwrt  of  agriculture ^^'-j' 

Indi.ta  com  crop  of  in  1868 j^J 

Industrial  colleges  ^^ 

Industriid  CoUcgo,  Connecticut ^^ 

Illinois ^^ 

Kansas ?j~ 

Mafaie  5« 

Massachusetts ''^■i-  ?;° 

Michigan ^^^'"^ 

Minne-snta 5^^ 

^ew  Hampshire ?j^ 

2s  ew  York ^° 

Peunsvl  va:;ia. ^3 

Rhode  Island 547 

"Wisconsin ,^  5a? 

Insects 78,268,433,501 

a  Guide  to  the  Study  of ^ 

asnoiuit  of  depredations  of ^^ 

cabinet  of.  how  to  ai  ran^o ^I 

how  to  collect  and  preserve "^^ 

Intematioi.ial  exchanges ^n  t-  "iit 

Io^^a,  crops  of 30,  3i.  515 

live  stock  of  1867  ^|5 

State  report  of  agricalture  of ^}^ 

the  public  lands  in *- ^-Jl 

timber  planting  in ^ 

Irrigation , ^ ?^r 

Ivy,  American  and  poison ♦'^'  "^■' 

J. 

Japan  hoheysucklo ^ 

kob-e;it«ria ~fi 

privet _  i^I 

sophora ~^'-'  -"^ 

Jasmine.  Carolina ?^ 

Jefl'erson  County,  Iowa,  fruit  trees  in J^ 

Johnson,  B.  P.,  Secretary  Xuw  York  State  Agricultural  Society,  TCi)ort  of 487 

K. 

Kansas,  crops  of ^i^\ 

Industrial  Collego 542 

live  stock  of ^ 

the  public  lands  in ^58 

Kentucky  coU'ec  tree os'o? 

crops  of  AK 

live  s  tock  of - j^ 

Kilmarnock  willow *^ 

Klippart,  J.  H.,  Secrevjiry  Ohio  State  Board  of  Agricultiu-e,  report  of ^ 

Kolreiiteria,  Japan ^01,  ™03 


GU 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT, 
I.. 


Page. 

Laburnum .• 203 

Land  offices  in  tho  United  Statf-a 470 

J..and  warrants,  Ification  on  public  lands 4C7 

Leipzij;  University,  agricultural  course  in I-J"^ 

Lime  or  linden,  Amr-ncan 198 

Limestone  region  of  Virginia 'Jirj 

Linden 1<J8,  QOl,  202 

Litcbenhof,  Eoyal  Bavarian  district  school  at 153 

Live  stock,  statistics  of 44 

Liquid  manure 42-I,  4t'8 

Loam  roads '  357 

Locust  tree 20 1 , 2 J3 

Lombartlv  jioplar '  197 

Loudon  tlairies 438 

Lon^  Liland  trout  ponds ^ 337 

Lophospci-miuu  scandeas ; 2CG 

Louisiana,  crops  of 28, 31 

live  stock  of. '45 

sugar  prodTictions  of ,').'; 

the  public  lands  in 4Go 

Ltunber  in  Califumia • .'.'..'.'.'.'..'.'.' .....' 449 

in  VTashington  Territorv 44o' 

Lyons  silk  commission 1 UOo 

H. 

ifacadamized  or  broken  stone  road.? 3i! 

Madis<jn  County,  Ohio,  cattle  sales :iZii 

M;affnoUa.s ". 200,203 

MaEaleb  cherrv 203 

Maine,  crops  of !].."..!.!!!'...!...."!".'.'..  25, 31 

In<fustrial  College _ 542 

live  stock  of '....'.'.'. '.'....'..'.'.  4:> 

mineral  fertilizers  of 3711 

State  report  of  agriculture  of 47^j 

Manufactures  hi  iHssouii 524 

ilanure,  liquid ']]' .'.[.'...  424,  488 

rotted  r«.  nnrotted '  4Ss 

Manures,  application  of ." .'. 555^  561 

Li  Massachusetts '  4SC 

native  phosphatic 73 

preser\-ation  of 47g 

Maples.  .".'.'.".".'.'.'.'.']!!.'."."  197,' iP^,'i99, 201,202 

Market  Gardener .      .  5^2 

Marl  beds  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina ...."!!...!]!!...!!!!....!!]!!!!!!!!  TJ 

blue  of  Virginia 390 

ferruginous  of  Virginia :jyi 

greensand  of  Virginia ."jg  I 

regions  of  Virginia :jg(j 

Marls,  calcareous  and  pota-sh  gi-e«nf?and.s ]..'.'.'."..'.'.'.'.'!'.'.'.'."!!!!"!  402 

greensand ..".".'..'. ....!!!!!!!!]'.'.'.!!...  fiii 

gitensand,  action  and  value  of ; .'.'..'.'..'.'.'..'.'.'....        '." .  09 

of  Connect ic  ut ]!].!".'.'...!!!...  1 ... .  370 

Delaware •....'.'.. ...'...'.'....'..".'!] ' ' ' ' ' "  ■_■■_■ ' " '_' ' '  .^^ 

Florida '.'.....'.'...'.!.".!..'..!.".'.  1 '.'.'. ".'.'...!.  :{8ti 

Georgia ;j88 

Maine  .''...'....''.'.*.'.'.. ]  371 

Maryland ....."....'!!..!!.  .......... .!.!...!."!.". . .  frl.  3ii 

Mas«achusetts .'.".........'.."."]!.!.!...!..!!!..  375 

iUssisfiippi '....'...'.'.'.'.".  v. ... .'.'.'.!!!.!!!"!!!"!!  69 

Now  Uampshire 37.1 

New  Jersey "^^'^1!^!.'.".".".'^'.'." '.'.'.*.'.'."'.!""!! !!!!!!!!!  ci.seiJ- 

relative  prices  of 3^0 

New  York .'.'..'.'......'.'.. :J77 

North  Carolir.a ,....'.... ':i?-, 

South  Carolina ' -j^'}; 

the  Atlantic  States Co 

used  in  New  Jersey 1 !!     ! 447 

Vermont ." '...'.'.'. ;)7''! 

Virginia '. .". .". '  ^-^ 

Marl,  white  of  Virginia -jfil 

Mai-yLind,  crops  of ..'...."..'.".'."... "c"  "n 

live  .stock  of ."-.'.'.'. ...... ..." ^ ~  '4-, 

mint  ral  fertilizers  of .V. ..  . G-l  3fJi 

root  culture  in ""J j.vi 

Ma.S8achusctta  Agricultural  College.  buUdings,'  and'endowTOent.-. .'..'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'..'.'.' ! !"!.'!.'!!! !  ril^ 

coiirse  of  study  in 55j 

history  of '. 543. . '54,- 

location  of r>5» 

crops  of ■  "",31 

i^<fustriai  College "iiii[\\i'.]]]\\\\::"'.:[::::::[:::::::[::[[[  5^/54^ 

live  Htock  of 4- 

mineral  fertilizers  of '.....'.'..'...'."..... 374 

.  -           ,           State  report  of  agriculture  of "47<t 

Maurandia  EarcLiyana o{; 

McChesner,  J .  H., report  on  agriciiltural ediication  In  Europe! ^['.'.'.'.V^y/^'.'.V.'. ...../.['.'.[ '. '. '.  T 27 


INDEX.  665 

Page. 

ircadow,  dry  ami  ^^et ^'r^ 

il   i.\,  Iiitliaii  coni,  for  butter  making f^^ 

iletforoIogyolli-GS-. of)-,  012 

ilicliiffan,  best  varictios  of  wheat  for ^99 

"^       cheese fOi) 

College,  experhueuts  iu  top  dressing on  Ti' 

crops  of ,o;'  - 1 1 

Industrial  College 490,  o44 

live  stock  of ^-^ 

premium  farms .nr  -  1 1 

State  Agiicultural  College "l Jb,  o44 

State  Agiiculturul  Society 497 

State  report  ol'  agriculture  of f-'y 

sorghum "J^Jl 

tlio  public  lands  in 'i^Jj 

iliUh  cows,  advantages  of  good t ^1* 

lu  Massachusett-s "'.is,  4bJ 

relative  prolits  of  keeping ^*~ 

statistics  of ^ 

Milk,  butter,  and  cheese  iu  Ohio ^|JJ 

Milking  cows,  directions  for ^-~ 

MUk,  prt'ser vation  of - 442 

transportation  of,  in  Franco 441 

Minerjd  fertilizers  of  Connecticut ^° 

Delaw.oa-o f^ 

Florida 288 

G  eorgia ?°8 

Maine j^^ 

Maryland •'o^ 

Massachusetts 3^4 

Hew  Hampshire 371 

K ew  Jersey 37il 

IJow  York 376 

Korth  Carolina 385 

Pennsylvania 382 

llhode  IsUind 376 

South  Carolina ■. 386 

the  Atl.antic  States 367 

A'ermont 372 

Virginia 3S9 

Mineralogical  cabinet ^ 

Minerals  of  Missouri 529 

Minnesotii,  crops  of 30, 31 

luttustri.il  College 54j 

live  stock  of ^ 

the  public  lamls  in 457 

Mississippi,  crops  of 27,  31 

live  stock  of - 45 

marls ^ 

the  publiclands  in 465 

Missouri  and  Illinois,  pi-ogTess  of,  contrasted 529 

Missouri,  crops  of 29,  31 

grape  culture  in •'24 

live  stock  of .* 45 

minerals  of ^      529 

sheep  husbandrj'  In 504,  528 

State  i-enort  of  agricultvire  of 523 

the  public  lands  iu 456 

wine  di8tn<'ts  (pf 525 

Montana,  the  public  lands  in 463 

Moonseed 205 

Morning  glory 205 

Morse,  L.  U.,  secretary  Missouri  State  Bo.ard  of  Agriculture,  report  of 523 

Muck  .as  a  fertilizer  48G,  487 

Mulberrj'  trtn-s  in  California 452 

varieties  of  the 300 

vield  per  acre,  in  California 293 

Mule,  the  breeding,  training,  and  uses  of  the 594 

.ilules  and  Jacks  in  Iowa,  report  of  the  committee  on 517 

statistics  of 4o 

Museum , ^^ 

Bf. 

Native  grapes ^ill 

Native  phosphatic  manures /'■> 

Nebraska,  ci-ops  of 'jr- 

live  stock  of -. 4j 

the  public  lands  in 45J 

NeT.ida.  the  pul)lic  Lands  in 463 

New  Engl.and,  aj)ple  orchards  of 47;. 

sheep  in ^.4." 

New  Hampshire,  crops  of : "''vi- 

Industrial  CoUego •'4^ 

live  St  lick  of 45 


G6G 


AGRICULTURAL    REPORT. 


Pago 

New  ITanipsliire,  mineral  fertilizers  of 371 

New  JcrrtDV,  ajp'iiiilture  i;i 451 

cioiiii  of 2G,  31 

live  stocli  of 45 

niiiiontl  fertilizers  of CI,  379 

small  IViiits  in 442 

New  Mexico,  tli>!  public  lands  in 4CJ 

Now  York  brciuLstnlls  market 58 

chifs.',  proUuL'ts  of 469 

crops  of .^ 26,  31 

luifustiial  College...' 546 

livc-Btuck  market 56 

live  stuck  of 45 

mineral  feitilizors  of ., 370 

State  Atjrieiiltural  Society 487 

State  report  of  agiiculture  of , 487 

Nipht  soil  as  a  fertilizer 55C,  588 

Niiu  of  Yucatan .'•. , ii63 

chemical  properties  of  the 2Gt( 

North  Carolina,  crojis  of 27,  31 

li  ve  stock  of ^ 45 

miiicral  fertilizers  of 385 

North  Middlesex  premiums  on  milch  oows 438 

Norway  maple 199 

spruce w J .  ^ 196 

O. 

Oaks  I3artram,  'European,  and  willow 201, 202 

Oata  croj)  of  1868 25,  32 

cultnrr,  profits  of,  in  ilassuclmsetts 48U 

experiments  with 410 

in  Iowa 515,  518 

Ohio,  cheese  and  hutter  factories  in 510 

crops  and  live  stock  of  1807 507 

crops  of  1868 , 29,  31 

fruit  culture  in 444 

live  stock  of 45 

jiremium  crops  in 508 

State  report  of  agriculture  of 506 

O'l'dinm  in  Euro|)e 573. 

Ouion  culture,  piotits  of,  in  Massaohnsotts .- 481 

CMchards,  apple,  in  Michigan 499 

Oregon,  tlu-  public  lauds  in 462 

Osage  orimge 194, 197,  200,  202 

thoni  hedge,  renewal  Of 250 

pro])agation  of 247 

Oxen  and  other  cattle,  statistics  of 45 

Oyster,  artificial  breeding  of  the 340 

beds  of  tlu;  (Jlirsiipcake,  ai'oa  of 'Ml 

business  of  the  (.'iRsapeake , 342 

crop  of  the  Chesapeake  dimiiiishing 347 

culture 338 

in  England 3:39 

in  France 338 

fecundity  of  the 340 

fishing-  in  the  Chesapeake 342 

food  of  the  346 

j)lants  iiud  ] da II ting  grounils , 342 

planting  grounds,  value  of  tho 343 

propagation  of  tin-  344 

'Quality  and  varictii\s  of  tho ; 343-345 

Oysie.sof  tho  Chesapeake,  their  propagation  and  ciilturo 341  • 

P. 

Palis  Exposition,  silk  interest  at 282 

passion  flower , 2'J5 

Pastures,  old,  reclaiming 4^6 

Paulo wnia  iinperialis 2D0 

Pea,  everlasting 205 

Peach  culture!  in  tho  west 520 

Peaches  in  Delaware 44:j 

Peanut  culture 220 

lirolits  of 224 

harvesting  tho 222 

seed 223 

varieties  of  tho 223 

Pear  cnlturej^prolits  of '. 442 

Pears , 120 

for  Massacluiaetts ' 482 

in  Iowa,  reports  on 021 

/      varieties  of  for  Maine 474 

Pennsylvania,  crops  of 20.  31 

Industrial  College 547 


DTDEX,  667 

Page. 

PenDsylvtmia,  live  stock  of 45 

mineral  fertilizers  of 3S2 

Phosphates,  bouc.  how  ti«  i:tilize 4C0 

erperimi-uts  wirh <30 

of  Sontb  Crj=  !ina  K6.a*3 

Phosphatic  beds  of  Charleston,  Sontir  Carolina 2."* 

maanres - ^3 

Phosphorus  and  sulphur,  sources  of,  in  soils ^^ 

Pipe  vine ^^ 

Piscicnlture 319.590.5f>9 

PLi£r«itz,  Agriculnu^J  School  at 1^: 

Plaukroa.ls , 330.3^ 

Plants,  list  of.  in  .irlioretTon 1"^ 

nsi^fiil  iuuigenoas,  of  Alaska \^~ 

Kaster  for  clover 514 

in  Tirjriiiia - ^5 

Plenro-pneumnnia • J-^ 

Plo'vring. dct-p. ^dvantajrcs  of - 5^- 

Plow.  inventors  of  iraprovemcnts  on  the ■*^5 

mannfactnrers  in  the  United  Suites 494 

the  history  of  the 494 

Poi&on  ivy 204 

PopLir.  L«inibardT 1^ 

tnlip..... 198 

Poppelsdort.  Royal  Institnte  and  AgrieoltiiTal  Academy  of;  at 145 

Popular  decidBiins  and  everp*en  trees ?^'' 

Potato  bug.  experiments  wita '^■^".'■*.;  I 

crop  of  1=63 C5.  o-J 

cnltore,  prontsof.  in  Massachusetts 4rl 

Ohio - SOS- 
diseases  of  the 225 

experir.ients  with  the , 233,254,237 

horve^ituig  and  storin j:  of  the 236 

history  and  habits  nf  the ^S 

kinds  and  preparation  of  se*d  of  the 233 

^                                      soils  for  the 235 

pbmtin?  and  hoein£  935 

sweet,  culture  in  Ohio 509 

Potomac  m-xrla.  .-jnalyses  of ^ 

Poultry,  profits  of . . ". 453.  4;5 

varietie.s  of.  in  if assachusetts 4;5 

Practical  entomology  for  farmers"  sons 305 

florictilmre - 5T7 

Prairie  lands,  vield  of.  the  first  year S3 

Premium  crops  in  Ohio 3*3 

Privet,  common  h'?ds:e ^97 

Public  domain  of  the  United  States - ^ 451 

lands,  cash  purchases  of 467 

home.^tead.  entries  on 468 

in  Alabama 465 

Arizona 460 

ArV-nsas 465 

CV!:f.>riiia 461 

Cv-   r:;ao 459 

D.ikota 460 

Florida ■- 465 

Idaho 463 

Iowa 453 

Kansas 453 

Louisiana 465 

i!kbi2an :.■ 456 

i;  i::r  ^  sota 457 

3Ii-s:>sippi 465 

^I  "  •  iri                                                                                   456 

:v:     vaa 463 

^         ska ^ 459 

^^T:uia r. 463 

!Xew  ilesico ^3 

Oregon 462 

Utah 464 

"VTasbinston  Territory 462 

"WiscoEsin .' --  456 

"Wyoming 4<~'4 

location  of  agricultural  college  scrip  on 467 

land  waiTaats  on 467 

manner  nf  acqnirins:  title  to 466 

o2;ces  of  the  United  States 4'|0 

prc^?u:pticn  ot - _  467 

subject  to  ho-^estead  entries 465-4^ 

the  exicnt  of  the 471 

Pnrple-leaved  berlKrry  hedge -• 1^^ 


Quiiiine,  the  fatorc  supply  of. 


668 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


Page. 

Ila!lro.i(l9  in  Iowa 51C 

Iva-spbon-ies  in  Iowa,  report  of  committ<^o  on 520 

Ii.ispbc-n->-  caltiire,  pixjfits  of '. 441' 

Recent  a^-lL-.iitnntl  books 550 

lieciprocitv,  Gauadiau ; 3 

Kc<l  buU  .  ■ 201,20;< 

Eed  m.aplp 190,  201,  20:i 

Report  of  the  Architect .• 15 

Chemist Ef) 

Commissioner 1 

Iklitor ISO 

Statistician m 

Superintendent  of  jrarden  .and  jrroTinds 118 

seed  ilivision 125 

on  a^cultnra]  edncation  in  Europe 127 

beet  Bu^ar  in  Europe 158 

the  agricultural  resimrces  of  Alaska 172 

Eeatorative  r-«.  exliaustive  crop.s 18 

Rhode  Island,  crops  of 25, 31 

Inifustrial  College 547 

live  stock  of 45 

DiLaeral  fertilizers  of 370 

Ro.id  gntiers 3G3 

Roads  and  bridees.  proposed  system  of  construction  and  maintenance 364 

and  road  Laws ". 348 

oountrj-,  cost  of ^ 349 

en  j,nneeriug 3C3 

gravel  and  other 35C 

Road  laws  exist inj; 3C4 

Roads,  loam 357 

longitudinal  grades  for ^ 358 

iLic-idamized '. 353 

plank    350,  358 

relative  cost  of 3C5 

rotten  rock 357 

shade  for 364 

shell 3C2 

■water  liars  on 3C2 

■water  for  teams  along 3C1 

vddth  of 3f.4 

Rocky  Mountain  cherry 116 

Root  culture,  experiments  in ji 421,422 

Rotation  of  crops 5G5 

Rotted  «.  nnrottt-d  manure 48S 

Rotten  rock  roads 357 

Royal  AgricTihur.il  Societ v  of  England 13G 

Bavarian  diKtrict  school  of  Lichtenhof 153 

Institute  or  Acad^mv  of  Agriculture  at  Poppclsdort' 145 

Rttral  afiairs,  register  of  . .". 581 

ta.ste.  cultivation  of .- 12 

Rnssi-n.  wool  gro^^ving  in '. 44."; 

Rata  b.aga  culture,  pi-ofits  nf.  in  Maiisachnsetts 481 

Rye  culture,  profits  of,  in  iliissachusetts 481 

crop  of  18CS  25.31 

in  Iowa,  reports  on 51  - 


S.-ibnon  in  the  Pacific,  protection  of,  neces-yiry 323 

Salt  from  se.a-w.ater  .is  a  fertilizer '. 404 

in  Louisiana  451 

Saltp*-ter  caves  in  the  5>onth 397 

S.an  Juan  Capistrane,  Colorado .• 4.")0 

Sassafras 203 

Saunders.  WiUiam.  Superintendent  of  garde*  and  grounds,  report  of 11a 

Scnppemong  grape ; 119.  443, 574 

Seed  division,  report  of  sui)erintendent 125 

Seeds,  adulteration  of 452 

distribution  of 12, 12."> 

field,  erperiments  -with '  405 

Sewerage,  benefits  of 451 

Shad  bnsh . .' 203 

Shade  for  roads  3C4 

Shalfer,  J.  M..  secretary  Iowa  State  Agricultural  Society,  report  of 515 

Sheep  l>encfit  clover ' 503 

diseases  of 41,  595 

foot  rot  in  595 

hnsbandrv  in  Missouri 52?,  524 

in  Iowa,  1867 015,  518 

in  Xe'R-  England 477 

pox    5;).-, 

statistics  of 4(; 

Shell  roads  -. ' ' 3(;-2 

Sheffiehl  Scientific  School,  Connecticut,  ngricnltural  ceruse  in 5-11 

Shoddy 4.41; 

Shoeing  pnoirie  horses '. .'...'.'.'.'.'..'. ! ....  552 


INDEX.  639 

Page. 

Silk  commissiou  of  Lyons,  France , 300 

to  Piiris  Exposition,  report  of 282 

culture • 282 

California  Stato  prptcituns  f;.>r  '. 299 

in  Califciruia,  condition  and  protita  of 291,  292, 293 

interest  of  the  P;u-is  Exjwsition ■. 232 

inaniU'acturo 283, 285 

in  Cnlifoniia  300 

United  Statts 283 

raw,  a^fcregate  auniuiJ  production  of 283,  291 

statistics 282 

tree 201 

■worm,  care  of  tbo  298 

diseases  of  tbo 294, 301 

cgs  jirodiictioa  303 

esps.  Japanese    • 294 

healtb  of  the,  iu  Ciiiifomia 296 

Jii])aiiese 298 

nio<le  of  feeding  the.  in  California 297 

Silk  woiTus,  percentJige  of  loss  of 297 

Sihrer  bell   203 

ninple    197 

Sitkau  distrirt,  Alaska 183 

Skini-milk  clie-ese 501 

Small  Fruit  Ciii turist  566 

fruits  in  Ohio 510 

Sopbnra,  Janau 201,  203 

Sorghum  culttiie,  profits  otVin  Ohio 509 

iu  Iowa, 515 

report  of  committee  on 519 

in  Michigan 500 

Sour-krout,  the  mauufacturo  of 475 

South  Carolina,  crops  of 27,  31 

live  stock  of 43 

mineral  fertilizers  of 386 

phosphates  of 74, 398 

Southern  ajrricialture  2 

States,  [(eculiar  wants  of 396 

concentrated  fertilizers  in 396 

South,  saltpeter  caves  in  the 397 

Spanish  fever 4,  5, 38 

Splenic  fever 4,  5,  38 

State  reports  of  agriculture.' 472 

Statistical  Division 7 

Statistician's  report 16 

Statistics  of  bee  keeping  •. 272 

beet  sugar  in  Europe , • 161 

breadbtulfs  exports 47 

market  of  Kew  Turk 53 

cheese  production 489 

cotton  e.>;ports  24,  52 

manutactures  2.3 

crops  of  ISCS 25 

flax  r.iid  herup  culture,  importation  and  consimiptiou 520 

grape  ciUtare 208,  217 

imiiiigration 53 

live  slock    44 

losses  of  sheep  by  depredations  of  dogs 43 

Louisiana  sugar  production 55 

osago  oiange  culture 246 

public  hinds  of  the  United  States 471 

seed  distrilmtion 125 

sheep  killed  by  dogs  43 

silk  culture  in  Califoruia 292 

stock  markets  • .56 

Stock,  experiments  in  feeding 427 

cooking  foo<l  for 427 

farm,  condition  and  numbers  of 35.  44 

diseases  of 4,  5,  37 

fermented  and  cooked  food  for 428 

live,  markets  of  Boston.  Chicago  and  Xew  York 5t)-57 

value  of,  in  ihu  United  States 44 

relative  profits  of  iu  Iowa .">17 

values  of  diflercnt  food  materials  for 429 

Stones  on  earth  or  giavel  roads ■'C>0 

Strawberries,  best  varieties  of 521 

in  Iowa,  report  of  committee  on .' 520 

Strawberry  cultuie,  profits  of 442,  510 

Stud-book,"  Americiu .' 592 

Sub-.soil  plowing 556 

Sub-tio])ical  fruits ." 6 

Sugar  beet,  o>q>oriinpnts  with,  at  Chatsworth,  Illinois lf>8 

in  Europe,  report  on 158 

maple    198 

prodiietioa  of  Louisiana j 55 

Sulphur  and  phosphorus,  sources  of,  in  soils 401 

Super-phosphate  of  lime  and  bone-dust  as  fertilizers 430,  437, 503 


670 


AGRICULTURAL   REPORT. 


Pago. 

Swine,  causes  of  disease  in 523 

di.st-ases  of 41 

f xprriments  with 484 

feeding '. 523 

in  Iowa,  report  of  committee  ou 517 

in  Massacliusetts,  profits  ef 4S4 

prolits  of  feedinfr  well 523 

Switzerland,  American  dairymen  in 441 

Sycamore  maple '. 201, 203 

T. 

Temperature  in  California r 294 

Teuiiesaee,  rmps  of  28,  31 

livestock  of 45 

Tetscheu-Liebwerd,  Bohemia,  agricultural  academy  in l.'ia 

Texas  cattle  disease - 4,  .5,  33 

crops  of 28,  31 

Tbunltergia  alata £06 

Timber  .T.ud  forf.sts 447 

ill  Iowa 516 

Tim  Bunker  Papers 581 

Tobacco  crop  of  1868 25,  33 

Top-dressing  gi'ass  lands,  experiments  iu 425 

Tree  of  IJcaven 201 

planting:,  premiums  for 449 

plaiitin.;;.  profits  of   , 44D 

Trees  and  shrubs,  purple  foliaged  : 202 

as  rain  proilucers , 448 

for  street  planting  107 

bavins;  cut  or  laciniated  foliage 202 

large-teaved 200 

peculiarities  and  adaptation  of 107 

round-headed .' 199 

■weeping  and  drooping , 202 

with  conspicuous  or  fragrant  flowers 203 

pinnated  or  finely  uivided  foliage 200 

variegated   f<diage 201 

Trotting  Hoi-se  of  America 593 

Trout  breeding  at  Mashna,  Xew  Hampshire 336 

easy 328 

Troutdale  fish  farm s 334 

Trout  ponds,  Loup  Island 337 

streams  anilpunds  of  Sctli  Green  333 

works  at  West  Bjoomtield.  New  York 332 

Chariistowu,  New  Hampshire 337 

Trumpet-flower " 203 

TuUp  pojdar 198 

tree 202, 203 

Turnip  culture,  experiments  iu 421 

U. 

University  of  Edinburgh 133 

Utah  currants 118 

public  lauds  in 464 

V. 

Values  of  different  food  materials  for  stock 429 

A''egetaldes  and  fruits,  the  use  id" 474 

Vermont ,  ci-opa  of 25,  31 

live  st(/ck  of 45 

mineral  fertilizers  of 372 

Veterinary  colU'ges 5 

Vineyard  cult  ui-o  improved  and  cheapened 569 

Vineyards.  European 571 

Vii-ginia,  lilue  marl  of 300 

creeper   204 

crojis  of 26,  31 

ferruginous  marl  of 391 

fringe  tree 203 

greensand  marl  of '. 391 

gypsum  395 

limestone  region  of 393 

live  stock  of 45 

mineral  fertilizers  of 64,  389 

plaster    395 

the  marl  regions  of 389 

white  marl  of 391 

Vii'giu's  bower 205. 

W. 

Walnut,  black- 201 

Washington  Territory,  lumber  in 448 


INDEX.  671 

Page- 

T^ashiD  jiton  Territory,  the  public  laads  in 462 

Vater  biira  oa  roads 362 

fur  teams,  aloug  roa<l8 3S1 

"Weepin;;  ash 202 

"Weinc-nstephan  Eoyal  Bavarian  central  school. 154 

West  Virginia,  crops  of 2S-31 

live  stock  of. 43 

"WTieat  after  clover - 417 

and  com,  export«i  of I - 47 

btst  varieties  of.  for  Michigan 499 

California,  exp^irts  of 452 

crop  of  1S68  25-31 

cultivation  of  in  Georgia 412 

culture y. 560 

profits  of,  in  Mas-sachusetta 4S0 

Ohio C-03 

Oregon 451 

Cnlturist,  American  560 

experiment-s  in  Georgia 412 

growing,  progress  of,"  westward 17 

la  Iowa 515,  518 

in  Michigan,  best  varieties 499 

methods  of  seeding  compared 416 

production  in  the  tnited  Kingdom 435 

qnantity  reqiiiretl  for  home  consumption 19 

spring,  exjieriments  with 409 

the  proper  time  to  harvest 417 

the  Kothamp.sted.  esperiiuents  with 418 

winter,  experiments  with  , . .  405,  412 

yield  ia  California,  declLuo  of 451 

"Whey,  cheese  trom 437 

White  ash I99 

birch 197  COl.  202 

"Wild  cherry 200 

"WUlow,  Babylonian  and  Kihnaruock 202 

oak^ ; 200 

AVine  .ind  grapes 6 

districts  of  Missouri 525 

seasons  in  European  vineyards 571 

Makers  Manual 576 

"Wisconsin,  crops  of ^ 29-31 

Industrial  College 543 

live  stock  of 45 

the  public  lands  in 456 

"Wistaria,  Chinese 205 

"Wool  and  wool  manufnctures  445 

buying  and  s^-Uing  in  Michigan 502 

"Woolen  nulls  in  the  Northwest 446 

on  the  Pacific  coast 446 

"Wool-growing  in  ilissoiu-i 524,  52g 

in  Russia  '  445 

"Wools  and  woolens,  imports  of 51 

of  the  world 445 

"Wyoming,  public  lands  in 464 

• 

T. 

Tarn,  Chinese 20,"> 

Yellow  locust * 203 

Tcllow-wood 199, 203 

Toukon  ToiTitory,  Alaska . . , 172 

Yucatan,  the  niin  of 203 


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